63 Sentences With "a fortiori" | Random Sentence Generator

" Or it's a tossed off Latin phrase like "a fortiori.

That goes a fortiori for the left elsewhere in the region.

By the way, this argument applies a fortiori to temporary trade policies.

That's already the case, somewhat—that this new album is a fortiori that sets you apart from the rest.

That metaphor might be expected to pertain a fortiori in the case of scientific papers, where a figure can brilliantly illuminate an idea that might otherwise be baffling.

More importantly—and intriguingly—though, learning to join letters up in a continuous flow across the page improves a child's ability to retain and understand concepts and inferences in a way that printing those letters (and, a fortiori, typing them on a keyboard) does not.

"The Court orders Belgium to pay a penalty payment of 5,000 euro per day for not fully transposing the directive on high-speed electronic communications networks and, a fortiori, for failure to notify the relevant transposing measures to the Commission," judges wrote in their ruling.

Whatever one believes about the underlying climate science or evidence, the effect on temperatures in the year 2100 of a large-scale shift of power production from conventional generation to renewables generally, or a fortiori to solar PV in particular, would be too small to measure.

In Islamic jurisprudence, a fortiori arguments are proved utilising the methods used in qiyas (reasoning by analogy).

In Garner's Modern American Usage, Garner says writers sometimes use a fortiori as an adjective as in "a usage to be resisted". He provides this example: "Clearly, if laws depend so heavily on public acquiescence, the case of conventions is an a fortiori [read even more compelling] one." A fortiori arguments are regularly used in Jewish law under the name kal va-chomer, literally "mild and severe", the mild case being the one we know about, while trying to infer about the more severe case. In ancient Indian logic (nyaya), an inference derived from an a fortiori postulation is known as kaimutika or kaimutya nyaya, from the words kim uta meaning "even more so".

In this way the connexive concept of implication accounts for a necessary presupposition of all conditional and a fortiori logical orientation.

Argumentum a fortiori (literally "argument from the stronger") (, ) is a form of argumentation that draws upon existing confidence in a proposition to argue in favor of a second proposition that is held to be implicit in, and even more certain than, the first.

He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies".K. Marx, First draft of letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.

This sentiment also fueled the often cool manner in which the denomination is perceived in Israeli society, originally established on the basis of these ideologies.Meyer, Response, pp. 292–294, 350. While at first alienated from all native modernized Jews, a fortiori the Reform ones, the Eastern Europeans did slowly integrate.

Another variant of the argument is that the evidence for God's love is sufficiently compelling that people can reasonably believe in it, and hence a fortiori believe in God.See e.g. Michael Welker in The Work of Love p131 "in this love God's identity and power are made known" (italics in original). He cites e.g.

Local complete intersection rings, and a fortiori, regular local rings are Cohen–Macaulay, but not conversely. Cohen–Macaulay combine desirable properties of regular rings (such as the property of being universally catenary rings, which means that the (co)dimension of primes is well-behaved), but are also more robust under taking quotients than regular local rings.

Whatever point populations that may attain, it can with equal ease at least maintain itself there." Thornton elaborated on his explanation: > "A labourer, offering his services for hire is simply offering labour for > sale. No one is bound to accept the offer. No one is under any obligation to > buy nor a fortiori to buy at any particular price.

Abaye read the Mishnah to mean that if the Levites' animals released the Israelites' animals, it followed a fortiori that the Levites' animals should release their own firstborn. But Rava countered that the Mishnah meant that the Levites themselves exempted the Israelites' firstborn.Babylonian Talmud Bekhorot 4a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli: Tractate Bechoros: Volume 1, elucidated by Abba Zvi Naiman et al.

The condition for a nonzero number mod p to be a quadratic non-residue is to be an odd power of a primitive root. The lemma therefore comes down to saying that i is odd when j is odd, which is true a fortiori, and j is odd when i is odd, which is true because p − 1 is even (p is odd).

Let him correct that which is crooked, and may his reward be doubled. Now, those who are greater than me, unto the dust of whose feet mine own dust is unable to attain, they [too] have been errant in several matters, yet, they are at ease and unmolested. How much more then, and a fortiori, me, who am imprisoned along with the children of my household.

This technique works for Example 2 because subalgebras and direct products of algebras of binary relations are themselves algebras of binary relations, showing that the class RRA of representable relation algebras is a quasivariety (and a fortiori an elementary class). This short proof is an effective application of abstract nonsense; the stronger result by Tarski that RRA is in fact a variety required more honest toil.

A fortiori, every module also admits projective and flat resolutions. The proof idea is to define E0 to be the free R-module generated by the elements of M, and then E1 to be the free R-module generated by the elements of the kernel of the natural map E0 -> M etc. Dually, every R-module possesses an injective resolution. Projective resolutions (and, more generally, flat resolutions) can be used to compute Tor functors.

He then gathered them up and they banished the evil spirit. It was a difficult time, and the lesson they brought away from this parable was that the spirits were created to not need help, and even so, they were asking for help. By way of an inference from minor to major premise (A fortiori), it should not be thought of as weakness for a man to seek assistance in these troubling times.

While he allowed that the Supreme Court might accept that argument, "it would be improvident for us to disregard clear judicial precedent in this Circuit based on mere speculation," he wrote. "We think that the orderly administration of justice will be best served if we as one of the inferior courts follow Supreme Court precedent and adhere to the settled law of this Circuit, and a fortiori the district courts should do likewise."McMahon, at 96–98.

This is called interpersonal utility comparison. Following Jeremy Bentham, utilitarians have argued that preferences and utility functions of individuals are interpersonally comparable and may therefore be added together to arrive at a measure of aggregate utility. Utilitarian ethics call for maximizing this aggregate. Lionel Robbins questioned whether mental states, and the utilities they reflect, can be measured and, a fortiori, interpersonal comparisons of utility as well as the social choice theory on which it is based.

Thereupon the convert reasoned a fortiori that if the injunction applied to all (non-priestly) Israelites, whom in God had called "my firstborn," how much more so would the injunction apply to a mere convert, who came among the Israelites with just his staff and bag. Then the convert returned to Shammai, quoted the injunction, and remarked on how absurd it had been for him to ask Shammai to appoint him High Priest.Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a. Reprinted in, e.g.

Thereupon the convert reasoned a fortiori that if the injunction applied to all (non-priestly) Israelites, whom in God had called "my firstborn," how much more so would the injunction apply to a mere convert, who came among the Israelites with just his staff and bag. Then the convert returned to Shammai, quoted the injunction, and remarked on how absurd it had been for him to ask Shammai to appoint him High Priest.Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a. In, e.g.

In mathematics, a sub-Riemannian manifold is a certain type of generalization of a Riemannian manifold. Roughly speaking, to measure distances in a sub- Riemannian manifold, you are allowed to go only along curves tangent to so- called horizontal subspaces. Sub-Riemannian manifolds (and so, a fortiori, Riemannian manifolds) carry a natural intrinsic metric called the metric of Carnot–Carathéodory. The Hausdorff dimension of such metric spaces is always an integer and larger than its topological dimension (unless it is actually a Riemannian manifold).

The bubble subsequently crashed before the end of the experiment. This laboratory bubble has been repeated hundreds of times in many economics laboratories in the world, with similar results. The existence of bubbles and crashes in such a simple context was unsettling for the economics community that tried to resolve the paradox on various features of the experiments. To address these issues Porter and Smith and others performed a series of experiments in which short selling, margin trading, professional traders all led to bubbles a fortiori.

Perpendicular bisector of a line segment. The point where the red line crosses the black line segment is equidistant from the two end points of the black line segment. The cyclic polygon P is circumscribed by the circle C. The circumcentre O is equidistant to each point on the circle, and a fortiori to each vertex of the polygon. A point is said to be equidistant from a set of objects if the distances between that point and each object in the set are equal.

The Euclidean group E(n) is a subgroup of the affine group for n dimensions, and in such a way as to respect the semidirect product structure of both groups. This gives, a fortiori, two ways of writing elements in an explicit notation. These are: # by a pair , with A an orthogonal matrix, and b a real column vector of size n; or # by a single square matrix of size , as explained for the affine group. Details for the first representation are given in the next section.

Summaries of the principles by which Torah can be interpreted date back to, at least, Hillel the Elder, although the thirteen principles set forth in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael are perhaps the best known. These principles ranged from standard rules of logic (e.g., a fortiori argument [known in Hebrew as קל וחומר – kal v'chomer]) to more expansive ones, such as the rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears (Gezerah Shavah). The rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to the various principles.

The Gemara explained that to reach his decision to separate himself from his wife, Moses applied an a fortiori (kal va-chomer) argument to himself. Moses noted that even though the Shechinah spoke with the Israelites on only one definite, appointed time (at Mount Sinai), God nonetheless instructed in , "Be ready against the third day: come not near a woman." Moses reasoned that if he heard from the Shechinah at all times and not only at one appointed time, how much more so should he abstain from marital contact.

Dr Graham certainly did not appreciate this as a risk. I accordingly find that by the standard of knowledge to be imputed to competent anaesthetists in 1947, Dr Graham was not negligent in failing to appreciate this risk and a fortiori the theatre staff were not negligent." Morris LJ "It is now known that there could be cracks not ordinarily detectable. But care has to be exercised to ensure that conduct in 1947 is only judged in the light of knowledge which then was or ought reasonably to have been possessed.

An alternate argument for the principle stems from model theory. A sentence P is a semantic consequence of a set of sentences \Gamma only if every model of \Gamma is a model of P. However, there is no model of the contradictory set (P \wedge \lnot P). A fortiori, there is no model of (P \wedge \lnot P) that is not a model of Q. Thus, vacuously, every model of (P \wedge \lnot P) is a model of Q. Thus Q is a semantic consequence of (P \wedge \lnot P).

The dimension of the coordinate space is , by the basis exhibited above. The dimension of the polynomial ring F[x] introduced above is countably infinite, a basis is given by , , , A fortiori, the dimension of more general function spaces, such as the space of functions on some (bounded or unbounded) interval, is infinite.The indicator functions of intervals (of which there are infinitely many) are linearly independent, for example. Under suitable regularity assumptions on the coefficients involved, the dimension of the solution space of a homogeneous ordinary differential equation equals the degree of the equation.

He alludes to the "Agenda Mortuorum" contained in a sacramentary, but nothing leads us to believe that he was its author. Alcuin is also known for his activity in liturgical matters, and we owe certain liturgical compositions to him; but there is no reason for considering him the author of this office (see Cabrol in "Dict. d'archéol. et de liturgie", s. v. Alcuin). In the Gregorian Antiphonary we do find a mass and an office in agenda mortuorum, but it is admitted that this part is an addition; a fortiori this applies to the Gelasian.

Possibly he stands within an Oriental tradition, > for which (so at least it looks like to a Western observer) man is not a > being radically separated form all others. For such a tradition man may feel > deeply united with animals, plants, and other types of beings. He can > therefore, conceive of them much more as "others" than we can. And the > phenomena Tsai produces are then, in their naive, plant-like Gestalten, > "true others" If I can dialogue with a plant (and Oriental tradition seems > to suggest this), then a fortiori, I can dialogue with the phenomena Tsai is > producing.

Since a sub-bimodule of an R-S bimodule M is a fortiori a left R-module, if M considered as a left R module were Artinian, then M is automatically an Artinian bimodule. It may happen, however, that a bimodule is Artinian without its left or right structures being Artinian, as the following example will show. Example: It is well known that a simple ring is left Artinian if and only if it is right Artinian, in which case it is a semisimple ring. Let R be a simple ring which is not right Artinian.

However, a number of problems are inherent in intentionalism, and a fortiori when that theory is applied to the Constitution. For example, most of the Founders did not leave detailed discussions of what their intent was in 1787, and while a few did, there is no reason to think that they should be dispositive of what the rest thought. Moreover, the discussions of the drafters may have been recorded; however they were not available to the ratifiers in each state. The theory of original intent was challenged in a string of law review articles in the 1980s.

If the graph is countable, the vertices are well-ordered and one can canonically choose the smallest suitable vertex. In this case, Kőnig's lemma is provable in second-order arithmetic with arithmetical comprehension, and, a fortiori, in ZF set theory (without choice). Kőnig's lemma is essentially the restriction of the axiom of dependent choice to entire relations R such that for each x there are only finitely many z such that xRz. Although the axiom of choice is, in general, stronger than the principle of dependent choice, this restriction of dependent choice is equivalent to a restriction of the axiom of choice.

A fortiori, the corresponding decision problem belongs to the class P of problems solvable in polynomial time. The GCD problem is not known to be in NC, and so there is no known way to parallelize it efficiently; nor is it known to be P-complete, which would imply that it is unlikely to be possible to efficiently parallelize GCD computation. Shallcross et al. showed that a related problem (EUGCD, determining the remainder sequence arising during the Euclidean algorithm) is NC-equivalent to the problem of integer linear programming with two variables; if either problem is in NC or is P-complete, the other is as well.

The non-Jew then went to Hillel, who converted him. The convert then read Torah, and when he came to the injunction of , 3:10, and 18:7 that "the common man who draws near shall be put to death," he asked Hillel to whom the injunction applied. Hillel answered that it applied even to David, King of Israel, who had not been a priest. Thereupon the convert reasoned a fortiori that if the injunction applied to all (non-priestly) Israelites, whom in God had called "my firstborn," how much more so would the injunction apply to a mere convert, who came among the Israelites with just his staff and bag.

Rather than validate enumerative induction—the futile task of showing it a deductive inference—Herbert Feigl as well as Hans Reichenbach, apparently independently, sought to vindicate it by showing it simply useful, either a "good" or the "best" method for the goal at hand, making predictions.Grover Maxwell, "Induction and empiricism: A Bayesian-frequentist alternative", in pp 106–65, Maxwell & Anderson, eds (U Minnesota P, 1975), pp 111–17. Feigl posed it as a rule, thus neither a priori nor a posteriori but a fortiori. Reichenbach's treatment, similar to Pascal's wager, posed it as entailing greater predictive success versus the alternative of not using it.

The advisory opinion by the court was seen to have set a possible precedent that could have far-reaching implications for separatist movements around the world, and even for Serbia's EU membership talks. It was also read as being likely to lead to more countries recognising Kosovo's independence. The ICJ itself limited the scope of its decision by stating that it "is not required by the question it has been asked to take a position on whether international law conferred a positive entitlement on Kosovo unilaterally to declare its independence or, a fortiori, on whether international law generally confers an entitlement on entities situated within a State unilaterally to break away from it" .

Williams, Donald C. 'William James and the Facts of Knowledge' In In Commemoration of William James 1842-1942, Columbia University Press, 1942, p. 99 This means that empiricism and realism are compatible. He thus endorsed ‘empirical realism’. He describes empirical realism as follows: > Our “empirical realism” is realistic in the most venerable sense, that it > affirms there is valid knowledge of the nature and existence of a world > distinct from our perceptions and independent of them, and a fortiori > distinct from and independent of our thought and speech about it, and yet > empiricistic in the classical sense that it affirms that all knowledge, > including this, consists of conceptual constructions collected from and > confirmed by sensory experience.

Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", translated by Naftali Greenwood. Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011, (page 266) Antisemitic ideological patterns had no hold in the ruling structure of the “Estado Novo” and a fortiori in the various strata of Portuguese society.Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", Publication Date: March 20, 2012 pp 13 Germany's invasion of France in 1940 brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on both Spain and Portugal.The New History of Portugal, H.V. Livermore, Cambridge University Press, 1969 On June 26, 1940 the main HIAS-HICEM (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorized by Salazar to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.

Moreover, according to Vesely, the notion of 'ground' can never provide us with an absolute knowledge of the whole, but only with a mediated understanding of spatial structure. This means that the task of uncovering the hidden nature of ground becomes, a fortiori, one of looking for a provisional ground that is beyond gravity as a natural source of spatial reference. The first long-term programme dealing with the consequences of the absence of gravity was developed already in 1973 by the NASA Skylab. Vesely reports how one of the greatest difficulties encountered by the astronauts is the constant loss of orientation that becomes a general difficulty in recognizing previously known situations.

Some evangelical groups borrowed Seder customs, like Haggadahs, and incorporated them in new rituals meant to mimic the Last Supper; likewise, many secularized Jews presume that the event was a Seder. This identification is somewhat erroneous, as although it was most likely a Passover Meal, it was according to the Second Temple Period customs and included the consumption of a full lamb. The earliest elements in the current Passover Seder (a fortiori the full-fledged ritual, which is first recorded in full only in the ninth century) are a rabbinic enactment instituted in remembrance of the Temple, which was still standing during the Last Supper.for example: Jesus Didn’t Eat a Seder Meal, Christianity Today, 6 April 2017.

Applying the theory of the Newton polygon for the -adic number field, for an Eisenstein polynomial, we are supposed to take the lower convex envelope of the points :, where is the -adic valuation of (i.e. the highest power of dividing it). Now the data we are given on the for , namely that they are at least one, is just what we need to conclude that the lower convex envelope is exactly the single line segment from to , the slope being . This tells us that each root of has -adic valuation and hence that is irreducible over the -adic field (since, for instance, no product of any proper subset of the roots has integer valuation); and a fortiori over the rational number field.

" Given the "background understanding" that failure to raise the defense of limitations constitutes waiver, "the statute implies that the usual forfeiture rule is applicable." Scalia distinguished the other affirmative defenses to habeas petitions as having been created as judicial doctrines by the courts, "in the exercise of their traditional equitable discretion, because they were seen as necessary to protect the interests of comity and finality that federal collateral review of state criminal proceedings necessarily implicates." None of these defenses involved a time limitation, and the one year limit in AEDPA "is entirely a recent creature of statute. If comity and finality did not compel any time limitation at all, it follows a fortiori that they do not compel making a legislatively created, forfeitable time limitation nonforfeitable.

Prior to the Japanese's arrival, the Puyuma tribe had a strong hunting culture and being part of hunting activities was often seen as a masculine role that most males are expected to partake in. However, effeminate males, also known as a fortiori, who do not partake in tribal hunting activities would often turn out to be pulingaws. These effeminate male pulingaws are in a way similar to the Samoan concept of fa'afafine, and some of them do in fact have children. The concept of homosexuality never existed within the Puyuma community and male pulingaws are still seen as men that would fulfil the appropriate gender roles when it comes to having sexual relations with another person, which would be women.

The ideal adherent was intended to develop equanimity, or Hishtavut in Hasidic parlance, toward all matters worldly, not ignoring them, but understanding their superficiality. Hasidic masters exhorted their followers to "negate themselves", paying as little heed as they could for worldly concerns, and thus, to clear the way for this transformation. The struggle and doubt of being torn between the belief in God's immanence and the very real sensual experience of the indifferent world is a key theme in the movement's literature. Many tracts have been devoted to the subject, acknowledging that the "callous and rude" flesh hinders one from holding fast to the ideal, and these shortcomings are extremely hard to overcome even in the purely intellectual level, a fortiori in actual life.

For example, the direct sum of the Ri form an ideal not contained in any such A, but the axiom of choice gives that it is contained in some maximal ideal which is a fortiori prime. An element x in R is a unit if and only if all of its components are units, i.e., if and only if is a unit in Ri for every i in I. The group of units of R is the product of the groups of units of Ri. A product of two or more non-zero rings always has nonzero zero divisors: if x is an element of the product whose coordinates are all zero except , and y is an element of the product with all coordinates zero except where , then in the product ring.

A second graph-theoretic description of the problem is also possible. Once the women have been seated, the possible seating arrangements for the remaining men can be described as perfect matchings in a graph formed by removing a single Hamiltonian cycle from a complete bipartite graph; the graph has edges connecting open seats to men, and the removal of the cycle corresponds to forbidding the men to sit in either of the open seats adjacent to their wives. The problem of counting matchings in a bipartite graph, and therefore a fortiori the problem of computing ménage numbers, can be solved using the permanents of certain 0-1 matrices. In the case of the ménage problem, the matrix arising from this view of the problem is the circulant matrix in which all but two adjacent elements of the generating row equal .

This is generalized by Lie's theorem, which shows that any representation of a solvable Lie algebra is simultaneously upper triangularizable, the case of commuting matrices being the abelian Lie algebra case, abelian being a fortiori solvable. More generally and precisely, a set of matrices A_1,\ldots,A_k is simultaneously triangularisable if and only if the matrix p(A_1,\ldots,A_k)[A_i,A_j] is nilpotent for all polynomials p in k non- commuting variables, where [A_i,A_j] is the commutator; for commuting A_i the commutator vanishes so this holds. This was proven in ; a brief proof is given in . One direction is clear: if the matrices are simultaneously triangularisable, then [A_i, A_j] is strictly upper triangularizable (hence nilpotent), which is preserved by multiplication by any A_k or combination thereof – it will still have 0s on the diagonal in the triangularizing basis.

The Black–Scholes formula can be interpreted fairly handily, with the main subtlety the interpretation of the N(d_\pm) (and a fortiori d_\pm) terms, particularly d_+ and why there are two different terms. The formula can be interpreted by first decomposing a call option into the difference of two binary options: an asset-or-nothing call minus a cash-or- nothing call (long an asset-or-nothing call, short a cash-or-nothing call). A call option exchanges cash for an asset at expiry, while an asset-or-nothing call just yields the asset (with no cash in exchange) and a cash-or-nothing call just yields cash (with no asset in exchange). The Black–Scholes formula is a difference of two terms, and these two terms equal the values of the binary call options.

A general criticism of non-probabilistic decision rules, discussed in detail at decision theory: alternatives to probability theory, is that optimal decision rules (formally, admissible decision rules) can always be derived by probabilistic methods, with a suitable utility function and prior distribution (this is the statement of the complete class theorems), and thus that non-probabilistic methods such as info-gap are unnecessary and do not yield new or better decision rules. A more general criticism of decision making under uncertainty is the impact of outsized, unexpected events, ones that are not captured by the model. This is discussed particularly in black swan theory, and info-gap, used in isolation, is vulnerable to this, as are a fortiori all decision theories that use a fixed universe of possibilities, notably probabilistic ones. In criticism specific to info-gap, Sniedovich raises two objections to info-gap decision theory, one substantive, one scholarly: ;1.

Criticism of the Washington Consensus has often been dismissed as socialism and/or anti- globalism. While these philosophies do criticize these policies, general criticism of the economics of the consensus is now more widely established, such as that outlined by US scholar Dani Rodrik, Professor of International Political Economy at Harvard University, in his paper Goodbye Washington Consensus, Hello Washington Confusion?. Williamson has summarized the overall results on growth, employment and poverty reduction in many countries as "disappointing, to say the least". He attributes this limited impact to three factors: (a) the Consensus per se placed no special emphasis on mechanisms for avoiding economic crises, which have proved very damaging; (b) the reforms—both those listed in his article and, a fortiori, those actually implemented—were incomplete; and (c) the reforms cited were insufficiently ambitious with respect to targeting improvements in income distribution, and need to be complemented by stronger efforts in this direction.

This is not only administratively time-consuming and expensive, but also means that European patents granted in accordance with a unitary procedure can be valid in different versions in different contracting states, which makes their legal enforcement on the one hand and the monitoring of protective rights on the other considerably more difficult." The EPC of 1973 made no provision for a limitation procedure, and a fortiori no provision for centrally limiting a European patent before the EPO after the nine-month period for filing an opposition (nine months as from the date of grant of the European patent). The travaux préparatoires laid out the rationale for a limitation procedure: :"Limitation proceedings would enable patentees to narrow down the protection conferred by a patent post-grant by means of a simple, quick and inexpensive administrative procedure. For example, it may be necessary to limit a granted patent if, because of prior art which was not known during the examination proceedings or prior national rights not taken into account in these proceedings, the extent of the protection conferred is too great.

This implies that a difference in qualia could emerge in human action (for example, the son could warn the father of a high-pitched escape of a dangerous gas kept under pressure, the sound-waves of which would be producing no qualia evidence at all for the father). The relevance for language thus becomes critical, for an informative statement can best be understood as an updating of a perception—and this may involve a radical re-selection from the qualia fields viewed as non-epistemic, even perhaps of the presumed singularity of "the" referent, a fortiori if that "referent" is the self. Here he distinguishes his view from that of Revonsuo, who too readily makes his "virtual space" "egocentric". Wright's particular emphasis has been on what he asserts is a core feature of communication, that, in order for an updating to be set up and made possible, both speaker and hearer have to behave as if they have identified "the same singular thing", which, he notes, partakes of the structure of a joke or a story.

According to Lalor a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration whereas the absence of either (or a fortiori both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is rhetoric, providing for public goods, and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts, producing public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.Lalor, Stephen A General Theory of Public Administration (2014) The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them".