Begging the question: to whom and where does Kabakov belong?
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So, here's Obama's gingerbread house from 2016 -- begging the question ...
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Begging the question, what becomes of the wreckage under new masters?
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Yet the issue remains, begging the question, do we have a talent problem?
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She seems genuinely terrified of her own husband, begging the question: What is he truly capable of?
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Begging the question: What exactly is the job Barr thinks the tweets are keeping him from doing?
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It was sort of begging the question, if you didn't have balls and a penis, you couldn't be original.
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Now, Fed forecasts run the gamut, a CNBC survey has found, begging the question: Why isn't there a consensus?
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This theme also holds when comparing Q319 revenues versus Q318, begging the question: is DB's poor FIC performance transitory?
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A 300-year rule is begging the question as to whether Queen Elizabeth technically has legal custody of her minor great-grandchildren.
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Mainland officials have repeatedly publicized their disregard for The Hague's Tuesday court ruling, begging the question of what China's next move will be.
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She actually dislocated a rib because she was hyperventilating so hard, begging the question once again, what could possibly have been going on?
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The closing track "Gbese" features a barely noticeable Trey Songz, begging the question as to why he's even needed in the first place.
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Can't ignore the obvious ... Gisele Bundchen had a pretty obvious bump during a modeling shoot in Brazil earlier this month -- begging the question ... preggo???
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Warren and Sanders are still abiding by their unspoken non-engagement pact, begging the question of whether they will simply split the progressive vote.
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While UK officials are calling Masood a lone wolf, an ISIS tweet claimed responsibility for the attack, begging the question: How can both be true?
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Amy Klobuchar won delegates before they suspended their campaigns, begging the question, what happens to those delegates after a candidate drops out of the race?
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Here's sports reporter Holly Sonders hittin' the strip club with notorious high-stakes gambler Vegas Dave ... begging the question -- you guys a couple or what?!
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Alvarez won a split decision over GGG -- a fight many critics say should have been ruled a draw ... begging the question ... are we doing Canelo vs.
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According to PopSugar, the costume department added the majority to characters Justin and Skye, begging the question: Which of the cast has tattoos in real life?
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In fact, that's exactly what a lot of fans are doing, begging the question: why couldn't Beyoncé have just come out with a new song herself?
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But many issues still surround the ban the box movement, begging the question: Is banning the box increasing the employment of those with a criminal history?
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That's why I was so entertained when I solved David Liben-Nowell's and Tom Pepper's crossword that highlights the fallacies CIRCULAR REASONING and BEGging THE QUESTION.
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States are demanding more test kits amid a continued shortage, begging the question of whether the number of reported cases reflects the reality of the crisis.
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President Donald Trump's tariffs on steel and aluminum imports has triggered sharp criticism from the international community, begging the question of how the world will react.
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DeMar was one of the few people inside Floyd's private workout at Ten Goose Boxing Gym in L.A. this week -- begging the question ... whatcha doing here?
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Kate kept the hair surprises coming when she arrived in Manchester on Friday wearing a tucked ponytail, begging the question: Does Princess Kate own a Topsy Tail?
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It's Bella Thorne showing off her insane physique during a bikini day in Miami with her sister, Dani ... begging the question -- does the armpit hair bother you?!
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First, Netflix announced the name of the movie, begging the question: Does there really need to be a movie about the weird girl in your high school?
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The RS recently purchased military grade weapons from Serbia to equip the Bosnian Serb police, begging the question of whether Dodik is preparing for a future conflict.
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The cyberpunk adaptation film from James Cameron and Robert Rodriguez left off on a massive cliffhanger, begging the question: was this all just set-up for a sequel?
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The High Sparrow asks Cersei, Margaery, and Loras if they're ready to "stand trial and profess guilt or innocence before the Seven," begging the question — what are trials?
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The polls and online markets currently have Clinton running away with the contest, begging the question: If Clinton wins big, what's it likely to mean for the country?
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While the individual incidents may not have foreshadowed a mass shooting, his pattern of disturbing behavior grew over the years, begging the question: Why did no one intervene?
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After Tyron Woodley called him out Thursday, Nate Diaz went to his brother's MMA studio in Stockton, CA begging the question ... is he finally gonna take the fight?!?!
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The entire series was just a play-by-play of Hart&aposs worst moments over the past two years, again begging the question: What was this supposed to accomplish?
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Having battled over the last mile of distribution, online retailers are now focused on the last meter of fulfillment, begging the question: Will delivery make it past the front door?
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For the SECOND time this week, Kendall Jenner kicked it with alleged ex-flame NBA star Chandler Parsons ... this time, the two partied all over Hollywood -- begging the question ... back on?
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Kobe Bryant's 11-year-old daughter is already getting treated like royalty by the top women's basketball program in in the world ... begging the question -- is UConn angling for Gianna Bryant?
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Both 2 Milly and Blocboy JB have publicly expressed disapproval over the use of their dance moves on Fortnite, begging the question: Can dance moves popularized by an individual be protected?
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This is how it started last time ... Floyd Mayweather came face-to-face with Manny Pacquiao at an NBA game on Tuesday -- begging the question ... are they finally going to rematch?!
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Of note, according to ESPN reporter Ariel Helwani, Trump was not shown on the big screen when he entered, begging the question -- was this potentially done by design to avoid more boos?
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In the drive away from the beach, Nicole says Clay "fooled" her into thinking he was falling in love, begging the question: What does it even mean to be "falling in love"?
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A recent study in the UK revealed that employers in the country found travelers to be 82% more employable, begging the question: Is the one-way ticket worth it in the long run?
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Even within this art, Chittaprosad's artistic tropes of common laborers, farmers and workers recur, thereby begging the question whether an artist ever stops being political just by moving away from organized party politics.
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Both the Air France 447 and AirAsia Flight 8501 crashes had flight-control systems and pilots working against each other with disastrous outcomes, begging the question of whether these systems help or hinder pilots.
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However, it is readily apparent that the Fed needs help, begging the question: how can the government tell the financial industry to get serious about increasing diversity, if we are not willing to lead by example?
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One of his campaign ads told immigrants, "Be normal or get out," and he warned that, with Wilders, the "wrong kind of populism" would take hold, begging the question of what the right kind might be.
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Recent Treasury International Capital (TIC) data revealed foreign investors dumped nearly $33 billion dollars in U.S. paper for the third straight month in June, begging the question of where market players are setting their sights on next.
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But the junior officers on the Fitzgerald and McCain, as well as on two cruisers involved in earlier mishaps this year, were all the beneficiaries of these new courses, begging the question of whether they are sufficient.
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Funny as it is, at its core, the film holds a riveting courtroom drama with the lives of two innocent men in the balance, begging the question: What would happen if you stripped away all of the comedy?
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But the pandemic is only worsening and tipping the US economy into recession, begging the question not only of how much more progressive emergency legislation will get, but will any of it become permanent after the emergency subsides?
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California Assemblyman Joaquin Arambula exclaimed that the bill would ensure that "California is a safe place for immigrants," begging the question of what, if any, value is being placed on the lives of native-born Americans and legal residents.
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Hardcore's kitschy exhibition design does little to dispel the notion that the films and photographs on view are dirty, or even shameful, begging the question: how would Hardcore make its bygone porn collectors feel — liberated, or just plain embarrassed?
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And just last week, a Georgia state congressman was forced to resign after a particularly offensive appearance on the show—begging the question as to how much actual political fallout there is to come with four more episodes left to go.
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On top of all that, Trump's own lawyers during the 2016 campaign stated that the IRS audit of Trump's returns through 2008 was completed, begging the question: if Trump was truly about transparency, why didn't he release the returns not being audited?!
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It maintains assets of £237 million pounds and enjoys a low tax regime comparable to the one it previously had in the Bahamas — begging the question of whether Cameron continues to gain by having family money outside the UK, just not in a strictly offshore fund.
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Still, as quantitative tightening progresses and other potential selloff triggers loom on the horizon, like emerging market worries and trade war fears, these unprecedented debt levels may look more vulnerable than ever — begging the question of how much we've really learned in the past ten years.
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Zoolander was so successful partly because it was made by outsiders lampooning people who take themselves exceptionally seriously, whereas this time round it relies heavily on cameos from some of the most famous names in fashion, begging the question: can Zoolander 2 work as satire of the fashion industry if the fashion industry is now in on the joke?
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After EE jumped into a Salvation Army kettle to celebrate a TD Sunday night, he assumed he'd be fined by the NFL -- and vowed to match the fine and donate the money to the S.A. But Monday morning, the league announced they wouldn't take further action against the Dallas Cowboys star ... begging the question -- what's up with Zeke's donation pledge?
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"While we got an initial push higher in the wake of the news that a US, China trade deal was within reach, the fact is markets have been rallying for most of this year in anticipation of just such an outcome, begging the question as to how much more is there in this particular tank," CMC Markets analyst Michael Hewson said.
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The presidential candidates have mostly kept quiet about the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) since House Speaker Nancy PelosiNancy PelosiRepublican group targets Graham in ad calling for fair Senate trial Trump attacks Schumer at fiery rally in Michigan Schumer, Pelosi to meet as Democrats debate tactics MORE (D-Calif.) announced a bipartisan compromise on the trade deal last week, begging the question: Will Thursday's debate break that silence?
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In unskilful hands, some basic concepts in the law of negligence verge upon begging the question.
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Princeton: Princeton University PressReppert, V. 1992. "Eliminative Materialism, Cognitive Suicide, and Begging the Question." Metaphilosophy 23:378–92.Seidner, Stanley S. 10 June 2009.
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Herrick (2000) 248. In modern vernacular usage, however, begging the question is often used to mean "raising the question" or "suggesting the question". Sometimes it is confused with "dodging the question", an attempt to avoid it. The phrase begging the question originated in the 16th century as a mistranslation of the Latin , which in turn was a mistranslation of the Greek for "assuming the conclusion".
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Earl R. Babbie, Lucia Benaquisto, Fundamentals of Social Research, Cengage Learning, 2009, Google Print, p. 251Alan Bryman, Emma Bell, Business research methods, Oxford University Press, 2007, , Google Print, p. 267–268 This fallacy can be also confused with (begging the question),Fallacy: Begging the Question The Nizkor Project. Retrieved on: January 22, 2008 which offers a premise no more plausible than, and often just a restatement of, the conclusion.
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This seems to contradict Moore's view which accepts that sometimes alternative answers could be dismissed without argument, however Frankena objects that this would be committing the fallacy of begging the question.
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Closely connected with begging the question is the fallacy of circular reasoning ('), a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with the conclusion. The individual components of a circular argument can be logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and does not lack relevance. However, circular reasoning is not persuasive because a listener who doubts the conclusion also doubts the premise that leads to it. Begging the question is similar to the complex question (also known as trick question or fallacy of many questions): a question that, to be valid, requires the truth of another question that has not been established.
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So this would be an example of disproof by begging the question. Finally, Hume provides many possible "unintended consequences" of the argument; for instance, given that objects such as watches are often the result of the labor of groups of individuals, the reasoning employed by the teleological argument would seem to lend support to polytheism.
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The controversy over its use is similar to those surrounding words or phrases such as "begging the question", "bemused", "nauseous", "who" vs. "whom" and the loss of the distinction between "disinterested" and "uninterested." The use of "hopefully" as a disjunct is reminiscent of the usage of the German word hoffentlich ("it is to be hoped that").
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Begging the question of whether the King's lighting is more like a stage production than novel, again alluding to a fictionalisation rather than truly historical style. Alan Judd, in his 1991 biography of the author, states that this version does not "hinder the sense of reality" in its effective style portraying a contrivance of Tudor English. He likens the author's dialogue to poetry.
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" Schedeen finished the review with "This week's Arrow is a clear good news/bad news situation. The long-awaited return of Roy Harper amounted to very little, begging the question of why he was brought back into the picture in the first place. But the renewed focus on Ricardo Diaz is beginning to help turn around this season's overarching conflict.
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Norman Cowie. Norman Cowie is a video artist and writer in Los Angeles. Some of his productions include: Signal to Noise: Life with Television (Co- Director; 1996), The Third Wave, Miss Menu's Interactive World, Poison Ivy (1995), Mr. Rogers Goes Begging the Question!!!, It's a Proud Day for America, About Face (1991), Lying in State (1989), and Nazareth in August (1986).
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In this view, P ultimately supports P, begging the question. Coherentists reply that it is not just P that is supporting P, but P along with the totality of the other statements in the whole system of belief. Coherentism accepts any belief that is part of a coherent system of beliefs. In contrast, P can cohere with P1 and P2 without P, P1 or P2 being true.
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Another criticism was formulated by Herbert Ives (1952) and Max Jammer (1961), asserting that Einstein's derivation is based on begging the question. Other scholars such as John Stachel and Roberto Torretti, have argued that Ives' criticism was wrong, and that Einstein's derivation was correct. Hans Ohanian (2008) agreed with Stachel/Torretti's criticism of Ives, though he argued that Einstein's derivation was wrong for other reasons.
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In the above form, the functional to be extended must already be bounded by a sublinear function. In some applications, this might close to begging the question. However, in locally convex spaces, any continuous functional is already bounded by the norm, which is sublinear. One thus hasIn category-theoretic terms, the field is an injective object in the category of locally convex vector spaces.
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This evidently presupposes the internalist theory of motivation (i.e. a belief can itself motivate), in contrast to the externalist theory of motivation, also known as the Humean theory of motivation (i.e. both a belief and a desire are required to motivate). If internalism is true, then the OQA avoids begging the question against the naturalist, and succeeds in showing that the good cannot be equated to some other property.
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He also argued that there are no known instances of an immaterial, perfect, infinite being creating anything. Using the probability calculus of Bayes Theorem, Salmon concludes that it is very improbable that the universe was created by the type of intelligent being theists argue for.Wesley C. Salmon, "Religion and Science: A New Look at Hume's Dialogues", Philosophical Studies, 33 (1978), 143–176. Nancy Cartwright accuses Salmon of begging the question.
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Theory-ladenness is particularly relevant for the problem of confirmation of scientific theories. According to the scientific method, observational evidence is needed to develop scientific theories and to test their predictions. But if an observation is theory-laden then it already implicitly presumes various theses and therefore can't act as neutral arbitrator between theories which affirm (or deny) the presumed theses. This is akin to the informal fallacy of Begging the question.
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Some philosophers have criticized Objectivist ethics. The philosopher Robert Nozick argues that Rand's foundational argument in ethics is unsound because it does not explain why someone could not rationally prefer dying and having no values, in order to further some particular value. He argues that her attempt to defend the morality of selfishness is, therefore, an instance of begging the question. Nozick also argues that Rand's solution to David Hume's famous is-ought problem is unsatisfactory.
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7, New York: Macmillan, 1972 No skeptic can doubt the reality and certainty of mental representations and mental events that are immediately given through consciousness. Skepticism does not claim that metaphysical questions cannot be answered. Skepticism doubts the possibility of knowledge about the existence or non-existence of the thing-in-itself. Kant, however, was guilty of begging the question in that he presupposed that the thing-in-itself exists and causally interacts with observing subjects.
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To establish that it is an image of an independent moon requires many other assumptions that amount to begging the question. This relates to Kantian transcendental aspects of the world, in which a new factor can be included, if the current axioms neither validate nor invalidate it. The continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice, are examples of possible transcendental decision points. Solipsism in its weak form is characterized by the repeated decision not to accept transcendental factors, a logical minimalism.
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', genitive of ', means beginning, basis or premise (of an argument). Literally ' means "assuming the premise" or "assuming the original point". The Latin phrase comes from the Greek (', "asking the original point") in Aristotle's Prior Analytics II xvi 64b28–65a26: Aristotle's distinction between apodictic science and other forms of non-demonstrative knowledge rests on an epistemology and metaphysics wherein appropriate first principles become apparent to the trained dialectician: Thomas Fowler believed that ' would be more properly called ', which is literally "begging the question".Fowler, Thomas (1887).
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Hence, the same question may be loaded in one context, but not in the other. For example, the previous question would not be loaded if it were asked during a trial in which the defendant had already admitted to beating his wife.Douglas N. Walton, Informal logic: a handbook for critical argumentation, Cambridge University Press, 1989, , pp. 36–37 This informal fallacy should be distinguished from that of begging the question, which offers a premise whose plausibility depends on the truth of the proposition asked about, and which is often an implicit restatement of the proposition.
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If the connection between the agent's inclination and the agent's decision is deterministic, then proponents of the Frankfurt-style cases are charged with begging the question. A deterministic connection begs the question because proponents of Frankfurt-style cases are assuming the very thing that is being debated, that moral responsibility does not require alternate possibilities or the ability to do otherwise. Suppose the agent's inclination is causally sufficient for bringing about the agent's decision. This would mean that the agent was determined to make that decision prior to any kind of decision-making.
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This is begging the question, of course, whether kouroi so defined form a different category from other male figures, namely draped youths, cuirassed or armed warriors, or bearded figures. See Ridgway, Archaic Sculpture, pp. 91–94. Taking from the style of Egyptian figures, Greek kouroi often have their left leg extended forward as though walking; however, the figurine looks as though it could be either standing still or taking a long stride. A small number of early kouroi are belted around their waists, a practice that died out at the turn of the sixth century.
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First edition (publ. Geoffrey Bles) Miracles is a book written by C. S. Lewis, originally published in 1947 and revised in 1960. Lewis argues that before one can learn from the study of history whether or not any miracles have ever occurred, one must first settle the philosophical question of whether it is logically possible that miracles can occur in principle. He accuses modern historians and scientific thinkers, particularly secular biblical scholars, of begging the question against miracles, insisting that modern disbelief in miracles is a cultural bias thrust upon the historical record and is not derivable from it.
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There are at least two ways to interpret "the relativist fallacy": either as identical to relativism (generally), or as the ad hoc adoption of a relativist stance purely to defend a controversial position. On the one hand, discussions of the relativist fallacy that portray it as identical to relativism (e.g., linguistic relativism or cultural relativism) are themselves committing a commonly identified fallacy of informal logic—namely, begging the question against an earnest, intelligent, logically competent relativist. It is itself a fallacy to describe a controversial view as a "fallacy"—not, at least, without arguing that it is a fallacy.
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Basically, Miller asserts that all arguments purporting to give valid support for a claim are either circular or question-begging. That is, if one provides a valid deductive argument (an inference from premises to a conclusion) for a given claim, then the content of the claim must already be contained within the premises of the argument (if it is not, then the argument is ampliative and so is invalid). Therefore, the claim is already presupposed by the premises, and is no more "supported" than are the assumptions upon which the claim rests, i.e. begging the question.
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Furthermore, Frankfurt-style cases would be begging the question since they are deriving moral responsibility from a completely deterministic scenario. On the other hand, if the connection between the agent's inclination and the agent's decision is indeterministic, then opponents of the Frankfurt-style cases argue that the agent has the ability to do otherwise. This is problematic for proponents of the Frankfurt-style cases because they are supposed to show a situation where an agent is morally responsible for the decision and yet is unable to truly do otherwise. Suppose the agent's inclination and the agent's decision is indeterministic.
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In informal logic, an inference objection is an objection to an argument based not on any of its stated premises, but rather on the relationship between premise and contention. For a given simple argument, if the assumption is made that its premises are correct, fault may be found in the progression from these to the conclusion of the argument. This can often take the form of an unstated co-premise, as in Begging the question. In other words, it may be necessary to make an assumption in order to conclude anything from a set of true statements.
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R. G. Collingwood argued in 1938 that art cannot be produced by accident, and wrote as a sarcastic aside to his critics, Nelson Goodman took the contrary position, illustrating his point along with Catherine Elgin by the example of Borges' "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", In another writing, Goodman elaborates, "That the monkey may be supposed to have produced his copy randomly makes no difference. It is the same text, and it is open to all the same interpretations. ..." Gérard Genette dismisses Goodman's argument as begging the question. For Jorge J. E. Gracia, the question of the identity of texts leads to a different question, that of author.
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Bust of Aristotle, whose Prior Analytics contained an early discussion of this fallacy In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. For example, the statement "green is the best color, because it is the greenest of all colors" claims that the color green is the best because it is the greenest - which it assumes is the best. It is a type of circular reasoning: an argument that requires that the desired conclusion be true. This often occurs in an indirect way such that the fallacy's presence is hidden, or at least not easily apparent.
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George Campbell, A dissertation on miracles, pp. 31–32, London: T. Tegg, 1824 The philosopher John Earman has recently argued that Hume's argument is "largely unoriginal and chiefly without merit where it is original",Earman, Hume's Abject Failure, Preface. citing Hume's lack of understanding of the probability calculus as a major source of error. J. P. Moreland and William Lane Craig agree with Earman's basic assessment and have critiqued Hume's argument against being able to identify miracles by stating that Hume's theory "fails to take into account all the probabilities involved" and "he incorrectly assumes that miracles are intrinsically highly improbable" C. S. Lewis, in his book Miracles: A Preliminary Study, argues that Hume begins by begging the question.
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Another identifier in the debate is "abolitionist", which harks back to the 19th-century struggle against human slavery. Some Native women have critiqued these terms as not representing their views, as they do not see reproductive decisions as a choice but rather a responsibility, and while they feel that life is sacred, they also see abortion as, sometimes, a necessity. Appeals are often made in the abortion debate to the rights of the fetus, pregnant woman, or other parties. Such appeals can generate confusion if the type of rights is not specified (whether civil, natural, or otherwise) or if it is simply assumed that the right appealed to takes precedence over all other competing rights (an example of begging the question).
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Hyman contends that even if psi experiments could be designed that would regularly reproduce similar deviations from chance, they would not necessarily prove psychic functioning. Critics have coined the term The Psi Assumption to describe "the assumption that any significant departure from the laws of chance in a test of psychic ability is evidence that something anomalous or paranormal has occurred...[in other words] assuming what they should be proving." These critics hold that concluding the existence of psychic phenomena based on chance deviation in inadequately designed experiments is affirming the consequent or begging the question. In 1979, magician and debunker James Randi engineered a hoax, now referred to as Project Alpha to encourage a tightening of standards within the parapsychology community.
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That people would also be obliged to intervene in nature has been used as a reductio ad absurdum against the position that animals have rights. This is because if animals such as prey animals did have rights, people would be obliged to intervene in nature to protect them, but this is claimed to be absurd. An objection to this argument is that people do not see intervening in the natural world to save other people from predation as absurd and so this could be seen to involve treating non-human animals differently in this situation without justification, which is due to speciesism. However, this argument already grants the premise in question that animals should have rights, and that preferring human interests is wrong, and therefore it is begging the question.
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Argumentum ad logicam can be used as an ad hominem appeal: by impugning the opponent's credibility or good faith, it can be used to sway the audience by undermining the speaker rather than by addressing the speaker's argument. William Lycan identifies the fallacy fallacy as the fallacy "of imputing fallaciousness to a view with which one disagrees but without doing anything to show that the view rests on any error of reasoning". Unlike ordinary fallacy fallacies, which reason from an argument's fallaciousness to its conclusion's falsehood, the kind of argument Lycan has in mind treats another argument's fallaciousness as obvious without first demonstrating that any fallacy at all is present. Thus in some contexts it may be a form of begging the question, and it is also a special case of ad lapidem.
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In 1953, Ross published his most famous book Om Ret og Retfærdighed (which he would later publish in English, under the title On Law and Justice). In this book, he states that there is no a priori validity to give the law some special position. Experience serves as a guideline. This means, for example, that the famous dictum ‘suum cuique tribuere’, ‘to give to everyone his own’, has no meaning until it has been determined what actually belongs to someone, which means that this is a matter of begging the question (On Law and Justice, § 64 (p. 276)). His determination not to rely on anything but the facts leads to statements as the following: “The legal rule is neither true nor false; it is a directive.” (On Law and Justice, § 2 (p. 2)).
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In 2015, Charismata gave a TEDx talk where she spoke of her journey going from the legal field to fully embracing a career in music. Having spent the majority of her artist career as an independent artist, in 2015, Charismata signed a record deal with Virgin Records Sweden after she independently released "Mushroom," her most popular song yet, gaining the attention of radio and record label executives in Sweden. In her song "Mushroom," a high-energy punk-pop tune, Charismata uses references to Super Mario Brothers characters like Koopa Troopa to draw comparison to the current social order and political climate, begging the question, who is really in control? In 2014, Charismata was nominated Rookie Artist of the Year at the Denniz Pop Awards alongside Tove Lo and listed as "a name to watch for" by Sweden's leading music journalist Jan Gradvall.
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Despite all this, Hume observes that belief in miracles is popular, and that "the gazing populace… receive greedily, without examination, whatever soothes superstition, and promotes wonder." Critics have argued that Hume's position assumes the character of miracles and natural laws prior to any specific examination of miracle claims, thus it amounts to a subtle form of begging the question. To assume that testimony is a homogeneous reference group seems unwise- to compare private miracles with public miracles, unintellectual observers with intellectual observers and those who have little to gain and much to lose with those with much to gain and little to lose is not convincing to many. Indeed, many have argued that miracles not only do not contradict the laws of nature, but require the laws of nature to be intelligible as miraculous, and thus subverting the law of nature.
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On the other hand, if we appeal to non-self-interested reasons to justify morality, those reasons seem to be implicitly moral, and so this would just be begging the question against egoistic opponents of morality. While making many contributions to the conceptual analysis of basic concepts in moral, political and legal philosophy such as those of obligation, responsibility, reason for action, egoism and the meaning of life, and also to applied ethics, Baier has struggled with the fundamental question of how to justify morality throughout his career. He inspired many other philosophers to do so as well. In The Rational and the Moral Order (1995), Baier attempted to answer the question by interpreting morality as a system of reasons of mutual benefit that are appropriate for contexts in which everyone's following self-interested reasons would have suboptimal results for everyone.
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" In a provocative paper, "Extremism as a Religious Norm," Liebman (1983) analyzes religious extremism in Israel and argues that "religious extremism is the norm and that it is not religious extremism but religious moderation that requires explanation." A critical respondent appreciated the description of Israel but rejected Liebman's generalization as begging the question of whether "extremism should be regarded as "normal religion or even religion at all" (Cumpsty 1985:217). In a 1990 study of American and Israeli Judaism (“Two Worlds of Judaism”), Liebman articulated a concept of "Jewish personalism" which, writes his co- author, is "the tendency of American Jews to pick those parts of Judaism they find personally meaningful, rather than complying with external requirements of religious law, Zionist ideology or ethnic obligation" (Cohen 2003). He was born in New York City and attended secondary school at the Gymnasia Herzliya in Tel Aviv.
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The original phrase used by Aristotle from which begging the question descends is: τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (or sometimes ἐν ἀρχῇ) αἰτεῖν, "asking for the initial thing." Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the type of dialectical argument he discusses in his Topics, book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the responses and the original thesis. In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the answerer undertakes to defend is called "the initial thing" (τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ) and one of the rules of the debate is that the questioner cannot simply ask for it (that would be trivial and uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in Sophistical Refutations and in Prior Analytics book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1).
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Feyerabend also criticized science for not having evidence for its own philosophical precepts. Particularly the notion of Uniformity of Law and the Uniformity of Process across time and space, as noted by Stephen Jay Gould. "We have to realize that a unified theory of the physical world simply does not exist" says Feyerabend, "We have theories that work in restricted regions, we have purely formal attempts to condense them into a single formula, we have lots of unfounded claims (such as the claim that all of chemistry can be reduced to physics), phenomena that do not fit into the accepted framework are suppressed; in physics, which many scientists regard as the one really basic science, we have now at least three different points of view...without a promise of conceptual (and not only formal) unification". In other words, science is begging the question when it presupposes that there is a universal truth with no proof thereof.
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This sexual selection model, combined with the reduced rates of mate choice due to the extreme abnormality of the traits, should allow the disorder to be selected against and thus minimally represented within our population. Yet, the disorder remains moderately heritable begging the question as to why it is still so present within humans, as altering explanations, such as mutation rates, fail to explain why the rate of schizophrenia remains so high. Shaner, Miller, and Mintz (2004) hypothesize that Schizophrenia involves many gene loci, and thus evolved as an extreme variant of fitness indicator through mate choice. According to this hypothesis, the extreme variant of mental fitness provided by this disorder describes an allele in which neurodevelopmental sensitivity to Darwinian measures of reproductive strength such as fitness and survival adaptability, are increased. Hence this allele was deemed the fitness indicator model of schizophrenia, as it describes why ‘fitter’ families are able to develop successful courting mechanisms, while less fit families, such as those with schizophrenics, represent a reduced reproductive and marriage rate.
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The song is also noted for bringing house music into mainstream popular music, as well as for reviving disco music after a decade of its commercial death. Erick Henderson of Slant Magazine explained that the song "was instrumental in allowing disco revivalism to emerge, allowing the denigrated gay genre to soar once again within the context of house music, the genre disco became in its second life." Sal Cinquemani of the same publication wrote that the song was "making its impact all the more impressive (it would go on to inspire a glut of pop-house copycats) and begging the question: If disco died a decade earlier, what the fuck was this big, gay, fuscia drag-queen boa of a dance song sitting on top of the charts for a month for?" "Vogue" has inspired flash mobs around the US. In 2015, the rhythmic gymnastics group from Ukraine used the track for their 6 clubs and 2 hoops routine, which was intended to be shown at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio.
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He concludes that the types identified by Blanchard and others may be primarily correlational, not causative, in which case "autogynephilia just becomes another trait" of some trans women, rather than their defining characteristic. Julia Serano, a trans activist and biologist by training, writes in the International Journal of Transgenderism that there were flaws in Blanchard's original papers, including that they were conducted among overlapping populations primarily at the Clarke Institute in Toronto without nontranssexual controls, that the subtypes were not empirically derived but instead were "begging the question that transsexuals fall into subtypes based on their sexual orientation," and that further research had found a non-deterministic correlation between cross- gender arousal and sexual orientation. She states that Blanchard did not discuss the idea that cross-gender arousal may be an effect, rather than a cause, of gender dysphoria, and that Blanchard assumed that correlation implied causation. Serano also stated that the wider idea of cross-gender arousal was affected by the prominence of sexual objectification of women, accounting for both a relative lack of cross-gender arousal in transsexual men and similar patterns of autogynephilic arousal in non-transsexual women.
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Moreover, according to Frankfurt's Descartes, the meditator feels forced to accept his conclusion merely because of the evidence of the supporting argument, while Frankfurt himself started by explaining that the radical doubt is meant to be a criticism of evidence as a criterion of truth (even subjective truth, if you want). As Frankfurt pointed out, it seems hard to deny that the general proposition "evident statements can be false or misleading" can be thought without hindrance, and that Descartes seems to have countenanced this kind of doubt, when close to the end of the First Meditation he wrote that > "...as I sometimes think that others are in error respecting matters of > which they believe themselves to possess a perfect knowledge, how do I know > that I am not also deceived each time I add together two and three, or > number the sides of a square, or form some judgment still more simple, if > more simple indeed can be imagined?" The outcome seems to be that a doubt aimed at evident ideas is supposed by Frankfurt to be overcome by means of a further evident idea, thereby begging the question.
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Sometimes a speaker or writer uses a fallacy intentionally. In any context, including academic debate, a conversation among friends, political discourse, advertising, or for comedic purposes, the arguer may use fallacious reasoning to try to persuade the listener or reader, by means other than offering relevant evidence, that the conclusion is true. Examples of this include the speaker or writer: # Diverting the argument to unrelated issues with a red herring (Ignoratio elenchi) # Insulting someone's character (argumentum ad hominem) # Assume the conclusion of an argument, a kind of circular reasoning, also called "begging the question" (petitio principii) # Making jumps in logic (non sequitur) # Identifying a false cause and effect (post hoc ergo propter hoc) # Asserting that everyone agrees (argumentum ad populum, bandwagoning) # Creating a "false dilemma" ("either-or fallacy") in which the situation is oversimplified # Selectively using facts (card stacking) # Making false or misleading comparisons (false equivalence and false analogy) # Generalizing quickly and sloppily (hasty generalization) In humor, errors of reasoning are used for comical purposes. Groucho Marx used fallacies of amphiboly, for instance, to make ironic statements; Gary Larson and Scott Adams employed fallacious reasoning in many of their cartoons.
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