These remarks would seem to imply a shift for the nurse from autocentric controlling, to allocentric controlling, then to allocentric nurturing.
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They often visit locations that the average traveler would not consider visiting. There are an estimated 4% of true allocentric travelers among tourists, with the majority of travelers being midcentrics (halfway between psychocentric and allocentric).McKercher, 2005 Female allocentric travelers were found to be more neurotic and less extraverted than psychocentric travelers.Hoxter & Lester, 1987 American and Japanese college students who reported being more horizontally individualistic tended to prefer more allocentric destinations.
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Allocentric and idiocentric personality orientations can be found in either collectivistic or individualistic cultures.
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They found a mere ownership effect in idiocentric participants and a group ownership effect for allocentric participants.
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To test the neglect frame of reference, the two different arrays were carefully situated so that gap in the triangle fell on opposite sides of the allocentric field. In the SW-NE array, the gap in the triangle fell on the allocentric right of the object-centered axis along which the triangle pointed. In the SE-NW configuration, the gap in the triangle fell on the allocentric left of the object-centered axis. Furthermore, varying the position of the arrays with respect to the participant's trunk midline was used to test egocentric neglect.
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At least two of the three reflective practitioners were clearly idiocentric, whereas all of the social syncretists seemed to fit the allocentric description.
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They prefer self-reliance, to make their own decisions without worrying about what others think, and enjoy competition.Triandis et al, 2002 It seems people can be both allocentric and idiocentric, but how much they are either is dependent on the situation and how the individual defines that situation. Certain situations encourage more allocentric behavior. These are found more in some cultures than others.
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The allocentric reference frame describes a visual reference frame based on the arrangement of objects in an organism's environment. To test for the use of an allocentric reference frame, a "rod-and-frame" test, in which a subject's perception of virtual objects in an environment are altered, can be used to cause a body tilt as the subject believes to be correcting for the shift.
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The next range of neglect is "allocentric" neglect, where individuals neglect either their peri-personal or extrapersonal space. Peri-personal space refers to the space within the patient's normal reach, whereas extrapersonal space refers to the objects/environment beyond the body's current contact or reaching ability. Patients with allocentric neglect tend to neglect the contralesional side of individual items, regardless of where they appear with respect to the viewer. For example, In the same gap detection test mentioned above, subjects with allocentric hemispatial neglect on the right side will make errors on all areas of the page, specifically neglecting the right side of each individual item.
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Triandis, H. C., & University Publications of America (Firm). (1983). Allocentric vs. idiocentric social behavior : A major cultural difference between Hispanics and the mainstream. [Urbana-Champaign, IL]: University of Illinois.
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Various neuropsychological research studies have considered the role of frame of reference in hemispatial neglect, offering new evidence to support both allocentric and egocentric neglect. To begin, one study conducted by Dongyun Li, Hans-Otto Karnath, and Christopher Rorden examined whether allocentric neglect varies with egocentric position. This experimental design consisted of testing eleven right hemispheric stroke patients. Five of these patients showed spatial neglect on their contralesional side, while the remaining six patients showed no spatial neglect.
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The arrays were therefore presented at 0° (i.e. in line with the participant's trunk midline), at −40° left, and at +40° right. Ultimately, varying the position of the array within the testing visual field allowed for the simultaneous measurement of egocentric neglect and allocentric neglect. The results of this experimental design showed that the spatial neglect patients performed more poorly for the allocentric left side of the triangle, as well as for objects presented on the egocentric left side of the body.
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Allocentric navigation is typically seen in males and is beneficial primarily in large and/or unfamiliar environments.Andreano & Cahill (2009) This likely has some basis in evolution when males would have to navigate through large and unfamiliar environments while hunting.Geary (1998) The use of allocentric strategies when navigating primarily activates the hippocampus and parahippocampus in the brain. This navigation strategy relies more on a mental, spatial map than visible cues, giving it an advantage in unknown areas but a flexibility to be used in smaller environments as well.
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The retrosplenial cortex is involved in the processing of allocentric memory and geometric properties in the environment. Inactivation of this region accounts for impaired navigation in the dark and thus it is implicated to be involved in the process of path integration. Lesions to the retrosplenial cortex consistently impair tests of allocentric memory, while sparing egocentric memory. Animals with lesions to the caudal retrosplenial cortex show impaired performance on a radial arm maze only when the maze is rotated to remove their reliance on intramaze cues.
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Furthermore, the poor accuracy for detecting features of the object on the left side of the object's axis was more severe when the objects were presented on the contralesional side of the body. Thus, these findings illustrate that both allocentric and egocentric biases are present simultaneously, and that egocentric information can influence the severity of allocentric neglect. A second study, conducted by Moscovitch and Behrmann, investigated the reference frame of neglect with respect to the somatosensory system. Eleven patients with parietal lobe lesions and subsequent hemispatial neglect were analyzed during this experiment.
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A mental rotation test (MRT) was carried out on gymnasts, orienteers, runners, and non athletes. Results showed that non athletes were greatly outperformed by gymnasts and orienteers, but not runners. Gymnasts (egocentric athletes) did not outperform orienteers (allocentric athletes).
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In Kazdin A. E. (Ed.), Allocentrism- idiocentrism. Washington New York, DC NY, US US: American Psychological Association Oxford University Press. Triandis, H. C., Leung, K., Villareal, M. J., & Clack, F. I. (1985). Allocentric versus idiocentric tendencies: Convergent and discriminant validation.
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Noninvasive brain stimulation in the treatment of aphasia: exploring interhemispheric relationships and their implications for neurorehabilitation. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 29:375-94Medina, J., Beauvais, J., Datta, A., Bikson, M., Coslett, H.B., Hamilton, R.H. (2013). Transcranial direct current stimulation accelerates allocentric target detection.
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London: Routledge. Social influence may therefore explain the progression from the “locked” allocentric negative body image, to obesity or eating disorders (ED) because the media and culture both promote diet and controlled eating as methods to improve body-image satisfaction. Individuals with ED are not able to use their sensory inputs to update allocentric representations of the body, therefore they hate their body even after significant weight loss and continue to attempt to improve it. Virtual reality (VR) has been aimed at fixing this issue by helping to change the experience of the bodyRiva, G. (1998) Modifications of body-image induced by virtual reality.
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In humans, fMRI studies implicate the retrosplenial cortex in a wide range of cognitive functions including episodic memory, navigation, imagining future events and processing scenes more generally. Rodent studies suggest the region is important for using surrounding visual cues to carry out these tasks. Retrosplenial cortex is particularly responsive to permanent, non-moving environmental landmarks and is also implicated in using them to make spatial judgements. It has also been suggested that retrosplenial cortex may translate between egocentric (self-centred) and allocentric (world- centred) spatial information, based upon its anatomical location between the hippocampus (where there are allocentric place cell representations) and the parietal lobe (which integrates egocentric sensory information).
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These sorts of memories would be useful for spatial navigation in which the primates visualize everything in an allocentric, or worldly manner that allows them to convey directions to others without physically going through the entire route. These cells are used by primates in regular day-to- day lives.
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This can make it difficult to attend to the present or future, as she is permanently living in the past. Others who have hyperthymesia do not display any of these traits, however. AJ displays considerable difficulty in memorizing allocentric information. "Her autobiographical memory, while incredible, is also selective and even ordinary in some respects," – McGaugh.
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10, 2, 157–99. These reference frames influence how memories are stored and retrieved where in the egocentric frame, an individual sees an event from their own perspective while in the allocentric frame, an individual sees themselves engaged in the event as an observer would.Robinson, J.A. & Swanson, K.L. (1993) Field and observer modes of remembering. Memory. 1, 3, 169–84.
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Hum Neurobiol, 2: 25-33. Thus, the left and right cerebral hemispheres exhibit redundant processing to the right- side of the body and a lesion to the left cerebral hemisphere can be compensated by the ipsiversive processes of the right cerebral hemisphere.Iachini, T., Ruggiero, G., Conson, M. & Trojano, L. [2009]. Lateralization of egocentric and allocentric spatial processing after parietal brain lesions.
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If individuals answer the "I am" statements with statements about others and common fate with others, they are deemed to be more allocentric. This method was highly recommended for measuring allocentrism.Triandis et al., 1995 Another aspect of allocentrism is the priority of in-group goals over personal goals and this can be measured using the Collectivism Scale Yamaguchi et al.
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Allocentric people tend to be more consumer ethnocentric (the tendency to prefer the products on their own countries when shopping). Huang et al., (2008) looked at consumer ethnocentrism (CET) and allocentrism among a group of Taiwanese participants in relation to Korean products sold in Taiwan versus national products. This study found that allocentrism with parents was positively correlated with higher CET.
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Morris and colleagues' experiment indicates that the reconsolidation hypothesis could apply to particular memory types such as allocentric spatial memory, which is either acquired slowly or rapidly. As implied by the authors, however, such an application is feasible only in the case of rapidly acquired spatial memory, the degree to which is influenced by how thoroughly a spatial object is trained.
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These findings suggest that, within the somatosensory system, stimuli are neglected with respect to the allocentric, spatial frame of reference, in addition to an egocentric, sensory frame of reference. Ultimately, the discoveries made by these experiments indicate that hemispatial neglect occurs with respect to multiple, simultaneously derived frames of reference, which dictate the nature and extent of neglect within the visual, auditory, and tactile fields.
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Longo, M.R., Azañón, L., Haggard, P. (2010) More than skin deep: body representation beyond primary somatosensory cortex. Neuropsychologia. 48, 3, 655–68. The ability to represent and recall objects, including our own body, changes according to our frame of references, where an egocentric stance represents objects relative to ourselves while an allocentric stance represents objects independent of ourselves.Frith, U. & de Vignemont, F. (2005) Egocentrism, allocentrism, and Asperger syndrome.
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Hippocampus shown in red The hippocampus provides animals with a spatial map of their environment. It stores information regarding non-egocentric space (egocentric means in reference to one's body position in space) and therefore supports viewpoint independence in spatial memory. This means that it allows for viewpoint manipulation from memory. It is however, important for long-term spatial memory of allocentric space (reference to external cues in space).
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Which type of spatial knowledge is acquired in a special situation depends also from the respective source of information. Active navigation appears to have a bigger impact on the establishment of route knowledge, whereas the use of a map seemingly better supports survey knowledge about more large-scaled complex environments. In this context, a discussion came up about different reference frames, which are the frameworks wherein spatial information is encoded. In general, two of them can be distinguished as the egocentric (Latin ego: “I”) and the allocentric (ancient Greek allos: “another, external”) reference frame. Within an egocentric reference frame, spatial information is encoded in terms of relations to the physical body of a navigator, whereas the allocentric reference frame defines relations of objects among each other, that is independent of the physical body of an “observer” and thus in a more absolute way, which takes metrical conditions and general alignments like cardinal directions into account.
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A reference frame is a way someone can represent their location in space, and evidence has shown that our spatial experience involves the combination of our sensory inputs from two specific reference frames including egocentric and allocentric.Galati, G., Lobel, E., Vallar, G., Berthoz, A., Pizzamiglio, L., & Le Bihan D. (2000) The neural basis of egocentric and allocentric coding of space in humans: a functional magnetic resonance study. Exp Brain Res. 133, 2, 156-64.
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The term allocentrism has also been used in the travel field to have a different meaning from the way it is used in the psychological research. Here the term allocentric traveler refers to a traveler who is an extroverted venturer. This is contrasted with the term psychocentric traveler who is dependable, less adventurous, and cautious. They tend to be curious, confident, seek out novelty, and prefer to travel by plane and alone.
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Place fields are allocentric, meaning that they are defined with respect to the outside world rather than the body. By orienting based on the environment rather than the individual, place fields can work effectively as neural maps of the environment. A typical place cell will have only one or a few place fields in a small laboratory environment. However, in larger environments, place cells have been shown to contain multiple place fields which are usually irregular.
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This suggests, that route knowledge, which is supported by direct navigation, is more likey to be encoded within an egocentric reference frame and survey knowledge, which is supported by map learning, to be more likely to be encoded within an allocentric reference frame in turn. Whilst spatial information can be stored into these different frames, they already seem to develop together in early stages of childhood and appear to be necessarily used in combination in order to solve everyday life tasks.
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An important question in studies of neglect has been: "left of what?" That is to say, what frame of reference does a subject adopt when neglecting the left half of his or her visual, auditory, or tactile field? The answer has proven complex. It turns out that subjects may neglect objects to the left of their own midline (egocentric neglect) or may instead see all the objects in a room but neglect the left half of each individual object (allocentric neglect).
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Sinha & Verma, 1994 North Americans whose lifestyles are more allocentric tend to have higher subjective well-being than those whose life styles are idiocentric. In addition, allocentrics’ evaluation of their in- group in addition to how they perceive others view their group is positively related to higher subjective well-being.Bettencourt & Dorr, 1997 Allocentrism had a greater effect on the SWB of African Americans than on Euro-Americans. Furthermore, idiocentrism was more negatively related to SWB for Euro- Americans than it was for African Americans.
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Allocentrism is contrasted with idiocentrism, the psychological manifestation of individualism.Bettencourt & Dorr, 1997 As stated earlier, allocentrism includes holding values and preferences of placing higher importance on in-group needs and goals over one's own, defining oneself in terms of the in-group, and seeing oneself as an extension of the in-group. Idiocentrism, however, is an orientation whereby individuals hold quite different values and preferences from those with an allocentric orientation. Idiocentric people tend to focus more on their own goals and needs rather than in-group ones.
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In human navigation people visualize different routes in their minds to plan how to get from one place to another. The things which they rely on to plan these routes vary from person to person and are the basis of the differing navigational strategies. Some people use measures of distance and absolute directional terms (north, south, east, and west) in order to visualize the best pathway from point to point. The use of these more general, external cues as directions is considered part of an allocentric navigation strategy.
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A recent study of the indigenous Yupno people of Papua New Guinea focused on the directional gestures used when individuals used time-related words. When speaking of the past (such as "last year" or "past times"), individuals gestured downhill, where the river of the valley flowed into the ocean. When speaking of the future, they gestured uphill, toward the source of the river. This was common regardless of which direction the person faced, revealing that the Yupno people may use an allocentric MTL, in which time flows uphill.
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These two broad categories may be further subdivided. Patients with egocentric neglect may ignore the stimuli leftward of their trunks, their heads, or their retinae. Those with allocentric neglect may neglect the true left of a presented object, or may first correct in their mind's eye a slanted or inverted object and then neglect the side then interpreted as being on the left. So, for example, if patients are presented with an upside-down photograph of a face, they may mentally flip the object right side up and then neglect the left side of the adjusted image.
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A double simultaneous stimulation procedure was utilized, during which the patients were touched lightly and simultaneously on the left and right side of the wrist of one hand. The patients were tested both with their palms facing down and with their palms facing up. This experimental condition allowed the scientists to determine whether neglect in the somatosensory system occurs with respect to the sensory receptor surface (egocentric) or with respect to a higher-order spatial frame of reference (allocentric). The results of this experiment showed the hemispatial neglect patients neglected somatosensory stimuli on the contralesional side of space, regardless of hand orientation.
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A mirror causes an illusion of left/right reversal because left and right were not swapped when the image appears to have turned around to face the viewer. The viewer's egocentric navigation (left and right with respect to the observer's point of view; i.e.: "my left...") is unconsciously replaced with their allocentric navigation (left and right as it relates another's point of view; "...your right") when processing the virtual image of the apparent person behind the mirror. Likewise, text viewed in a mirror would have to be physically turned around, facing the observer and away from the surface, actually swapping left and right, to be read by the viewer.
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Parietal lobe shown in red The parietal cortex encodes spatial information using an egocentric frame of reference. It is therefore involved in the transformation of sensory information coordinates into action or effector coordinates by updating the spatial representation of the body within the environment. As a result, lesions to the parietal cortex produce deficits in the acquisition and retention of egocentric tasks, whereas minor impairment is seen among allocentric tasks. Rats with lesions to the anterior region of the posterior parietal cortex reexplore displaced objects, while rats with lesions to the posterior region of the posterior parietal cortex displayed no reaction to spatial change.
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In an experiment investigating the functional role of the entorhinal cortex pars medialis in memory formation, Hölscher and Schmidt (1994) found that they could produce selective amnesia for specific types of memories by creating lesions in the brains of rats.Hölscher, C., & Schmidt, W. J. (1994). Quinolinic acid lesion of the rat entorhinal cortex pars medialis produces selective amnesia in allocentric working memory (WM), but not in egocentric WM. Behavioural Brain Research, 63(2), 187-194 In this experiment, both lesioned and non-lesioned rats were placed in an eight-armed maze with food in one of the arms. The rats had to orientate themselves to their surroundings to find the food.
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Psychosocial adaptation is a process a person experiences in order to achieve good fitness in person-environment congruence known as adjustment, a state of wisdom oriented activities and psychosocial equilibrium. Psychosocial support is the provision of psychological and social resources to a person by a supporter intended for the benefit of the receiver's ability to cope with problems faced. The allocentric principle within social relationships that promote health and well-being moves individuals to aid victims of terminal illness, disaster, war, catastrophe or violence to foster resilience of communities and individuals. It aims at easing resumption of normal life, facilitating affected people's participation to their convalescence and preventing pathological consequences of potentially traumatic situations.
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Medial view of the right cerebral hemisphere showing the entorhinal cortex in red at the base of the temporal lobe The dorsalcaudal medial entorhinal cortex (dMEC) contains a topographically organized map of the spatial environment made up of grid cells. This brain region thus transforms sensory input from the environment and stores it as a durable allocentric representation in the brain to be used for path integration. The entorhinal cortex contributes to the processing and integration of geometric properties and information in the environment. Lesions to this region impair the use of distal but not proximal landmarks during navigation and produces a delay- dependent deficit in spatial memory that is proportional to the length of the delay.
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A similar study of the Pormpuraawans, an aboriginal group in Australia, revealed a similar distinction in which when asked to organize photos of a man aging "in order," individuals consistently placed the youngest photos to the east and the oldest photos to the west, regardless of which direction they faced. This directly clashed with an American group which consistently organized the photos from left to right. Therefore, this group also appears to have an allocentric MTL, but based on the cardinal directions instead of geographical features. The wide array of distinctions in the way different groups think about time leads to the broader question that different groups may also think about other abstract concepts in different ways as well, such as causality and number.
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Conversely, Arabic, Farsi, Urdu and Israeli- Hebrew speakers read from right to left, and their MTLs unfold leftward (past on the right with future on the left), and evidence suggests these speakers organize time events in their minds like this as well. This linguistic evidence that abstract concepts are based in spatial concepts also reveals that the way humans mentally organize time events varies across cultures––that is, a certain specific mental organization system is not universal. So, although Western cultures typically associate past events with the left and future events with the right according to a certain MTL, this kind of horizontal, egocentric MTL is not the spatial organization of all cultures. Although most developed nations use an egocentric spatial system, there is recent evidence that some cultures use an allocentric spatialization, often based on environmental features.
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