Biochemically speaking, I'm a Vin Diesel masquerading as a Michael Cera.
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Biochemically speaking, anxiety and excitement are the same thing, says Kotler.
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One opthamologist told Insider the woman's condition is biochemically and anatomically impossible.
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" Borrelli agrees the study had numerous strengths: "They biochemically verified smoking outcomes.
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Sitting seemed to make the knee biochemically more vulnerable to later disease.
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I felt as if the walk itself was pulling that kindness from me, biochemically.
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The lure of a biochemically upgraded human consciousness found a natural home in Silicon Valley.
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These interpenetrating networks are physically and biochemically entangled, and the architecture itself is intimately related to tissue function.
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The next step, he said, is to begin identifying what's going on biochemically with DMT molecules and the brain.
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The mind is kept captive not only by laziness or circumstance, but by external enemies who have already biochemically insinuated themselves.
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An analogy: Scientists who study addiction have noted the problems biochemically for some people with eating disorders are scarcely distinguishable from drug addictions.
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However, the ability to alter facial aging (biochemically, surgically, genetically), is the here-and-now, and can improve function and alter our human experience.
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Which system produces the "better" crop is open to debate, although it is known that crops sprayed with herbicides are biochemically transformed in subtle ways.
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As this work progresses, we'll need to think seriously about how we want to respond as a society to the prospect of biochemically bolstering love.
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Doctors themselves should be brought under the scope of her campaign as many are paid to promote more expensive but biochemically identical drugs to their patients.
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But if so, then shouldn't abiogenesis have happened multiple times in Earth's 4.5-billion-year history, spawning several biochemically distinct lineages rather than a monoculture of DNA-based life?
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Both groups received one-on-one behavioral counseling each week for four weeks and were biochemically tested at the end of the year to assure they had stopped smoking.
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Long thought to be biologically inert, the stratum corneum is now known to be an intricate, biochemically complex structure, the sanctity of which is critical to having healthy skin.
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It's not yet clear why, but one possibility is that the way the worms respond biochemically to their environment may somehow trip a switch in their hormonal signaling that affects how long they live.
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Fermentation is the process through which bacteria and fungi take ingredients like regular tea (kombucha), boring barley (beer), or plain ol' milk (c'mon we don't need to explain this one) and biochemically transform them into more flavorful foods.
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What if, Hall wonders, a treatment fails to work not because the drug and the individual are biochemically incompatible, but rather because in some people the drug interferes with the placebo response, which if properly used might reduce disease?
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In effect, the soakers' muscles seemed to have become biochemically primed for slower recovery and less growth than the tissues of the other men, says Aaron Petersen, a senior lecturer in exercise physiology at Victoria University, who led the new study.
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Here's what the formula looks like:Where :Nabiogenesis (t) = Liklihood of origin of life eventsNb = Number of potential building blocksNo = Mean number of building blocks per organism, or biochemically significant systemfc = Fractional availability of building blocks during Time tPa = Probability of assembly per unit timeIt looks complicated, but it's fairly straight forward.
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For unilateral adrenal hemorrhage, it does not show biochemically significant conditions.
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The biosynthesis of PBP was first shown through isotope feeding studies, and then biochemically when genomic data of PBP-producing strains became readily available.
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At one year, if the patient is clinically and biochemically euthyroid and a thyroid-stimulating antibody level is not detectable, therapy can be discontinued.
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Nicotianamine is a metal-chelating molecule ubiquitous in higher plants. Biochemically, it is synthesized by the enzyme nicotianamine synthase, which uses three molecules of S-adenosylmethionine.
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The synthesis is particularly interesting because indoles are the foundation for a number of biochemically important molecules, including neurotransmitters and a new class of antitumor compounds.
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In his book Aborting America, Bernard Nathanson argued that implantation should be considered the point at which life begins. > Biochemically, this is when alpha announces its presence as part of the > human community by means of its hormonal messages, which we now have the > technology to receive. We also know biochemically that it is an independent > organism distinct from the mother. [Note: in writing the book, "alpha" was > Nathanson's term for any human before birth.
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Other molecules known for oxygen radical scavenging (vitamin E and boldine) did not successfully protect the cell models from oxidative stress and eventual cell death as effectively as myricetin and other biochemically related molecules.
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These are adrenal dysgenesis (the gland has not formed adequately during development), impaired steroidogenesis (the gland is present but is biochemically unable to produce cortisol) or adrenal destruction (disease processes leading to glandular damage).
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The yellow jack was actually the first species outside of the Pacific Ocean to be confirmed as carrying ciguatera toxins, although these early studies showed that the toxin was biochemically slightly different from the Pacific strain.
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Empidonax flycatchers often flick their wings and tails rapidly. Euler's flycatcher, Lathrotriccus euleri and gray-breasted flycatcher, Lathrotriccus griseipectus were formerly placed in Empidonax, but differ anatomically and biochemically and are now placed in the genus Lathrotriccus.
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It is a precursor to other chemicals and is biochemically active, inhibiting adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production in cells with mitochondria. Its use as a dieting aid has been identified with severe side-effects, including a number of deaths.
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2013 Sep;126(5):591-603. DOPAL has been chemically synthesized.Li, W., Spaziano, V.T., Burke, WJ., "Synthesis of a biochemically important aldehyde - 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde", Bio-Organic Chemistry, 26, 45-50, 1998. DOPAL is detoxified mainly by aldehyde dehydrogenase.
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It cannot be grouped by the Lancefield antigen method typically used to categorize Streptococcus species. The two known serotypes can be distinguished biochemically by differences in enzyme activity. Several antibiotics have been used to treat S. iniae infections.
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Gelatin Microparticles are versatile particles and are easily loadable for the use within drug systems and alongside growth factors post-synthesis. Gelatin microparticles also allow for the biochemically controlled release of drug particles, growth factors, and other biological molecules.
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A biovar is a variant prokaryotic strain that differs physiologically or biochemically from other strains in a particular species. Morphovars (or morphotypes) are those strains that differ morphologically. Serovars (or serotypes) are those strains that have antigenic properties that differ from other strains.
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Molecular-weight size markers can be broken up into two categories: molecular weight markers vs. molecular ladder markers. Markers are either stained or unstained, and depending on the circumstance, one may be more appropriate than another. Molecular-weight size markers can also be biochemically altered.
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The mutations that cause Leopard syndrome are restricted regions affecting the catalytic core of the enzyme producing catalytically impaired Shp2 variants. It is currently unclear how mutations that give rise to mutant variants of Shp2 with biochemically opposite characteristics result in similar human genetic syndromes.
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Three biochemically distinct types of Allatostatin have been described: A, B and C. Although originally identified in different insects, all three types are found in the fruitfly, Drosophila. These types of Allatostatin are not normally found in the same neurons, and so probably have different roles.
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Biochemically, individuals with ALD show very high levels of unbranched, saturated, very long chain fatty acids, particularly cerotic acid (26:0). The level of cerotic acid in plasma does not correlate with clinical presentation. Treatment options for ALD are limited. Dietary treatment is with Lorenzo's oil.
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Vincent du Vigneaud (May 18, 1901 – December 11, 1978) was an American biochemist. He won the 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone," a reference to his work on the cyclic peptide oxytocin.
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N-Acetyltaurine (NAcT) is an endogenous metabolite. Biochemically, N-acetyltaurine is formed as a result of an acetylation of taurine. The main substrate for this reaction is acetate. An increase of endogenous N-acetyltaurine concentrations was observed after the consumption of alcohol and after extended physical activity (ketoacidosis).
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During meiosis in S. cerevisiae, transcription of the Exo1 gene is highly induced. In meiotic cells, Exo1 mutation reduces the processing of DSBs and the frequency of COs. Exo1 has two temporally and biochemically distinct functions in meiotic recombination. First, Exo1 acts as a 5’–3’ nuclease to resect DSB-ends.
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It was biochemically characterized as a 140 kDa complex. The bovine EClC protein has 903 amino acids and four putative transmembrane segments. The purified complex, when reconstituted in a planar lipid bilayer, behaved as an anion- selective channel. It was regulated by Ca2+ via a calmodulin kinase II- dependent mechanism.
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S. xylosus is normally sensitive to fleroxacin, methicillin, penicillin, teicoplanin, erythromycin and tetracycline, and resistant to novobiocin. It is highly active biochemically, producing acid from a wide variety of carbohydrates. Acid and gas are produced from D-(+)-galactose, D-(+)-mannose, D-(+)-mannitol, maltose, and lactose. Caseinolytic and gelatinase activities are normally present.
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This gene is found on chromosome 20, approximately 20 kbp downstream of the gene encoding cellular prion protein, to which it is biochemically and structurally similar. The protein encoded by this gene is a membrane glycosylphosphatidylinositol- anchored glycoprotein that is found predominantly in testis. Mutations in this gene may lead to neurological disorders.
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The defective phosphatidylcholine translocation leads to a lack of phosphatidylcholine in bile. Phosphatidylcholine normally chaperones bile acids, preventing damage to the biliary epithelium. The free or "unchaperoned" bile acids in bile of patients with MDR3 deficiency cause a cholangitis. Biochemically, this is of note, as PFIC-3 is associated with a markedly elevated GGT.
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Khan Mohammad Beigi, Pooya. (2017). Clinician's Guide to Mycosis Fungoides. 10.1007/978-3-319-47907-1_9. Additionally, the disease is an unusual expression of CD4 T cells, a part of the immune system. These T cells are skin-associated, meaning they are biochemically and biologically most related to the skin, in a dynamic manner.
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These perennial bulbs (geophytes) tolerate many ecological niches (periodically wet soil to desert conditions), and have many ornamental characteristics. Many parts of the plant including the leaves and bulbs are considered to be toxic. The genus has been evaluated for possible medicinal properties, and the biochemically toxic compounds are classed as alkaloids.Kojima et al. 1997.
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Extracellular particles are surrounded by oval nuclei and are called virions. In many systems, virions are characterized biochemically. Genomes of retrotransposons in this family are positive strand RNAs. In addition to the RNA genome, some cellular RNAs can be randomly associated with particles, including specific tRNAs, in case of virus replication prepared by tRNAs.
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The chromosome yields 58.5% of G+C pairs, has 4086 encoding proteins, and totals 4388 genes. A. salmonicida isolates flourish when grown on blood agar or tyrosine. Large colonies are observed along with a brown diffusible pigment within two to four days. Most typical strains are morphologically and biochemically homogenous with a few exceptions.
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These are very useful for the differentiation of this group from other VGS. S. mitis group. The S. mitis group of organisms contains several species and is biochemically very inert, which can make species level identification very challenging. The use of invalid species names has also been a particular problem with the S. mitis group.
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Bladder tamponade is obstruction of the urinary bladder outlet due to heavy blood clot formation within it.Page 352 in: It generally requires surgery. Such heavy bleeding is usually due to bladder cancer. Pressing bone wax into bleeding bone is considered hemostasis by tamponade, as opposed to methods which physically or biochemically activate the clotting cascade.
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Biochemically, aerobic iron oxidation is a very energetically poor process which therefore requires large amounts of iron to be oxidized by the enzyme rusticyanin to facilitate the formation of proton motive force. Like sulfur oxidation, reverse electron flow must be used to form the NADH used for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle.
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The viral thymidine kinases differ completely from the mammalian enzymes both structurally and biochemically and are inhibited by inhibitors that do not inhibit the mammalian enzymes. The genes of the two human isoenzymes were localized in the mid-1970s. The gene for TK1 was cloned and sequenced. The corresponding protein has a molecular weight of about 25 kD.
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Flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be naturally occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic. Aroma compounds can be found in food, wine, spices, floral scent, perfumes, fragrance oils, and essential oils. For example, many form biochemically during the ripening of fruits and other crops.
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Staphylococcus simiae is a Gram-positive, coagulase-negative member of the bacterial genus Staphylococcus consisting of clustered cocci. This species was originally isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of South American squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus, and found to be genetically similar to S. aureus, but more biochemically similar to S. piscifermentans. A draft genome of S. simiae was sequenced.
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Fomitopsis palustris is a species of polypore fungus in the family Fomitopsidaceae. It causes brown rot, a disease of wood that results from the enzymatic breakdown of the wood component cellulose, but not lignin. Several enzymes involved in the wood-decay process have been biochemically characterized. The whole genome sequence of F. palustris was reported in 2017.
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There has been a variety of evidence found biochemically to give evidence that glycosomes are present in cells. In the organelle that is assumed to be a glycosome, numerous proteins are found. These include glycogen synthase, phosphorylase, and branching and debranching enzymes for glycogen. All of these are regulatory enzymes that are needed in glycogen synthesis.
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Multicolored corn has some of its pigments in the aleurone layer. The aleurone layer surrounds the endosperm tissue of grass seeds and is morphologically and biochemically distinct from it. Starchy endosperm cells are large, irregularly shaped cells and contain starch grains while aleurone cells are cuboidal in shape and contain aleurone grains.Becraft, P., & Yi, G. (2011).
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Methanocaldococcus jannaschii (formerly Methanococcus jannaschii) is a thermophilic methanogenic archaean in the class Methanococci. It was the first archaeon to have its complete genome sequenced. The sequencing identified many genes unique to the archaea. Many of the synthesis pathways for methanogenic cofactors were worked out biochemically in this organism, as were several other archaeal-specific metabolic pathways.
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The specific gene is not identified. While biochemically similar, type 1 and 2 disease may be distinguished by the differing urinary excretion of cyclic AMP in response to exogenous PTH. Some sources also refer to a "type 1c" (OMIM ). The phenotype is the same as in type 1a, but red blood cells show normal Gs activity.
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The most common thiolactone, homocysteine thiolactone is produced biochemically from homocysteine and it may play a role in protein damage. The thiolactone functional group is also present in some pharmaceutical drugs such as citiolone and erdosteine. Thiolactone rings can also be found in peptides synthesized by bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus in order to regulate their quorum-sensing system.
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Revollo et al. determined biochemically that the mouse PBEF gene product encodes a Nampt enzyme, capable of modulating intracellular NAD levels. Others have since confirmed these findings. More recently, several groups have reported the crystal structure of Nampt/PBEF/visfatin and they all show that this protein is a dimeric type II phosphoribosyltransferase enzyme involved in NAD biosynthesis.
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They differ biochemically from thymidine kinase from mammalian cells and are inhibited by specific inhibitors that do not influence the activity of mammalian thymidine kinases. Determination of viral thymidine kinase has been suggested for confirmation of diagnosis and for control of treatment of viral infections. 120px + ATP ---> 200px + ADP Thymidine reacts with ATP to give thymidine monophosphate and ADP.
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One study measuring the level of volatiles released by plants that are consumed by herbivores has shown that huge amounts of methanol and other volatile substances (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and lipoxygenase-derived volatile compounds) are emitted by E. aurinia caterpillars feeding on the host plant S. pratensis. Methanol is a biochemically active compound that is commonly released by metabolic activities of anaerobic bacteria.
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Cell transplantation, 20, 1827-1841. These cells also express HLA-G in the transmembrane and soluble form, aiding in their immunosuppressive behavior. In vitro studies also indicated that cord lining EpSC can be differentiated biochemically to become hepatocyte-like cells (liver cells) as shown by the expression of hepatic-specific markers such as â-fetoprotein, albumin and hepatocyte-specific cytokeratins.Cheong, H. H. (2013).
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Other causative HIF-1a-independent pVHL pathways have been considered. The pVHL- JADE1S physical interaction was identified by yeast-two hybrid screening analysis and was further confirmed biochemically. Co-transfection of pVHL increased JADE1S protein half-life and abundance, suggesting potential positive relationship. Certain pVHL cancer-derived truncations but not point mutations diminished pVHL-JADE1 stabilization function, suggesting link to pVHL-associated cancers.
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Chelation therapy is an antidote for poisoning by mercury, arsenic, and lead. Chelating agents convert these metal ions into a chemically and biochemically inert form that can be excreted. Chelation using calcium disodium EDTA has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for serious cases of lead poisoning. It is not approved for treating "heavy metal toxicity".
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There are five known porcine protegrins, PG-1 to PG-5. Three were identified biochemically and rest of them were deduced from DNA sequences. Protegrin structures The protegrins are synthesized from quadiripartite genes as 147 to 149 amino acid precursursors with a cathelin-like propiece. Protegrin sequence is similar to certain prodefensins and tachyplesins, antibiotic peptides derived from the horseshoe crab.
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Spines are particularly advantageous to neurons by compartmentalizing biochemical signals. This can help to encode changes in the state of an individual synapse without necessarily affecting the state of other synapses of the same neuron. The length and width of the spine neck has a large effect on the degree of compartmentalization, with thin spines being the most biochemically isolated spines.
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The negative feedback loop for glucocorticoids Causes of adrenal insufficiency can be categorized by the mechanism through which they cause the adrenal glands to produce insufficient cortisol. These are adrenal dysgenesis (the gland has not formed adequately during development), impaired steroidogenesis (the gland is present but is biochemically unable to produce cortisol), or adrenal destruction (disease processes leading to glandular damage).
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Some groups of organisms contain more specialized light-harvesting structures (e.g. phycobilisomes in Cyanobacteria and chlorosomes in Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria), allowing for increased efficiency in light utilization. Biochemically, anoxygenic photosynthesis is very different from oxygenic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria (and by extension, chloroplasts) use the Z scheme of electron flow in which electrons eventually are used to form NADH.
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Parathyroid hyperplasia high mag. Biochemically, there are changes in function between normal and nodular hyperplastic parathyroid glands. These changes involve proto-oncogene expression and activation of proliferative pathways while inactivating apoptotic pathways. In nodular parathyroid tissue increased expression of TGF-a, a growth factor, and EGFR, its receptor, results in aggressive proliferation and further downregulation of vitamin D receptors, which act to suppress hormone secretions.
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Kombucha is made by adding the kombucha culture into a broth of sugared tea. The sugar serves as a nutrient for the SCOBY that allows for bacterial growth in the tea. Sucrose is converted, biochemically, into fructose and glucose, and these into gluconic acid and acetic acid. In addition, kombucha contains enzymes and amino acids, polyphenols, and various other organic acids which vary between preparations.
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Biochemically, conantokins have a distinctive high γ-carboxyglutamate content and low cysteine content. Conantokins typically lack disulfide bonds, in contrast to most families of conotoxins, which have an unusually high density of disulfide cross-links. The inhibition of NMDAR-mediated spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs) and NMDA-gated currents in cortical neurons might be a result of actions on both diheteromeric (NR1/NR2B) and triheteromeric (NR1/NR2A/NR2B) NMDAR.
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Androstenedione Androstenedione is produced in the testis, as well as the adrenal cortex. Androstenedione is created from dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) or 17-hydroxyprogesterone. A deficiency in the HSD17B3 gene is characterized biochemically by decreased levels of testosterone and increased levels of androstenedione as a result of the defect in conversion of androstenedione into testosterone. This leads to a clinically important higher ratio of androstenedione to testosterone.
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In 1983 scientists succeeded in cloning epithelial cell lines from the thymus of various species and began to biochemically and biologically characterize these thymus derived regulatory factors. A protein with a molecular weight of about 50,000 daltons was subsequently described and shown to augment the immune responses of both immature and mature T-cells. This protein came to be known as lymphocyte T-cell immunomodulator.
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Both HSP70 and HSP47 were shown to be expressed in dermis and epidermis following laser irradiation, and the spatial and temporal changes in HSP expression patterns define the laser-induced thermal damage zone and the process of healing in tissues. HSP70 may define biochemically the thermal damage zone in which cells are targeted for destruction, and HSP47 may illustrate the process of recovery from thermally induced damage.
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Ornithine aminotransferase deficiency (also known as gyrate atrophy of the choroid and retina) is an inborn error of ornithine metabolism, caused by decreased activity of the enzyme ornithine aminotransferase. Biochemically, it can be detected by elevated levels of ornithine in the blood. Clinically, it presents initially with poor night vision, which slowly progresses to total blindness. It is believed to be inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
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Plants, on the other hand, protect their resources for use in growth and reproduction, by limiting the ability of herbivores to eat them. Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change. When a herbivore eats a plant it selects for plants that can mount a defensive response, whether the response is incorporated biochemically or physically, or induced as a counterattack.
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Just like other short-affinity tags (His-tag, FLAG-tag), the Strep-tag can be easily fused to recombinant proteins during subcloning of its cDNA or gene. For its expression various vectors for various host organisms (E. coli, yeast, insect, and mammalian cells) are available. A particular benefit of the Strep- tag is its rather small size and the fact that it is biochemically almost inert.
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3-Phosphoglyceric acid (3PG) is the conjugate acid of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP). The glycerate is a biochemically significant metabolic intermediate in both glycolysis and the Calvin cycle. This anion is often termed as PGA when referring to the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle, 3-phosphoglycerate is the product of the spontaneous scission of an unstable 6-carbon intermediate formed upon CO2 fixation.
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Non-pulvinar mediated movement is also possible and happens through differential cell division and growth on either side of the petiole, resulting in a bending motion within the leaves to the desired position. Leaf movement is also controlled by bioactive substances known as leaf opening or leaf closing factors. Several leaf-opening and leaf- closing factors have been characterized biochemically. These factors differ among plants.
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The diagnosis of shigellosis is made by isolating the organism from diarrheal fecal sample cultures. Shigella species are negative for motility and are generally not lactose fermenters, but S. sonnei can ferment lactose. They typically do not produce gas from carbohydrates (with the exception of certain strains of S. flexneri) and tend to be overall biochemically inert. Shigella should also be urea hydrolysis negative.
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The company exhibits a wide range of tools related to recombinant protein purification consisting of expression vectors, affinity purification and detection reagents based on its Strep- tag/Strep-Tactin system. This can be used for i.e. drug screening, diagnostic assays, immobilization and interaction studies. Due to its small size and biochemically almost inert character, the Strep-tag does not influence protein folding, secretion and function.
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In humans and other vertebrates, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell types. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity. Humans have about of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have .
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Schematic representation of histone modifications. Based on Rodriguez-Paredes and Esteller, Nature, 2011 A huge catalogue of histone modifications have been described, but a functional understanding of most is still lacking. Collectively, it is thought that histone modifications may underlie a histone code, whereby combinations of histone modifications have specific meanings. However, most functional data concerns individual prominent histone modifications that are biochemically amenable to detailed study.
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The protein encoded by this gene is an integral peroxisomal membrane protein. An inactivating nonsense mutation localized to this gene was observed in a patient with Zellweger syndrome of the complementation group CGD/CG9. Expression of this gene product morphologically and biochemically restores the formation of new peroxisomes, suggesting a role in peroxisome organization and biogenesis. Alternative splicing has been observed for this gene and two variants have been described.
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Watt, John Mitchell, Breyer-Brandwijk, Maria Gerdina: The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa 2nd ed Pub. E & S Livingstone 1962 The best-known active ingredients of Tylecodon species are Bufadienolides biochemically related to toad venoms and bile acids. In some species more than half a dozen such compounds have been identified. As such they are nervous and muscle poisons that cause various cardiac symptoms.
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Arsenic interferes with cellular longevity by allosteric inhibition of an essential metabolic enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex, which catalyzes the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA by NAD+. With the enzyme inhibited, the energy system of the cell is disrupted resulting in cellular apoptosis. Biochemically, arsenic prevents use of thiamine resulting in a clinical picture resembling thiamine deficiency. Poisoning with arsenic can raise lactate levels and lead to lactic acidosis.
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Ergotamine is an ergopeptine and part of the ergot family of alkaloids; it is structurally and biochemically closely related to ergoline. It possesses structural similarity to several neurotransmitters, and has biological activity as a vasoconstrictor. It is used medicinally for treatment of acute migraine attacks (sometimes in combination with caffeine). Medicinal usage of ergot fungus began in the 16th century to induce childbirth, yet dosage uncertainties discouraged the use.
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Many brand name drugs have cheaper generic drug substitutes that are therapeutically and biochemically equivalent. Prescriptions will also contain instructions on whether the prescriber will allow the pharmacist to substitute a generic version of the drug. This instruction is communicated in a number of ways. In some jurisdictions, the preprinted prescription contains two signature lines: one line has "dispense as written" printed underneath; the other line has "substitution permitted" underneath.
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Yersinia hibernica is a species of Yersinia that was originally isolated in a pig-production environment. The type strain is CFS1934 (= NCTC 14222 = LMG 31076). This species has previously been misidentified as Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia kristensenii but it may be distinguished biochemically by lack of sucrose utilization. In addition to pig related environments, Y. hibernica has also been isolated from the feces of Rattus norvegicus and Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris.
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Therapy with photostimulation has been called light therapy, phototherapy, or photobiomodulation. ATP(1) can be inactivated until photolysis by the addition of a caging group(2). Likewise, the active site of cAMP(3) can be inactivated by the addition of a caging group(4). Photostimulation methods fall into two general categories: one set of methods uses light to uncage a compound that then becomes biochemically active, binding to a downstream effector.
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Wright claimed that his deliberate insomnia was made possible in part by his biochemically complex diet of raw foods (carrot juice, bananas, avocados, pineapple and nuts). He also asserted that his motivation for breaking the world sleep deprivation record was neither fame nor fortune, but that his intention was to promote his radical theories of human neurological degeneration that were proposed in his self-published book Left In The Dark.
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Stress granule dynamics Stress granules are dense aggregations in the cytosol composed of proteins & RNAs that appear when the cell is under stress. The RNA molecules stored are stalled translation pre-initiation complexes: failed attempts to make protein from mRNA. Stress granules are 100–200 nm in size (when biochemically purified), not surrounded by membrane, and associated with the endoplasmatic reticulum. Note that there are also nuclear stress granules.
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L. innocua is almost always non-hemolytic, but a few strains have been found to be hemolytic. Biochemically, L. innocua is very similar to L. monocytogenes. Exceptions for L. innocua include hemolysis (usually negative), arylamidase (positive), and phosphoinositide phospholipase C (negative). Although it is not generally considered a pathogen in terms of human health, Listeria innocua was identified in 2003 as the cause of a death of a 62-year-old, otherwise healthy, woman.
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Shallow water aquatic systems can also face this problem. Scale also greatly affects measurement techniques. The rate of carbon assimilation in plant tissues, organs, whole plants, or plankton samples can be quantified by biochemically based techniques, but these techniques are decidedly inappropriate for large scale terrestrial field situations. There, net primary production is almost always the desired variable, and estimation techniques involve various methods of estimating dry-weight biomass changes over time.
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This allows myricetin to form a complex with oxygen and biochemically target the DNA molecule. At higher and higher concentrations of myricetin, the rate of DNA damage has been shown to decrease. A current hypothesis for why this occurs can be attributed to myricetin’s ability to chelate iron (Fe) (myricetin ligand forms two or more coordinate bonds to iron). These in vitro studies cannot be correlated directly to human models and should not be extrapolated.
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Due to the specialization of leaf beetles to a certain host plant, the composition of the larval secretion is species- dependent. For instance, the red poplar leaf beetle (Chrysomela populi) consumes the leaves of poplar plants, which contain salicin. This compound is taken up by the insect and then further transformed biochemically into salicylaldehyde, an odor very similar to benzaldehyde. The presence of salicin and salicylaldehyde can repel potential predators of leaf beetles.
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3-Methyl-3-octanol (systematically named 3-methyloctan-3-ol) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)4C(CH3)(CH2CH3)OH (also written as ). This simple tertiary alcohol is a clear colourless liquid under standard conditions, and is tasteless. It is used in the food industry as a flavouring agent as it contributes to the flavour of roast beef. It is known to be biochemically produced by the Antrodia camphorata fungus.
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The 5-hydroxyindole skeleton is the foundation for a number of biochemically important molecules. Among them are serotonin, a neurotransmitter; indometacin, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent; L-761,066, a COX-2 inhibitor; and LY311727, an inhibitor of secretory phospholipase. Currently, one of the most interesting applications of the Nenitzescu synthesis is its ability to produce a precursor to antitumor compounds. This synthesis, reported in 2006, involves the reaction of 1,4,9,10-anthradiquinone with various enamines.
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Sequence-based classifications are among the most powerful predictive method for suggesting function for newly sequenced enzymes for which function has not been biochemically demonstrated. A classification system for glycosyl hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of more than 100 different families.Bairoch, A. "Classification of glycosyl hydrolase families and index of glycosyl hydrolase entries in SWISS-PROT". 1999. This classification is available on the CAZy (CArbohydrate-Active EnZymes) web site.
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This includes designing biochemically-inspired synthetic catalysts as well as trying O2 as a candidate for controlled, in vitro oxidation. Due to high abundances and relatively strong stabilizing capabilities within biological reactions, iron and copper enzymes inspire biomimetic synthetic catalysts. Although these reactions perform with high accuracy and selectivity within the body, many challenges arise when working with O2 in vitro because of the undesired and potentially harmful side products that can be generated.
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To form cortisol, the adrenal gland requires cholesterol, which is then converted biochemically into steroid hormones. Interruptions in the delivery of cholesterol include Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome and abetalipoproteinemia. Of the synthesis problems, congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the most common (in various forms: 21-hydroxylase, 17α-hydroxylase, 11β-hydroxylase and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase), lipoid CAH due to deficiency of StAR and mitochondrial DNA mutations. Some medications interfere with steroid synthesis enzymes (e.g.
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To form cortisol, the adrenal gland requires cholesterol, which is then converted biochemically into steroid hormones. Interruptions in the delivery of cholesterol include Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome and abetalipoproteinemia. Of the synthesis problems, congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the most common (in various forms: 21-hydroxylase, 17α-hydroxylase, 11β-hydroxylase and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase), lipoid CAH due to deficiency of StAR and mitochondrial DNA mutations. Some medications interfere with steroid synthesis enzymes (e.g.
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Studies using cell lines have shown that clofarabine-5´-triphosphate can also be incorporated into RNA. Mechanisms of resistance and turnover have been reported. Clofarabine-resistance arises from decreased deoxycytidine kinase activity in vitro. ABC transporter ABCG2 promotes export of clofarabine-5´-monophosphate and thus limits the cytotoxic effects of this analog in vivo. Biochemically, clofarabine-5’-triphosphate was shown to be substrate for SAMHD1, thus potentially limiting the amount of active compound in cells.
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Meromyosin is a part of myosin (mero meaning "part of"). With regards to human anatomy myosin and actin constitute the basic functional unit of a muscle fiber, called sarcomere, playing a role in muscle contraction. Biochemically viewed meromyosin form subunits of the actin-associated motor protein, myosin, Following proteolysis, two types of meromyosin are formed: heavy meromyosin (HMM) and light meromyosin (LMM). Light meromyosin has a long, straight portion in the “tail” region.
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The mammalian CPEB3 ribozyme is a self cleaving non-coding RNA located in the second intron of the CPEB3 gene which belongs to a family of genes regulating messenger RNA polyadenylation. This ribozyme is highly conserved and found only in mammals. The CPEB3 ribozyme is structurally and biochemically related to the human hepatitis delta virus ribozyme. Other HDV-like ribozymes have been identified and confirmed to be active in vitro in a number of eukaryotes.
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Some humans are suspicious of the aliens, and even blame them for the change to the atmosphere, since they seem to be adapted for it. The family have an almost fatal encounter with a group of such people, who are holding another alien hostage. However, the two aliens are able to pool memories biochemically, so that they become the same personality in two bodies. Their combined knowledge and skills help the humans to escape.
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A minigene is a minimal gene fragment that includes an exon and the control regions necessary for the gene to express itself in the same way as a wild type gene fragment. This is a minigene in its most basic sense. More complex minigenes can be constructed containing multiple exons and intron(s). Minigenes provide a valuable tool for researchers evaluating splicing patterns both in vivo and in vitro biochemically assessed experiments.
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5α-Reductase is an enzyme that converts testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in peripheral tissues. These enzymes also participate in the creation of such neurosteroids as allopregnanolone and THDOC, convert progesterone into dihydroprogesterone (DHP), and convert deoxycorticosterone (DOC) into dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC). 5-ARD is biochemically characterized by low to low-normal levels of testosterone and decreased levels of DHT, creating a higher testosterone/DHT ratio. Biochemical effects of 5-ARD in testosterone biosynthesis.
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Based in the SIPBS department the professor took up his post with "a determination to strengthen links between faculties and with industry." Originally Hunter graduated from Glasgow University with an honours degree in Biochemistry before undertaking a phD in Microbial Physiology (the study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically) again at University of Glasgow. The professor also works with the Scottish Qualifications Authority in creating the new Curriculum For Excellence Framework in Biology.
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Biogenic sulfide corrosion is a bacterially mediated process of forming hydrogen sulfide gas and the subsequent conversion to sulfuric acid that attacks concrete and steel within wastewater environments. The hydrogen sulfide gas is biochemically oxidized in the presence of moisture to form sulfuric acid. The effect of sulfuric acid on concrete and steel surfaces exposed to severe wastewater environments can be devastating.O’Dea, Vaughn, “Understanding Biogenic Sulfide Corrosion,”MP (November 2007), pp. 36-39.
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A modern synthesis of hippuric acid involves the acylation of glycine with benzoyl chloride: :400px Biochemically, hippuric acid is produced from benzoic acid by direct glycine acylation. It is one of the two conjugates of benzoic acid produced metabolically, the other being the glucuronide. Both are eliminated from the body in urine. Benzoic acid is introduced into the body by ingestion (sodium benzoate is used as a preservative) and by hydrolysis of pharmaceutical agents such as benzyl benzoate.
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In this sense, epistasis can be contrasted with genetic dominance, which is an interaction between alleles at the same gene locus. As the study of genetics developed, and with the advent of molecular biology, epistasis started to be studied in relation to quantitative trait loci (QTL) and polygenic inheritance. The effects of genes are now commonly quantifiable by assaying the magnitude of a phenotype (e.g. height, pigmentation or growth rate) or by biochemically assaying protein activity (e.g.
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Recently, SCF complexes have become an attractive anti-cancer target because of their upregulation in some human cancers and their biochemically distinct active sites. Though many of the aforementioned FBPs have been implicated in cancer, cytotoxicity has been a limiting factor of drug development. Skp2-targeting anti-sense oligonucleotides and siRNAs are in the drug development pipeline. Preliminary studies have shown that Skp2 downregulation can inhibit the growth of melanomas, lung cancer cells, oral cancer cells, and glioblastoma cells.
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Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product.
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Chemically, carotenes are polyunsaturated hydrocarbons containing 40 carbon atoms per molecule, variable numbers of hydrogen atoms, and no other elements. Some carotenes are terminated by hydrocarbon rings, on one or both ends of the molecule. All are coloured to the human eye, due to extensive systems of conjugated double bonds. Structurally carotenes are tetraterpenes, meaning that they are synthesized biochemically from four 10-carbon terpene units, which in turn are formed from eight 5-carbon isoprene units.
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So, in this way, insulin is the key regulator of fat metabolism as well. Biochemically, the insulin receptor is encoded by a single gene , from which alternate splicing during transcription results in either IR-A or IR-B isoforms. Downstream post-translational events of either isoform result in the formation of a proteolytically cleaved α and β subunit, which upon combination are ultimately capable of homo or hetero-dimerisation to produce the ≈320 kDa disulfide-linked transmembrane insulin receptor.
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Their health issues are typical for a purebred dog breed; however they are closely associated with rage syndrome even though cases are really quite rare. Rage syndrome cannot be accurately predicted and can only be diagnosed by EEG or genetic testing and these tests are not conclusive. A link between coat colour and temperament has been proposed. This link could be the colour pigment melanin, which is biochemically similar to chemicals that act as transmitters in the brain.
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In another study, Law et al. then continued to delve deeper, this time comparing the properties of both the C4A and C4B, both of which are substantial players in the human immunity system. Through methods that include incubation, different pH levels, and treatment with methylamine, they had biochemically illustrated the different reactivities of the C4 genes. More specifically, the C4B has shown to react much more efficiently and effectively despite the 7 kb difference between C4A and C4B.
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Members of the F-box protein family, such as FBXO15, are characterized by an approximately 40-amino acid F-box motif. SCF complexes, formed by SKP1, cullin, and F-box proteins, act as protein- ubiquitin ligases. F-box proteins interact with SKP1 through the F box, and they interact with ubiquitination targets through other protein interaction domains. Biochemically, Fbx15 is a substrate receptor of an ubiquitin ligase belonging to the family of the F-box proteins.
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Lipid biosynthesis is biochemically complex, involving multiple enzyme-dependent steps that can lead to isotope fractionations. There are three major pathways of lipid biosynthesis, known as the mevalonate pathway, the acetogenic pathway, and the 1-deoxyD-xylulose-5-phosphate/2-methylerythroyl-4-phosphate pathway. The acetogenic pathway is responsible for the production of n-alkyl lipids like leaf waxes, and is associated with a smaller δD depletion relative to source water than the other two lipid biosynthesis pathways.
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Biochemical evidence suggests that phosphate transport may be involved in this disease. Two other genes have been associated with this condition: PDGFB on chromosome 22 and PDGFRB on chromosome 5.Westenberger A1, Klein C (2014) The genetics of primary familial brain calcifications. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 14(10):490 doi: 10.1007/s11910-014-0490-4 These genes are biochemically linked: PDGFRB encodes the platelet-derived growth factor receptor β and PDGFB encodes the ligand of PDGF-Rβ.
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Phenylalanine (symbol Phe or F) is an essential α-amino acid with the formula . It can be viewed as a benzyl group substituted for the methyl group of alanine, or a phenyl group in place of a terminal hydrogen of alanine. This essential amino acid is classified as neutral, and nonpolar because of the inert and hydrophobic nature of the benzyl side chain. The L-isomer is used to biochemically form proteins, coded for by DNA.
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This microorganism is biochemically similar to E. cloacae, but it is different for acid production from sucrose and raffinose, whereas E. cloacae is positive in these tests. The type strain of E. nimipressuralis is ATCC 9912 and isolated from the elm Ulmus spp. in the USA (GenBank accession number AJ567900). E. cloacae subsp.cloacae strain PR-4 was isolated and identified by 16S rDNA gene sequence with phylogenetic tree view from explosive laden soil by P Ravikumar (GenBank accession number KP261383).Ravikumar.
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The medium is saturated with water but little of it is free-flowing. The solid medium comprises both the substrate and the solid support on which the fermentation takes place. The substrate used is generally composed of vegetal byproducts such as beet pulp or wheat bran. At the beginning of the growth process, the substrates and solid culture compounds are non-soluble compounds composed of very large, biochemically complex molecules that the fungus will cut off to get essential C and N nutrients.
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GcMAF (or Gc protein-derived macrophage activating factor) is a protein produced by modification of vitamin D-binding protein. Biochemically, GcMAF results from sequential deglycosylation of the vitamin D-binding protein (the Gc protein), which is naturally promoted by lymphocytes (B and T cells). The resulting protein may be a macrophage activating factor (MAF). MAFs are lymphokines that control the expression of antigens on the surface of macrophages, and one of their functions is to make macrophages become cytotoxic to tumors.
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The presence of the recently described molecule Ap4A, naturally occurring in tears, is abnormally high in different states of ocular dryness. This molecule can be quantified biochemically simply by taking a tear sample with a plain Schirmer test. Utilizing this technique it is possible to determine the concentrations of Ap4A in the tears of patients and in such way diagnose objectively if the samples are indicative of dry eye. The tear osmolarity test has been proposed as a test for dry eye disease.
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But it was Lowenstam's 1961 discovery of "biochemically-precipitated magnetite (Fe3O4) as a capping material in the radula (tongue plate) teeth of chitons (marine mollusks)" that was to shape the future of biomineralization.Kirschvink J.L. & Hagadorn, J.W. "A Grand Unified theory of Biomineralization" in Bäuerlein, E., ed., The Biomineralisation of Nano- and Micro-Structures, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 139–150, 2000 "Prior to this discovery, magnetite was thought to form only in igneous or metamorphic rocks under high temperatures and pressures".
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Behaviorally, metabolic rate can be lowered through reduced locomotion, feeding, courtship, and mating. Physiologically, metabolic rate can be lowered through reduced growth, digestion, gonad development, and ventilation efforts. And biochemically, metabolic rate can be further lowered below standard metabolic rate through reduced gluconeogenesis, protein synthesis and degradation rates, and ion pumping across cellular membranes. Reductions in these processes lower ATP use rates, but it remains unclear whether metabolic suppression is induced through an initial reduction in ATP use or ATP supply.
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In contrast, the secretion of insulin by insulinomas is not properly regulated by glucose, and the tumors continue to secrete insulin causing glucose levels to fall further than normal. As a result, patients present symptoms of low blood glucose (hypoglycemia), which are improved by eating. The diagnosis of an insulinoma is usually made biochemically with low blood glucose, elevated insulin, proinsulin, and C-peptide levels, and confirmed by localizing the tumor with medical imaging or angiography. The definitive treatment is surgery.
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The development of somatic embryogenesis procedures has given rise to research on seed storage proteins (SSPs) of woody plants for tree species of commercial importance, i.e., mainly gymnosperms, including white spruce. In this area of study, SSPs are used as markers to determine the embryogenic potential and competency of the embryogenic system to produce a somatic embryo biochemically similar to its zygotic counterpart (Flinn et al. 1991, Beardmore et al. 1997).Flinn, B.S.; Roberts, D.R.; Webb, D.T.; Sutton, B.C. 1991.
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Gastrotheca guentheri is the only known frog with true teeth in its lower jaw. Its teeth have re-evolved after being absent for over 200 million years, challenging Dollo's law. Re-evolution of teeth in the lower jaw may have been made easier because the frogs have teeth in their upper jaw so there was already a biochemical pathway for developing teeth after 200 million years, unlike, say, birds. Biochemically, this may be an example of a suppressor of a regulatory gene disappearing.
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Generally, the term decomposition encompasses the biochemical processes that occur from the physical death of the person (or animal) until the skeletonization of the body. Putrefaction is one of seven stages of decomposition; as such, the term putrescible identifies all organic matter (animal and human) that is biochemically subject to putrefaction. In the matter of death by poisoning, the putrefaction of the body is chemically delayed by poisons such as antimony, arsenic, carbolic acid (phenol), nux vomica (plant), strychnine (pesticide), and zinc chloride.
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This organ secretes exudates rich in sugars and amino acids which is harvested by the ants. This secretion has been found to be biochemically similar to the nectar produced by the host plant (C. ovandensis). The later instars of the caterpillar position themselves in the inflorescence such that the TNO is presented to the ants at roughly the same level of the nectaries of the flower. Some species of ants build soil shelters around the later instars on the inflorescences.
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Arsenic is a cause of mortality throughout the world; associated problems include heart, respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, nervous and kidney diseases. Arsenic interferes with cellular longevity by allosteric inhibition of an essential metabolic enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex, which catalyzes the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA by NAD+. With the enzyme inhibited, the energy system of the cell is disrupted resulting in a cellular apoptosis episode. Biochemically, arsenic prevents use of thiamine resulting in a clinical picture resembling thiamine deficiency.
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Human PRDX5 is identified by virtue of the sequence homologies to yeast peroxisomal antioxidant enzyme PMP20. Biochemically, PRDX5 is a peroxidase that can use cytosolic or mitochondrial thioredoxins to reduce alkyl hydroperoxides or peroxynitrite with high rate constants in the 106 to 107 M−1s−1 range, whereas its reaction with hydrogen peroxide is more modest, in the 105 M−1s−1 range. So far, PRDX5 has been shown to be a cytoprotective antioxidant enzyme that inhibits endogenous or exogenous peroxide accumulation.
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Sodium channel subunit beta-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SCN1B gene. Voltage-gated sodium channels are essential for the generation and propagation of action potentials in striated muscle and neuronal tissues. Biochemically, they consist of a large alpha subunit and 1 or 2 smaller beta subunits, such as SCN1B. The alpha subunit alone can exhibit all the functional attributes of a voltage-gated Na+ channel, but requires a beta-1 subunit for normal inactivation kinetics.
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Excessive iodine intake presents symptoms similar to those of iodine deficiency. Commonly encountered symptoms are abnormal growth of the thyroid gland and disorders in functioning, as well as in growth of the organism as a whole. Iodide toxicity is similar to (but not the same as) toxicity to ions of the other halogens, such as bromides or fluorides. Excess bromine and fluorine can prevent successful iodine uptake, storage and use in organisms, as both elements can selectively replace iodine biochemically.
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Though Wee1 is a fairly conserved negative regulator of mitotic entry, no general mechanism of cell size control in G2 has yet been elucidated. Biochemically, the end of G2 phase occurs when a threshold level of active cyclin B1/CDK1 complex, also known as Maturation promoting factor (MPF) has been reached. The activity of this complex is tightly regulated during G2. In particular, the G2 checkpoint arrests cells in G2 in response to DNA damage through inhibitory regulation of CDK1.
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All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biologyUK Parliamentary Committee Science and Technology Committee - "Evidence Check 2: Homeopathy" gained since at least the mid-19th century contradicts homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are biochemically inert, and have no effect on any known disease. Hahnemann's theory of disease, centered around principles he termed miasms, is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as causes of disease. Clinical trials have been conducted, and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations.
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Specialist mistletoe eaters have adaptations that expedite the process; some pass the seeds through their unusually shaped digestive tracts so fast that a pause for defecation of the seeds is part of the feeding routine. Others have adapted patterns of feeding behavior; the bird grips the fruit in its bill and squeezes the sticky-coated seed out to the side. The seed sticks to the beak and the bird wipes it off onto the branch. Biochemically, viscin is a complex adhesive mix containing cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides.
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Paracoccus is a biochemically versatile genus, possessing a variety of metabolisms through which a wide range of diverse compounds can be degraded. Accordingly, it has the potential for a wide variety of capabilities and applications in bioremediation. The denitrifying property of Paracoccus denitrificans has been used in creating a bioreactor, in this case, a tubular gel containing two bacteria, for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater. Paracoccus denitrificans reduces nitrite to nitrogen gas while Nitrosomonas europaea oxidizes ammonia to nitrite, thus fueling the former metabolism.
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Later in life, these individuals may present with photosensitivity similar to that found in cutaneous porphyrias. Biochemically, harderoporphyria presents with a distinct pattern of increased harderoporphyrin (2-vinyl-4,6,7-tripropionic acid porphyrin) in urine and particularly in feces, a metabolite that is not seen in significant quantities in any other porphyria. Enzyme tests show markedly reduced activity of coproporphyrinogen oxidase, compared to both unaffected individuals and those affected with hereditary coproporphyria, consistent with recessive inheritance. Harderoporphyria is a rare condition, with less than 10 cases reported worldwide.
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Lin J, Zahurak M, Beer TM, Ryan CJ, Wilding G, Mathew P, Morris M, Callahan JA, Gordon G, Reich SD, Carducci MA, Antonarakis ES, 2011. "A non-comparative randomized phase II study of 2 doses of ATN-224, a copper/zinc superoxide dismutase inhibitor, in patients with biochemically recurrent hormone-naive prostate cancer". Urologic oncology. 31(5):581-8.Lowndes SA, Adams A, Timms A, Fisher N, Smythe J, Watt SM, Joel S, Donate F, Hayward C, Reich S, Middleton M, Mazar A, Harris AL, 2008.
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While poetic imagination had always seen the heart at the center of the soul, now there was the prospect of individuals being defined by other people's hearts. During the same month, Arthur Kornberg announced that he had managed to biochemically replicate a viral gene. "Life had been synthesized," said the head of the National Institutes of Health. Genetic engineering was now on the scientific agenda, as it was becoming possible to identify genetic characteristics with diseases such as beta thalassemia and sickle-cell anemia.
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Chapter 36: Megaloblastic anemias: disorders of impaired DNA synthesis by Ralph Carmel Vitamin B12 is the largest and most structurally complex vitamin. The vitamin exists in four near-identical chemical forms (vitamers): cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin. Cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin are used to prevent or treat vitamin deficiency; once absorbed they are converted into adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin, which are the forms that have physiological activity. All forms of vitamin B12 contain the biochemically rare element cobalt (chemical symbol Co) positioned in the center of a corrin ring.
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Rare but severe diseases such as mitochondrial myopathies are associated with dysfunctional human ADP/ATP translocase. Mitochondrial myopathies (MM) refer to a group of clinically and biochemically heterogeneous disorders that share common features of major mitochondrial structural abnormalities in skeletal muscle. The major morphological hallmark of MM is ragged, red fibers containing peripheral and intermyofibrillar accumulations of abnormal mitochondria. In particular, autosomal dominant progressive external ophthalmoplegia (adPEO) is a common disorder associated with dysfunctional ADP/ATP translocase and can induce paralysis of muscles responsible for eye movements.
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Gigantothermy allows animals to maintain body temperature, but is most likely detrimental to endurance and muscle power as compared with endotherms due to decreased anaerobic efficiency. Mammals' bodies have roughly four times as much surface area occupied by mitochondria as reptiles, necessitating larger energy demands, and consequently producing more heat to use in thermoregulation. An ectotherm the same size of an endotherm would not be able to remain as active as the endotherm, as heat is modulated behaviorally rather than biochemically. More time is dedicated to basking than eating.
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Porphine or porphin is an organic chemical compound with formula . The molecule consists of four pyrrole-like rings joined by four methine (=CH−) groups to form a larger macrocycle ring, which makes it the simplest of the tetrapyrroles. It is an aromatic and heterocyclic compound, solid at room temperature. Porphine does not occur in nature, and is almost only of theoretical interest; however, substituted derivatives include many biochemically significant compounds called porphyrins, with the dominant example being protoporphyrin IX. Many synthetic analogues are also known, including octaethylporphyrin and tetraphenylporphyrin.
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Among the echinoderms and prochordates, some have PA and others PC. Only a few have both PA and PC. Biochemically, these two groups are related. This is the most basic proof that the first chordate animals should have been derived only from echinoderm-like ancestors. # Body fluid of animals: When the body fluids of both aquatic and terrestrial animals are analyzed, it shows that they resemble sea water in their ionic composition. There is ample evidence that primitive members of most of the phyla lived in the sea in Paleozoic times.
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However, apart from its resistance to radiation, Deinococcus is genetically and biochemically very similar to other terrestrial life forms, arguing against an extraterrestrial origin not common to them. In 2009, nitric oxide was reported to play an important role in the bacteria's recovery from radiation exposure: the gas is required for division and proliferation after DNA damage has been repaired. A gene was described that increases nitric oxide production after UV radiation, and in the absence of this gene, the bacteria were still able to repair DNA damage, but would not grow.
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The nematode excysts in the intestine, feeds, grows, mates, and releases eggs into the seawater in the host's feces. As the gut of a marine mammal is functionally very similar to that of a human, Anisakis species are able to infect humans who eat raw or undercooked fish. The known diversity of the genus has increased greatly since mid-1980s with the advent of modern genetic techniques in species identification. Each final host species was discovered to have its own biochemically and genetically identifiable "sibling species" of Anisakis, which is reproductively isolated.
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A subfamily of stress proteins facilitates translocation of secretory and mitochondrial precursor polypeptides. Nature 332, 800-805 This was the first specific, genetically- and biochemically-validated function to be discovered for a member of the Hsp70 family of proteins. SCF and cullin–RING ubiquitin ligases: As a postdoctoral fellow working with Dr. Marc Kirschner at the University of California, San Francisco, Deshaies discovered a biochemical function for the ubiquitin-conjugated enzyme CDC34, which he showed mediates conjugation of ubiquitin onto G1 cyclin proteins in yeast cells.Deshaies, R.J., Chau, V., and Kirschner, M.W. (1995).
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The InsP3 receptor was first purified from rat cerebellum by neuroscientists Surachai Supattapone and Solomon Snyder at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. The cDNA of the InsP3 receptor was first cloned in the laboratory of Katsuhiko Mikoshiba. The initial sequencing was reported as an unknown protein enriched in the cerebellum called P400. The large size of this open reading frame indicated a molecular weight similar to the protein purified biochemically, and soon thereafter it was confirmed that the protein p400 was in fact the inositol trisphosphate receptor.
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Deleterious mutations in the ETFA and ETFB genes encoding ETF or the ETFDH gene encoding ETF:QO are associated with multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD; OMIM #231680; previously called glutaric aciduria type II). Biochemically, MADD is characterized by elevated levels of a series of carnitine conjugates of the substrates of the different partner dehydrogenases of the ETF/ETF:QO hub, e.g. glutaric, lactic, ethylmalonic, butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl-butyric, and isovaleric acids.[5] Accumulation of substrates and derivatives of the upstream dehydrogenases and energy deficiency upon fasting cause the clinical phenotype.
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Deleterious mutations in the ETFB and ETFA genes encoding ETF or the ETFDH gene encoding ETF:QO are associated with multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD; OMIM #231680; previously called glutaric aciduria type II). Biochemically, MADD is characterized by elevated levels of a series of carnitine conjugates of the substrates of the different partner dehydrogenases of the ETF/ETF:QO hub, e.g. glutaric, lactic, ethylmalonic, butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl-butyric, and isovaleric acids. Accumulation of substrates and derivatives of the upstream dehydrogenases and energy deficiency upon fasting cause the clinical phenotype.
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There are three general experimental ways for the virulence factors to be identified: biochemically, immunologically, and genetically. For the most part, the genetic approach is the most extensive way in identifying the bacterial virulence factors. Bacterial DNA can be altered from pathogenic to non-pathogenic, random mutations may be introduced to their genome, specific genes encoding for membrane or secretory products may be identified and mutated, and genes that regulate virulence genes maybe identified. Experiments involving Yersinia pseudotuberculosis have been used to change the virulence phenotype of non-pathogenic bacteria to pathogenic.
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In 1926, Kluyver and Hendrick Jean Louis Donker published the now classic paper, "Die Einheit in der Biochemie" ("Unity in Biochemistry"). The paper helped establish Kluyver's vision that, at a biochemical level, all organisms are unified. Kluyver famously expressed the idea with the aphorism: "From elephant to butyric acid bacterium – it is all the same". The paper, and other work from Kluyver's lab, helped support both the concept of biochemical unity as well as the idea of "comparative biochemistry", which Kluyver envisioned as biochemically equivalent to comparative anatomy.
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Blackwell Science Publishing: Oxford, UK They are sometimes considered oxidized derivatives of furan. The simplest butenolide is 2-furanone, which is a common component of larger natural products and is sometimes referred to as simply "butenolide". A common biochemically important butenolide is ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Butenolide derivatives known as karrikins are produced by some plants on exposure to high temperatures due to brush fires. In particular, 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one was found to trigger seed germination in plants whose reproduction is fire-dependent.
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Following processing by archaeosortase A, the PGF-CTERM region is gone, and a prenyl-derived lipid anchor is present at the C-terminus instead. Exosortase has not itself been characterized biochemically. However, site- directed mutagenesis work on archaeosortase A, an archaeal homolog of exosortases, strongly supports the notion of a Cys active site and convergent evolution with sortase family transpeptidases.. A recent study on Zoogloea resiniphila, a bacterium found in activated sludge wastewater treatment plants, has shown that PEP-CTERM proteins (and by implication, exosortase as well) are essential to floc formation in some systems .
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There are many examples of ancestral proteins that have been computationally reconstructed, expressed in living cell lines, and – in many cases – purified and biochemically studied. The Thornton lab notably resurrected several ancestral hormone receptors (from about 500Ma)Harms MJ, Eick GN, Goswami D, Colucci JK, Griffin PR, Ortlund EA, Thornton JW. (2013) Biophysical mechanisms for large-effect mutations in the evolution of steroid hormone receptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. published online June 24 and collaborated with the Stevens lab to resurrect ancient V-ATPase subunits from yeast (800Ma).
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In whole serum, C4B alleles performed at a rate several fold greater during hemolytic activity, in direct comparison with C4A alleles. Biochemically, they also found that C4A reacted more steadily with an antibody’s amino acid side chains and antigens that are amino groups, while C4B reacted better with carbohydrate hydroxyl groups. Thus, upon analysis of the varying reactivities, they proposed that the exceptional polymorphism of C4 genes may bring about some biological advantages (i.e. complement activation with a more extensive range of Ab-Ag complexes formed upon infections).
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Leptospermone can be synthesized from phloroglucinol by a reaction with 3-methylbutanenitrile (isovaleronitrile) in the presence of a zinc chloride catalyst. Phloroisovalerone imine is produced which is then alkylated with iodomethane after initial treatment with sodium ethoxide and methanol to produce an intermediate which is treated with aqueous hydrochloric acid resulting in isovaleroylsyncarpic acid (leptospermone). Biochemically, the plants take a different approach. Despite the fact that the biochemical synthesis has not been specifically investigated, it is clear that leptospermone is not an oxidized terpene (or specifically a sesquiterpene, ei.
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This is caused by the rapid consumption of starch in cyanide insensitive respiration, which is biochemically different from the respiration normally found in plants. The heat is used to vaporize odour components, which in species with short "flower-stalks" cause a faecal smell. This in turn attracts the small flies and gnats that are to be trapped within the inflorescence. As the time required for successful pollination to occur can be several days, many of the small insects nevertheless die within the flower due to their short lifespan.
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Analogous to neural glial cells, the supporting cells are non-neural cells in the olfactory epithelium that are located in the apical layer of the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. There are two types of supporting cells in the olfactory epithelium: sustentacular cells and microvillar cells. The sustentacular cells function as metabolic and physical support for the olfactory epithelium. Microvillar cells are another class of supporting cells that are morphologically and biochemically distinct from the sustentacular cells, and arise from a basal cell population that expresses the c-KIT cell surface protein.
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Glomeruli aggregate signals from these receptors and transmit them to the olfactory bulb, where the sensory input will start to interact with parts of the brain responsible for smell identification, memory, and emotion. Often, land organisms will have separate olfaction systems for smell and taste (orthonasal smell and retronasal smell), but water-dwelling organisms usually have only one system. In vertebrates, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell types.
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Ferguson is the author of seven chemistry textbooks and more than 50 research papers. His research ranged widely through his career but largely centered around organic chemistry and chemoreceptors. Beginning with Ferguson's 1958 paper in the Journal of Chemical Education, he developed a large body of knowledge around taste as it relates to the structure of organic compounds. This research eventually led to several papers on the structure-taste relationship of sweetness which put forth that compounds must have both a hydrogen bond donor and a large hydrophobic core for sweetness to be detected biochemically.
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The nitrite also acts as a vasodilator, promoting the cellular supply of oxygen, and the addition of an iron salt provides for competitive binding of the free cyanide as the biochemically inert hexacyanoferrate(III) ion, [Fe(CN)6]3−. An alternative approach involves administering thiosulfate, thereby converting cyanide to thiocyanate, SCN−, which is excreted via the kidneys. Methemoglobin is also formed in small quantities when the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin results in the formation of methemoglobin and superoxide, O2−, instead of the usual products. Superoxide is a free radical and causes biochemical damage, but is neutralised by the action of the enzyme superoxide dismutase.
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Ferroptosis is a type of programmed cell death dependent on iron and characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxides, and is genetically and biochemically distinct from other forms of regulated cell death such as apoptosis. Ferroptosis is initiated by the failure of the glutathione- dependent antioxidant defenses, resulting in unchecked lipid peroxidation and eventual cell death. Lipophilic antioxidants and iron chelators can prevent ferroptotic cell death. Although the connection between iron and lipid peroxidation has been appreciated for years, it was not until 2012 that Brent Stockwell and Scott Dixon coined the term ferroptosis and described several of its key features.
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It typically takes 2 to 3 days for colonies to appear, however it may take as long as 7. Colonies appear round, convex, smooth, shiny, and greyish in color on solid agar but, in liquid media, colonies appear as "cotton balls." Once they have been cultured, confirmation of their identity can be made using conventional biochemical analyses, such as tests for the production of oxidase, catalase, indole, nitrate, as well as carbohydrate fermentation. S. moniliformis can be biochemically differentiated by similar bacteria by their negative production of indole, catalase, and oxidase, and reduction of nitrate to nitrite.
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Female wasps of this species were reported to sting a cockroach (specifically a Periplaneta americana, Periplaneta australasiae, or Nauphoeta rhombifolia) twice, delivering venom. Researchers using radioactive labeling demonstrated that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia of the roach. It delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion and injects venom to mildly and reversibly paralyze the front legs of its victim. A biochemically-induced transient paralysis takes over the cockroach, where the temporary loss of mobility facilitates the second venomous sting at a precise spot in the victim's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex.
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Adherent cells require a surface, such as tissue culture plastic or microcarrier, which may be coated with extracellular matrix (such as collagen and laminin) components to increase adhesion properties and provide other signals needed for growth and differentiation. Most cells derived from solid tissues are adherent. Another type of adherent culture is organotypic culture, which involves growing cells in a three-dimensional (3-D) environment as opposed to two- dimensional culture dishes. This 3D culture system is biochemically and physiologically more similar to in vivo tissue, but is technically challenging to maintain because of many factors (e.g. diffusion).
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Biochemically, caspase-8 was found to enter the complex of the inhibitor of NF-κB kinase (IKK) with the upstream Bcl10-MALT1 (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue) adapter complex which were crucial for the induction of nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Moreover, the biochemical form of caspase-8 differed in the two pathways. For the death pathway, the caspase-8 zymogen is cleaved into subunits that assemble to form the mature, highly active caspase heterotetramer whereas for the activation pathway, the zymogen appears to remain intact perhaps to limit its proteolytic function but enhance its capability as an adapter protein.
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The mS1247 twintron represents the first recorded fungal mitochondrial mixed twintron consisting of group II intron as an internal intron and a group I intron as an external intron. In mS1247 twintron, splicing of the internal group IIA1 intron reconstitutes the open reading frame encoded within the group IC2 intron and thus facilitates the expression of the encoded homing endonuclease. The mS1247 twintron encod ORF have been biochemically characterized and the results showed that it is an active homing endonuclease that could potentially mobilize the twintron to rns genes that have not yet been invaded by this mobile composite element.
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This is because the fungi used are biochemically very active when compared with starter bacteria. Some cheeses are surface-ripened by moulds, such as Camembert and Brie, some are ripened internally, such as Stilton, which is pierced by the cheesemaker with stainless steel wires, to admit air to promote mould spore germination and growth, as with Penicillium roqueforti. Surface ripening of some cheeses, such as Saint-Nectaire, may also be influenced by yeasts which contribute flavour and coat texture. Others are allowed by the cheesemaker to develop bacterial surface growths which give characteristic colours and appearances, e.g.
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Since 5-HEDH has not been defined biochemically or genetically, studies on its distribution have been limited to examining the ability of cells or cell microsomes to make 5-oxo-ETE from 5(S)-HETE. A wide variety of cell types possess this activity including blood neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, B lymphocytes, and platelets; airway epithelial cells, airway smooth muscle cells, vascular endothelial cells, and monocytes differentiated in vitro to dendritic cells; and cancer cell lines derived from many of these cells or from prostate, breast, and colon cancer cells. Inflamm Res. 2000 Nov;49(11):633-8Prog Lipid Res.
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In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder. Nutrient minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms.
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Sclerotin is biochemically variable; different species incorporate different proteins in different proportions, and the same insect will use different compositions in forming the different components of its body. For example, the stiffening of the biting surfaces of a locust's hard mandibles will not be the same as the stiffening of its springy hind tibiae. In general however, it is formed by cross-linking the various protein molecules with phenolic compounds; a tanning process under enzymatic control. In some of the Apterygota however, at least some of the cross-linking is by disulphide bonds reminiscent of protein cross-linking in the formation of keratin.
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Cytocidal infections are often associated with changes in cell morphology, physiology and are thus important for the complete viral replication and transformation. Cytopathic Effects, often include a change in cell's morphology such as fusion with adjacent cells to form polykaryocytes as well as the synthesis of nuclear and cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. Physiological changes include the insufficient movement of ions, formation of secondary messengers, and activation of cellular cascades to continue cellular activity. Biochemically, many viruses inhibit the synthesis of host DNA, RNA, proteins directly or even interfere with protein-protein, DNA-protein, RNA- protein interactions at the subcellular level.
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It is widely believed that most terpenes are derived from the biochemically active isoprene units, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and γ,γ-dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). There are two possible pathways that produce these two important precursors, the mevalonate pathway (MVA) which occurs in the cytosol and the methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP) or non-mevalonate pathway, which occurs in plastids. IPP and DMAPP are then connected in a head-to-tail fashion to form the backbone of terpenes. Ionization of DMAPP to form the allylic cation which the double bond of IPP regioselectively adds to form the tertiary cation.
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An epitope comes in contact with a very small region (of 15–22 amino acids) of the antibody molecule; this region is known as the paratope. In the immune system, membrane-bound antibodies are the B-cell receptor (BCR). Also, while the T-cell receptor is not biochemically classified as an antibody, it serves a similar function in that it specifically binds to epitopes complexed with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.The major histocompatibility complex is a gene region on the DNA that codes for the synthesis of Major histocompatibility class I molecule, Major histocompatibility class II molecule and other proteins involved in the function of complement system (MHC class III).
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Proprioceptive studies are much more abundant than massage and proprioception combined, yet researchers are still trying to pinpoint the exact mechanisms and pathways involved to get a fuller understanding. Proprioception may be very helpful in rehabilitation, though this is a fairly unknown characteristic of proprioception, and "current exercises aimed at 'improving proprioception' have not been demonstrated to achieve that goal". Up until this point, very little has been studied looking into the effects of massage on proprioception. Some researchers believe "documenting what happens under the skin, bioelectrically and biochemically, will be enabled by newer, non-invasive technology such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and continuous plasma sampling".
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First messengers are extracellular factors, often hormones or neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine, growth hormone, and serotonin. Because peptide hormones and neurotransmitters typically are biochemically hydrophilic molecules, these first messengers may not physically cross the phospholipid bilayer to initiate changes within the cell directly—unlike steroid hormones, which usually do. This functional limitation requires the cell to have signal transduction mechanisms to transduce first messenger into second messengers, so that the extracellular signal may be propagated intracellularly. An important feature of the second messenger signaling system is that second messengers may be coupled downstream to multi-cyclic kinase cascades to greatly amplify the strength of the original first messenger signal.
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Biochemical Predestination is a 1969 book by Dean H. Kenyon and Gary Steinman which argued in support of biochemical evolution. In the book, Kenyon and Steinman conclude that "Life might have been biochemically predestined by the properties of attraction that exist between its chemical parts, especially between amino acids in proteins." They argued that life originated with the chemical properties of amino acids causing them to be attracted to each other, forming long protein chains, most important in every living cell. Kenyon believed that proteins were directly formed by attraction between amino acids without DNA coding, and that these were derivatives from non-living raw chemicals in a conducive environment.
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M-phase-specific PLK1-interacting protein (TTD non-photosensitive 1 protein) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MPLKIP gene (previously known as C7orf11). Patients with an inherited defect in both alleles of the gene suffer from trichothiodystrophy (TTD), a disease hallmarked by brittle hair and nails and usually by developmental difficulties as well. One patient carries a homozygous deletion of the whole gene area, which indicates that the gene is not essential for embryonic development. TTD can be diagnosed by the presence of tigertail-striped patterns in hair visible under polarised light microscopy, or biochemically by a reduced Cys content of the hairs.
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A South Italian variety of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non- cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties".
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Aerobic ATP production is biochemically much slower and can only be used for long-duration, low-intensity exercise, but produces no fatiguing waste products that can not be removed immediately from the sarcomere and the body, and it results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate molecule. Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing aerobic metabolism to begin quicker. Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and allows near- maximal intensity exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid which renders high-intensity exercise unsustainable for more than several minutes. The phosphagen system is also anaerobic.
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The central metal ion is cobalt. As isolated as an air-stable solid and available commercially, cobalt in vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin and other vitamers) is present in its +3 oxidation state. Biochemically, the cobalt center can take part in both two-electron and one-electron reductive processes to access the "reduced" (B12r, +2 oxidation state) and "super-reduced" (B12s, +1 oxidation state) forms. The ability to shuttle between the +1, +2, and +3 oxidation states is responsible for the versatile chemistry of vitamin B12, allowing it to serve as a donor of deoxyadenosyl radical (radical alkyl source) and as a methyl cation equivalent (electrophilic alkyl source).
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ALOX12, originally called arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase, was first characterized by the Nobel Laureate, Bengt I. Samuelsson, and his famed colleague, Mats Hamberg, in 1974 by showing that human platelets metabolize arachidonic acid not only by the well-known cyclooxygenase pathway into prostaglandins and 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid but also by a cyclooxygenase-independent pathway to 12(S)-hydroperoxy-5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid; this activity was the first mammalian lipoxygenase activity to be characterized. In 1975, the first biological activity was attached to this metabolite in studies showing that it simulated the chemotaxis of human neutrophils. During the several years thereafter, human ALOX12 was purified, characterized biochemically, and had its gene molecularly cloned.
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Germplasm collections for D. microcarpum are held at the Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER) in Mali and at the Centre National des Semences Forestieres (CNSF) in Burkina Faso. Trees differ biochemically, in fruit length and width, protein content, with higher dry- matter per unit volume and sugar content in larger fruits than in smaller ones.Kouyaté and Lamien, “Detarium microcarpum, sweet detar,” 4 Differences between tree populations are expressed morphologically based on leaf length, width and area, endocarp shape, seed shape, pulp thickness and number of leaves. The number of leaves has been observed to be inversely proportional to its pulp thickness.Kouyaté and Lamien, “Detarium microcarpum, sweet detar,” 5.
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Case is the underdog who is only looking after himself. Along the way he will have his liver and pancreas modified to biochemically nullify his ability to get high; meet the leatherclad Razorgirl, Molly; hang out with the drug-infused space-rastas; free an artificial intelligence (Wintermute) and change the landscape of the matrix. Molly (Molly Millions) : A "Razorgirl" who is recruited along with Case by Armitage. She has extensive cybernetic modifications, including retractable, 4 cm double-edged blades under her fingernails which can be used like claws, an enhanced reflex system and implanted mirrored lenses covering her eyesockets, outfitted with added optical enhancements.
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These nutrients mostly stay within the watershed during winter months instead of discharging to the ocean, as river discharge rates are controlled by dam release schedules. As a result, these nutrients and organic matter are locally biochemically processed by plankton communities, increasing the biomass of life within the system, and resulting in high nutrient releases in spring and summer months when dam flow through is increased. As a result, this anthroprogenic discharge cycle contributes to the seasonality of diatom blooms in the estuary. Unlike other large estuaries, such as the Chesapeake Bay Estuary, the Columbia River supplies little nitrate to the estuary relative to the overall local nitrogen budget.
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Some organisms are even able to degrade more recalcitrant compounds such as petroleum compounds or pesticides, making them useful in bioremediation. Biochemically, prokaryotic heterotrophic metabolism is much more versatile than that of eukaryotic organisms, although many prokaryotes share the most basic metabolic models with eukaryotes, e. g. using glycolysis (also called EMP pathway) for sugar metabolism and the citric acid cycle to degrade acetate, producing energy in the form of ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH or quinols. These basic pathways are well conserved because they are also involved in biosynthesis of many conserved building blocks needed for cell growth (sometimes in reverse direction).
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This two step process occurs because energetically sulfide is a better electron donor than inorganic sulfur or thiosulfate, allowing for a greater number of protons to be translocated across the membrane. Sulfur-oxidizing organisms generate reducing power for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle using reverse electron flow, an energy-requiring process that pushes the electrons against their thermodynamic gradient to produce NADH. Biochemically, reduced sulfur compounds are converted to sulfite () and subsequently converted to sulfate () by the enzyme sulfite oxidase. Some organisms, however, accomplish the same oxidation using a reversal of the APS reductase system used by sulfate- reducing bacteria (see above).
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A toothless man drawn by Leonardo da Vinci Toothlessness or edentulism is the condition of having no teeth. In organisms that naturally have teeth, it is the result of tooth loss. Organisms that never possessed teeth can also be described as edentulous, such as members of the former zoological classification order of Edentata, which included anteaters and sloths, all of which possess no anterior teeth and either no or poorly developed posterior teeth. In naturally dentate species, edentulism is more than just the simple presence or absence of teeth; it is biochemically complex, because the teeth, jaws, and oral mucosa are not static objects; they are dynamic (changing over time).
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J Nucl Med. 2014; 55(8):1368-1374.Tai Y, et al. Performance Evaluation of the microPET Focus: A Third-Generation microPET Scanner Dedicated to Animal Imaging. J Nucl Med. 2005; 46(3):455-463. ) and, at the same time, allows to perform fast dynamic imaging of animals (less than 15s time framesVaissier PEB, et al. Fast spiral SPECT with stationary γ-cameras and focusing pinholes. J Nucl Med. 2012; 53(8):1292-9.). SPECT imaging requires administration of small quantities of γ-emitting radiolabeled molecules (commonly called "tracers") into the animal prior to the image acquisition. These tracers are biochemically designed in such a way that they accumulate at target locations in the body.
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Human skin shares anatomical, physiological, biochemical and immunological properties with other mammalian lines, especially pig skin. Pig skin shares similar epidermal and dermal thickness ratios to human skin; pig and human skin share similar hair follicle and blood vessel patterns; biochemically the dermal collagen and elastic content is similar in pig and human skin; and pig skin and human skin have similar physical responses to various growth factors. Skin has mesodermal cells, pigmentation, such as melanin provided by melanocytes, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV) in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes that help reverse UV damage, such that people lacking the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer.
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SCOPE was then used to construct a synthetic enzyme lineage, which was biochemically characterized to recapitulate the evolutionary divergence of two modern day enzymes. The rapid evolvability of chemical diversity in terpene synthases were demonstrated through processes akin to both Darwinian gradualism and saltation: some mutational pathways show steady, additive changes, whereas others show drastic jumps between contrasting product specificities with single mutational steps. Further, a metric was devised to describe the chemical distance of mutational steps to derive a chemical-based phylogeny relating sequence variation to chemical output. These examples establish SCOPE as a standardized method for the construction of synthetic gene libraries from close or distantly related parental sequences to identify functional novelty among the encoded proteins.
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Significant physical exertion in hot conditions can generate heat beyond the ability to cool, because, in addition to the heat, humidity of the environment may reduce the efficiency of the body's normal cooling mechanisms. Human heat- loss mechanisms are limited primarily to sweating (which dissipates heat by evaporation, assuming sufficiently low humidity) and vasodilation of skin vessels (which dissipates heat by convection proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings, according to Newton's law of cooling). Other factors, such as insufficient water intake, consuming alcohol, or lack of air conditioning, can worsen the problem. The increase in body temperature that results from a breakdown in thermoregulation affects the body biochemically.
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Although the different DNA binding activities of DnaA have been extensively studied biochemically and various apo, ssDNA-, or dsDNA-bound structures have been determined, the exact architecture of the higher-order DnaA-oriC initiation assembly remains unclear. Two models have been proposed to explain the organization of essential origin elements and DnaA-mediated oriC melting. The two-state model assumes a continuous DnaA filament that switches from a dsDNA binding mode (the organizing complex) to an ssDNA binding mode in the DUE (the melting complex). By contrast, in the loop-back model, the DNA is sharply bent in oriC and folds back onto the initiator filament so that DnaA protomers simultaneously engage double- and single-stranded DNA regions.
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However, cell growth was not demonstrated and the affected cell type was not identified, making the identity of the factor(s) involved unclear and its natural function unknown. The discovery of IL-2 allowed T cells, previously thought to be dead end cells, to be grown significantly in culture for the first time, opening research into many aspects of T cell immunology. Gallo's lab later purified and biochemically characterized IL-2. This breakthrough also allowed researchers to grow T-cells and study the viruses that affect them, such as human T-cell leukemia virus, or HTLV, the first retrovirus identified in humans, which Bernard Poiesz, another post-doctoral fellow in Gallo's lab played a key role in its isolation.
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Histones are highly alkaline proteins that package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes, which comprise the major protein component of chromatin. The posttranslational and enzymatically mediated lysine acetylation and deacetylation of histone tails changes the local chromatin structure through altering the electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged DNA backbone and histones. HDAC3 is a Class I member of the histone deacetylase superfamily (comprising four classes based on function and DNA sequence homology) that is recruited to enhancers to modulate both the epigenome and nearby gene expression. HDAC3 is found exclusively in the cell nucleus where it is the sole endogenous histone deacetylase biochemically purified in the nuclear-receptor corepressor complex containing NCOR and SMRT (NCOR2).
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Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones. Under some conditions proteins will not fold into their biochemically functional forms. Temperatures above or below the range that cells tend to live in will cause thermally unstable proteins to unfold or denature (this is why boiling makes an egg white turn opaque). Protein thermal stability is far from constant, however; for example, hyperthermophilic bacteria have been found that grow at temperatures as high as 122 °C, which of course requires that their full complement of vital proteins and protein assemblies be stable at that temperature or above.
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Pierre Chambon (born 7 February 1931 in Mulhouse, France) was the founder of the in Strasbourg, France. He was one of the leading molecular biologists who utilized gene cloning and sequencing technology to first decipher the structure of eukaryotic genes and their modes of regulation. His major contributions to science include the identification of RNA polymerase II(B), the identification of transcriptional control elements, the cloning and dissection of nuclear hormone receptors, revealing their structure and showing how they contribute to human physiology. His group was also one of the first to demonstrate, biochemically and electron-microscopically, that the nucleosome is the smallest unit of chromatin (Cell, Vol. 4, 281–300, 1975).
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Cerumen type has been used by anthropologists to track human migratory patterns, such as those of the Inuit. In Japan, wet-type earwax is more prevalent among the Ainu, in contrast to that country's Yamato majority. The wet type earwax differs biochemically from the dry type mainly by its higher concentration of lipid and pigment granules; for example the wet type is 50% lipid while the dry type is only 20%. A specific gene has been identified that determines whether people have wet or dry earwax. The difference in cerumen type has been tracked to a single base change (a single nucleotide polymorphism) in a gene known as "ATP-binding cassette C11 gene", specifically rs17822931.
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Neutral mutation and the neutral theory of molecular evolution are not separate from natural selection but add to Darwin's original thoughts. Mutations can give an advantage, create a disadvantage, or make no measurable difference to an organism's survival. A number of observations associated with neutral mutation were predicted in neutral theory including: amino acids with similar biochemical properties should be substituted more often than biochemically different amino acids; synonymous base substitutions should be observed more often than nonsynonymous substitutions; introns should evolve at the same rate as synonymous mutations in coding exons; and pseudogenes should also evolve at a similar rate. These predictions have been confirmed with the introduction of additional genetic data since the theory’s introduction.
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Biochemically, ammonia oxidation occurs by the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to hydroxylamine () by the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase in the cytoplasm, followed by the oxidation of hydroxylamine to nitrite by the enzyme hydroxylamine oxidoreductase in the periplasm. Electron and proton cycling are very complex but as a net result only one proton is translocated across the membrane per molecule of ammonia oxidized. Nitrite oxidation is much simpler, with nitrite being oxidized by the enzyme nitrite oxidoreductase coupled to proton translocation by a very short electron transport chain, again leading to very low growth rates for these organisms. Oxygen is required in both ammonia and nitrite oxidation, meaning that both nitrosifying and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are aerobes.
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The enzyme plays an important role in vitamin metabolism by chain shortening. CYP4F2 is the only known enzyme to ω-hydroxylate tocotrienols and tocopherols (types of Vitamin E), thus making it a key regulator of circulating plasma Vitamin E levels. It catalyzes ω-hydroxylation of the phytyl chain of tocopherols (forms of vitamin E), with preference for gamma- tocopherols over α-tocopherols, thus promoting retention of α-tocopherols in tissues. Both types of Vitamin K (K1 and K2) can be used as co-factors for γ-glutamyl carboxylase, an enzyme that catalyzes the posttranslational modification of Vitamin K-dependent proteins, thus biochemically activating the proteins involved in blood coagulation and bone mineralization.
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However, Obendorf found that the accumulation of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides is required for seed germinability and seed desiccation tolerance. Thus the elimination of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides from seeds would result in a deterioration of the crop that produces them. According to Obendorf, > Breeding seed plants for quality embryos emphasizes elimination of > flatulence-producing oligosaccharides. Before this effort proceeds too far, > we need to determine if the flatulence-producing maturation sugars are > required for desiccation tolerance and storability of seed germplasm, the > threshold level required, and if biosynthesis of the stachyose series > oligosaccharides and/or oligogalactocyclitols can be regulated genetically > and biochemically in parallel with altered desiccation tolerance and > storability of seed germplasm.
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This protocol consists of various tasks aiming to detect early cognitive and clinical impairment in AD spectrum. The strong translational aspect of this approach, which includes the use of the human analogue of the Morris Water Maze, is aimed at the identification of individuals at preclinical and prodromal stage of AD. Biological sample bank (DNA, CSF and plasma) matched with the CBAS clinical data is also a part of CBAS. From a biological point of view, one aim of CBAS is to biochemically characterize the subjects affected by AD dementia and related memory disorders. The search for new biomarkers has expanded in the last years in the attempt to characterize the disease stage and/or predict the disease course.
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Cladophialophora bantiana is known to cause a cerebral phaeohyphomycosis affecting the central nervous system in humans. It is hypothesized that predilection of this species for the central nervous system is due to the presence of melanin, which may be able to cross the blood-brain barrier. However, this is unlikely since fungal melanin is structurally and biochemically different from human melanin and other species of highly pigmented fungi do not show neurotropism. It has also been suggested that the presence of introns in the 18S rDNA subunit of Cladophialophora may be related to the preference of C. bantiana for the CNS, however more research is required to determine the mechanism of this.
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The clinical phenotype of CEDS patients represented a paradox because caspase-8 was considered to be chiefly a pro-apoptotic protease, that was mainly involved in signal transduction. The defect in lymphocyte activation and protective immunity suggested that caspase-8 had additional signaling roles in lymphocytes. Further work revealed that caspase-8 was essential for the induction of the transcription factor “nuclear factor κB” (NF-κB) after stimulation through antigen receptors, Fc receptors, or Toll-like receptor 4 in T, B, and natural killer cells. Biochemically, caspase-8 was found to enter the complex of the inhibitor of NF-κB kinase (IKK) with the upstream Bcl10-MALT1 (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue) adapter complex which were crucial for the induction of nuclear translocation of NF-κB.
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Sphingolipidoses Sandhoff disease is one of several forms of what was formerly known as amaurotic idiocy. This inherited disease is characterized by the accumulation of lipid-containing cells in the viscera and in the nervous system, mental retardation, and impaired vision or blindness. The chemical and enzymatic analysis of various patients with amaurotic idiocy by Konrad Sandhoff (1939- ), a German Biochemist, who led to the identification of several biochemically distinct diseases: The first biochemical description of GM1-gangliosidosis in 1963, Sandhoff disease in 1968, Tay-Sachs-Disease, the AB-variant of GM2-Gangliosidosis and the B1-variant of GM2-gangliosidosis. It came to the discovery of the molecular defect in Sandhoff disease, when Konrad Sandhoff studied the biochemistry of sphingolipids and gangliosides in the laboratory of Prof.
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The resulting overactivity of FGF-23 reduces vitamin D 1α-hydroxylation and phosphate reabsorption by the kidneys, leading to hypophosphatemia and the related features of hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets. Also in XLH, where PHEX enzymatic activity is absent or reduced, osteopontin—a mineralization-inhibiting secreted substrate protein found in the extracellular matrix of bone—accumulates in bone (and teeth) to contribute to the osteomalacia (and odontomalacia) as shown in the mouse homolog (Hyp) of XLH and in XLH patients. Biochemically in blood, XLH is recognized by hypophosphatemia and an inappropriately low level of calcitriol (1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D3). Patients often have bowed legs or knock knees in which they usually cannot touch both knees and ankles together at the same time.
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If primary hyperaldosteronism is confirmed biochemically, CT scanning or other cross-sectional imaging can confirm the presence of an adrenal abnormality, possibly an adrenal cortical adenoma (aldosteronoma), adrenal carcinoma, bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, or other less common changes. Imaging findings may ultimately lead to other necessary diagnostic studies, such as adrenal venous sampling, to clarify the cause. It is not uncommon for adults to have bilateral sources of aldosterone hypersecretion in the presence of a nonfunctioning adrenal cortical adenoma, making adrenal venous sampling mandatory in cases where surgery is being considered. The diagnosis is best accomplished by an appropriately-trained subspecialist, though primary care providers are critical in recognizing clinical features of primary aldosteronism and obtaining the first blood tests for case detection.
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A signal peptide (sometimes referred to as signal sequence, targeting signal, localization signal, localization sequence, transit peptide, leader sequence or leader peptide) is a short peptide (usually 16-30 amino acids long) present at the N-terminus of the majority of newly synthesized proteins that are destined toward the secretory pathway. These proteins include those that reside either inside certain organelles (the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi or endosomes), secreted from the cell, or inserted into most cellular membranes. Although most type I membrane-bound proteins have signal peptides, the majority of type II and multi-spanning membrane-bound proteins are targeted to the secretory pathway by their first transmembrane domain, which biochemically resembles a signal sequence except that it is not cleaved. They are a kind of target peptide.
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As with most processes in the body, the cell cycle is highly regulated to prevent the synthesis of mutated cells and uncontrolled cell division that leads to tumor formation. The cell cycle control system is biochemically based so that the proteins of the mitosis promoting factor (MPF) control the transition from one phase to the next based on a series of checkpoints. MPF is a protein dimer made up of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk), a serine and threonine kinase, which come together at different points in the cycle to control cell progression through the cycle. When cyclin binds to Cdk, Cdk becomes activated and phosphorylates serine and threonine on other proteins causing the activation and degradation of other proteins allowing the cell to transition through the cell cycle.
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The environment in which R. solanacearum is commonly found is affected by the particular race (a genetically diverse population within a species), and the particular biovar (a strain that differs physiologically or biochemically from other strains.) Race 1, race 2 biovar 1, and race 3, biovar 2 are three of the most common and important strains. Race 1 strains have a broad host range including tobacco and bananas, and are usually found in tropical and subtropical environments, as they have trouble surviving cooler temperatures, and are endemic to the southeastern United States. Race 2 strains have a more limited host range than race 1, and are mostly restricted to tropical environments. Race 3 strains are more cold tolerant than the other two and are found in tropical highlands and temperate areas.
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Complete body PET-CT fusion image Brain PET-MRI fusion image PET scans are increasingly read alongside CT or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, with the combination (called "co-registration") giving both anatomic and metabolic information (i.e., what the structure is, and what it is doing biochemically). Because PET imaging is most useful in combination with anatomical imaging, such as CT, modern PET scanners are now available with integrated high-end multi-detector- row CT scanners (so-called "PET-CT"). Because the two scans can be performed in immediate sequence during the same session, with the patient not changing position between the two types of scans, the two sets of images are more precisely registered, so that areas of abnormality on the PET imaging can be more perfectly correlated with anatomy on the CT images.
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Mechanisms for drug targeting in the brain involve going either "through" or "behind" the BBB. Modalities for drug delivery to the brain in unit doses through the BBB entail its disruption by osmotic means, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances, such as bradykinin, or even by localized exposure to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Other methods used to get through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters, such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and the blocking of active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. Some studies have shown that vectors targeting BBB transporters, such as the transferrin receptor, have been found to remain entrapped in brain endothelial cells of capillaries, instead of being ferried across the BBB into the targeted area.
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Organocatalytic transfer hydrogenation has been described by the group of List in 2004 in a system with a Hantzsch ester as hydride donor and an amine catalyst: Organocatalytic Transfer Hydrogenation Yang 2004 In this particular reaction the substrate is an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound. The proton donor is oxidized to the pyridine form and resembles the biochemically relevant coenzyme NADH. In the catalytic cycle for this reaction the amine and the aldehyde first form an iminium ion, then proton transfer is followed by hydrolysis of the iminium bond regenerating the catalyst. By adopting a chiral imidazolidinone MacMillan organocatalyst an enantioselectivity of 81% ee was obtained: :Asymmetric Organocatalytic Transfer Hydrogenation Yang 2004 :MacMillan Asymmetric Organocatalytic Transfer Hydrogenation In a case of stereoconvergence, both the E-isomer and the Z-isomer in this reaction yield the (S)-enantiomer.
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In those with dopamine-responsive dystonia, symptoms typically dramatically improve with low-dose administration of levodopa, which is a biochemically significant metabolite of the amino acid phenylalanine, as well as a biological precursor of the catecholamine dopamine, a neurotransmitter. (Neurotransmitters are naturally produced molecules that may be sequestered following the propagation of an action potential down a nerve towards the axon terminal, which in turn may cross the synaptic junction between neurons, enabling neurons to communicate in a variety of ways.) Low-dose L-dopa usually results in near-complete or total reversal of all associated symptoms for these patients. In addition, the effectiveness of such therapy is typically long term, without the complications that often occur for those with Parkinson's disease who undergo L-dopa treatment. Thus, most experts indicate that this disorder is most appropriately known as dopa-responsive dystonia.
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A south Italian variety of the species is also traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy). In the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non cultivated greens. According to a research by A. Pieroni, V. Janiak, C. M. Dürr, S. Lüdeke, E. Trachsel and M. Heinrich (2002) in the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (The School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, are very interesting and the species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from Centaurea calcitrapa found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity and showed significant antioxidant activity too.
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Molecules can go down one of three paths: further storage, degradation, or re-initiation of translation.Paul J. Anderson, Brigham and Women's Hospital Conversely, it has also been argued that stress granules are not important sites for mRNA storage nor do they serve as an intermediate location for mRNAs in transit between a state of storage and a state of degradation. Efforts to identify all RNAs within stress granules (the stress granule transcriptome) in an unbiased way by sequencing RNA from biochemically purified stress granule "cores" have shown that RNAs are not recruited to stress granules in a sequence-specific manner, but rather generically, with longer and/or less-optimally translated transcripts being enriched. These data imply that the stress granule transcriptome is influenced the valency of RNA (for proteins or other RNAs) and by the rates of RNA run- off from polysomes.
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In 2012, the ENCODE project, a research program supported by the National Human Genome Research Institute, reported that 76% of the human genome's non-coding DNA sequences were transcribed and that nearly half of the genome was in some way accessible to genetic regulatory proteins such as transcription factors. However, the suggestion by ENCODE that over 80% of the human genome is biochemically functional has been criticized by other scientists, who argue that neither accessibility of segments of the genome to transcription factors nor their transcription guarantees that those segments have biochemical function and that their transcription is selectively advantageous. After all, non- functional sections of the genome can be transcribed, given that transcription factors typically bind to short sequences that are found (randomly) all over the whole genome. Furthermore, the much lower estimates of functionality prior to ENCODE were based on genomic conservation estimates across mammalian lineages.
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This gene encodes a non-histone chromatin protein involved in many cellular processes, including regulation of inducible gene transcription, DNA replication, heterochromatin organization, integration of retroviruses into chromosomes, and the metastatic progression of cancer cells. HMGA1 proteins are quite small (~10-12 kDa) and basic molecules, and consist of three AT-hooks with the RGRP (Arg-Gly-Arg-Pro) core motif, a novel cross-linking domain located between the second and third AT-hook, and a C-terminal acidic tail characteristic for the HMG family comprising HMGA, HMGB and HMGN proteins. HMGA1-GFP fusion proteins are highly dynamic in vivo (determined using FRAP analysis), but in contrast also show nanomolar affinity to AT-rich DNA in vitro (determined biochemically), which might be explained due to the extensive post-transcriptional modifications in vivo. HMGA1 preferentially binds to the minor groove of AT-rich regions in double-stranded DNA using its AT-hooks.
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RVP, a water-soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom, is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity. Ribonucleases (or RNases) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co- specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C, compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a pH optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" N-terminal amino acid sequence. The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry, such as bromothymol blue, eriochrome black T, malachite green, and reactive brilliant blue.
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The physiologist Denis Noble argues that these additions render neo-Darwinism in the sense of the early 20th century's modern synthesis "at the least, incomplete as a theory of evolution", and one that has been falsified by later biological research. Michael Rose and Todd Oakley note that evolutionary biology, formerly divided and "Balkanized", has been brought together by genomics. It has in their view discarded at least five common assumptions from the modern synthesis, namely that the genome is always a well-organised set of genes; that each gene has a single function; that species are well adapted biochemically to their ecological niches; that species are the durable units of evolution, and all levels from organism to organ, cell and molecule within the species are characteristic of it; and that the design of every organism and cell is efficient. They argue that the "new biology" integrates genomics, bioinformatics, and evolutionary genetics into a general-purpose toolkit for a "Postmodern Synthesis".
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The goal of his Ph.D. project was to characterize biochemically a receptor present on macrophages, that recognize bacterial peptidoglycan. He then entered a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of California, San Francisco (1985-1991) working on B-cell signalling with Anthony DeFranco, followed by a position as research associate in Ruedi Aebersold’s lab at the Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle, Washington, (1991-1993) His work led to many important findings, emphasizing the importance of how antigen receptors on the surface of B-cells might trigger the adaptive immunity upon recognizing their cognate antigens Over a decade, his laboratory has been intensely focusing on how the roles of Rap GTPases in mediating cell mobility, cell migration, tumor motility and metastasis. He is interested in how changes in cytoskeletal structure and function by Rap may affect B-cell receptor activation and signalling cascade. Gold’s publications have been cited more than 6,200 times with the [h-index] of 42.
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AMPK is recruited to lysosomes and regulated at the lysosomes via several systems of clinical significance. This includes the AXIN - LKB1 complex, acting in response to glucose limitations functioning independently of AMP sensing, which detects low glucose as absence of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate via a dynamic set of interactions between lysosomally localized V-ATPase-aldolase in contact with the endoplasmic reticulum localized TRPV. A second AMPK-control system localized to lysosomes depends on the Galectin-9-TAK1 system and ubiquitination responses at controlled by deubiquitinating enzymes such as USP9X leading to AMPK activation in response to lysosomal damage, a condition that can occur biochemically , physically via protein aggregates such as proteopathic tau in Alzheimer's disease, crystalline silica causing silicosis, cholesterol crystals causing inflammation via NLRP3 inflammasome and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions, urate crystals associated with gout, or during microbial invasion such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis or coronaviruses causing SARS. Both of the above lysosomally localized systems controlling AMPK activate it in response to metformin, a widely prescribed anti-diabetc drug.
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While obviously required to diverge somewhat from modern science by the necessities of remaining true to Star Trek continuity, possible and somewhat plausible details of implementation are given for a number of important technologies. The word "cthia" itself is not translated by the universal translation devices used by Kirk (who does not speak Vulcan), reflecting an understanding of difficulty in accurately translating complex cultural concepts between languages (almost always encountered in actual linguistics). McCoy, however, has taken a biochemical language-learning aid to assist his understanding of Vulcan, which is described as a "RNA messenger sequence" and works by biochemically adding cells to his brain that provide an understanding of Vulcan; RNA (or ribonucleic acid) is a main carrier of genetic information regarding protein synthesis in actual biology. "Moira" is the name of a computer on the Enterprise in the book that has been given artificial intelligence and a female personality and who uses "her" innate understanding of computers to retrieve information for Dr. McCoy, and is also presented in a way consistent with modern A.I. science at the time of the book's writing.
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