571 Sentences With "vertebral column" | Random Sentence Generator

Hinged to a black vertebral column, they form a striking, if provisional, alignment.

Since hagfish don't have a vertebral column, they can tie their own bodies in a knot when grabbed, leaving their foes empty-handed (not counting the goo, of course).

The fossil includes a complete skull, most of the vertebral column, fore and hind limb elements, bony body armor neck rings and spiked armor plates and a complete tail club.

The New York native has had 18 surgeries since he was six years old to help correct his kyphoscoliosis — a deformity of the spine characterized by abnormal curvature of the vertebral column.

He was immediately taken to Dr. Lawrence Lenke, a world-renowned spinal surgeon at New York-Presbyterian, who said "John's spine is bending by the hour" and he needed vertebral column resection (VCR) surgery.

Called a vertebral column resection, Lenke would separate John's spine into different sections, remove two vertebrae at the very center of the severe kyphosis, then straighten the spine as he brought the pieces back together.

The Dikika child, also known as "Selam," consists of a skull, a nearly complete vertebral column with ribs, shoulder bones, parts of her arms and legs, and the foot, which is considered the most complete foot of an ancient child ever discovered.

"When we lifted the flap at the back of the neck, we could see that the whole purpose of that was to access the key joint that would preserve both the head and the vertebral column, thereby maximizing the profitability of both," Vitali said.

"Ornithischian dinosaurs—the horned, dome-headed, armored, and duckbilled dinos and their early relatives—have been recognized for over a century by a set of specialized features: pubic bones in the pelvis that tilt backward instead of forward, to make room for a big digestive tract; a predentary bone at the tip of the lower jaw to help support the beak; and tendons along the backbone that had turned to bone, to help support the vertebral column and the big gut," he told Gizmodo.

The intercentra of the region where the vertebral column contacts the shoulder girdle are flat anteriorly and posteriorly. The neural arches have almost vertically set prezygapophyses (vide postcervical vertebrae). This suggests that in this region the lateral bending of the vertebral column was very limited. It was probably connected through articulation of the vertebral column with the shoulder girdle.

The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column is the defining characteristic of a vertebrate in which the notochord (a flexible rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of bone: vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses and protects the spinal cord. There are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column.

The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples.

The psoas minor is a weak flexor of the lumbar vertebral column.

Cervical vertebrae make up the junction between the vertebral column and the cranium. Sacral and coccygeal vertebras are fused and thus often called "sacral bone" or "coccygeal bone" as unit. The sacral bone makes up the junction between the vertebral column and the pelvic bones.

The supraspinous ligament, also known as the supraspinal ligament, is a ligament found along the vertebral column.

The contraction of the longissimus and transverso-spinalis muscles causes the ventral arching of the vertebral column.

The urostyle is a long rod-like bone forming the posterior unsegmented continuation of the vertebral column.

Marine vertebrates are vertebrates that live in marine environments. These are the marine fish and the marine tetrapods (primarily seabirds, marine reptiles, and marine mammals). Vertebrates are a subphylum of chordates that have a vertebral column (backbone). The vertebral column provides the central support structure for an internal skeleton.

A study of the vertebral column and median fin osteology in gobioid fishes with comments on gobioid relationships.

The posterior median sulcus is the groove in the dorsal side, and the anterior median fissure is the groove in the ventral side. In the upper part of the vertebral column, spinal nerves exit directly from the spinal cord, whereas in the lower part of the vertebral column nerves pass further down the column before exiting. The terminal portion of the spinal cord is called the conus medullaris. The pia mater continues as an extension called the filum terminale, which anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx. The cauda equina (“horse’s tail”) is the name for the collection of nerves in the vertebral column that continue to travel through the vertebral column below the conus medullaris.

Fully broadened neural arches act as more stable and sturdier sites for these connections, creating a strong link between the vertebral column and cranium.Dasilao, J., & Yamaoka, K. (1998). Development Of The Vertebral Column And Caudal Complex In A Flyingfish, Parexocoetus Mento Mento (Teleostei: Exocoetidae). Ichthyological Research, 45(3), 303-308.

The other pair at the end of the vertebral column pump lymph into the iliac vein in the legs.

The ascending lumbar vein is a vein that runs up through the lumbar region on the side of the vertebral column.

It is also found in several fossil groups such as plesiosaurians, nothosaurians and pachypleurosaurians. It is absent in today's Monitor lizard (Varanus), but occurs in fossil Varanids. The zygosphene-zygantrum joint's function is to stabilize the vertebral column. While it permits horizontal and vertical movements of the vertebral column, it prevents rotations of the single vertebrae against each other.

The vertebral column consists of at least 19 presacral vertebrae, the last 6 of these being dorsals.Elżanowski, A. (1981): Embryonic Bird Skeletons from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. Palaeontologica Polonica 42, 147-179. The neural spines of the twelfth and thirteenth vertebrae form the nuchal blade, which represents the point of greatest elevation in the vertebral column.

The supraspinous ligament, along with the posterior longitudinal ligament, interspinous ligaments and ligamentum flavum, help to limit hyperflexion of the vertebral column.

The ribs are characterized by their needle like shape. Generally associated with the vertebrae, the ribs are technically not articulated to them. The upper third along the vertebral column are straight in shape, followed by a section of distinctive 120 degree bending, and then a return to the original straight form. The length of the ribs increases through the vertebral column.

Hagfishes lack a true vertebral column, and are therefore not properly considered vertebrates, but a few tiny neural arches are present in the tail.

Aegicetus is intermediate in time and form, and transitional functionally in having the larger and more powerful vertebral column of a tail-powered swimmer.

The tendinous intersections, in conjunction with the rectus abdominis, function to provide varying degrees of forward flexion to the lumbar region of the vertebral column, producing forward bending at the waist. Forward flexion results in a decreased angle between the trunk and lower body. The anatomical segmentation of the rectus abdominis into three pairs of muscles and the positioning of these three pairs of muscles at different levels along the lumbar region (which are created by the tendinous intersections) are responsible for the forward flexion of the vertebral column: #As the superior (or proximal) pair of rectus abdominis muscles contract, the vertebral column is able to slightly flex forward. #If more forward flexion is needed, the middle pair of rectus abdominis muscles can contract along with the distal pair to allow the vertebral column to flex forward even farther.

The holotype specimen BYU 13258 is composed of a partial but mostly articulated skeleton, which includes the skull, the vertebral column and a partial pelvis.

Cobb angle measurement of a levoscoliosis The Cobb angle is a measurement of bending disorders of the vertebral column such as scoliosis and traumatic deformities.

Plan of sacral and pudendal plexuses The sacral nerves are the five pairs of spinal nerves which exit the sacrum at the lower end of the vertebral column. The roots of these nerves begin inside the vertebral column at the level of the L1 vertebra, where the cauda equina begins, and then descend into the sacrum.1\. Anatomy, descriptive and surgical: Gray's anatomy. Gray, Henry.

Skeleton of a dog showing the location of the ribs Rib cage of the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) In fish, there are often two sets of ribs attached to the vertebral column. One set, the dorsal ribs, are found in the dividing septum between the upper and lower parts of the main muscle segments, projecting roughly sideways from the vertebral column. The second set, the ventral ribs arise from the vertebral column just below the dorsal ribs, and enclose the lower body, often joining at the tips. Not all species possess both types of rib, with the dorsal ribs being most commonly absent.

The hemiazygos vein (vena azygos minor inferior) is a vein running superiorly in the lower thoracic region, just to the left side of the vertebral column.

The most striking feature of this species to distinguish easily by the creamy stripe running through the vertebral column from tip of the snout to tail end.

The tightly interlocking osteoderms along the back of Permian chroniosuchians were likely an adaptation to terrestrial locomotion. The plates made the vertebral column more rigid, allowing it to better cope with stresses from shearing, torsion, compression, and tension. However, the increased stability of the vertebral column resulted in less flexibility. In Madygenerpeton, the increased flexibility of the trunk may have been an adaptation to a secondarily aquatic lifestyle.

Vertebral anatomy of the holotype skeleton. Top: Sixth dorsal vertebra in back (A) and right side view (B). Bottom: Second caudal vertebra in back (C) and side view (D). Though the vertebral column of the trunk or torso is incompletely known, the back of Brachiosaurus most likely comprised twelve dorsal vertebrae; this can be inferred from the complete dorsal vertebral column preserved in an unnamed brachiosaurid specimen, BMNH R5937.

The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column. The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the spinal canal, formed from a central hole within each vertebra. The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system that supplies nerves and receives information from the peripheral nervous system within the body. The spinal cord consists of grey and white matter and a central cavity, the central canal.

Segments of Vertebrae Vertebrae take their names from the regions of the vertebral column that they occupy. There are thirty-three vertebrae in the human vertebral column—seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, five fused sacral vertebrae forming the sacrum and three to five coccygeal vertebrae, forming the coccyx. The regional vertebrae increase in size as they progress downwards but become smaller in the coccyx.

A row of bony supraneuralia is present behind the head, at each side of the vertebral column. Uroneuralia at the tail are unknown. No bony scales are present.

The vertebral column of Jianianhualong is nearly complete. However, individual vertebrae are not always possible to discern. The neck (i.e. the cervical vertebrae) is long, the torso (i.e.

What counts as a synapomorphy for one clade may well be a primitive character or plesiomorphy at a less inclusive or nested clade. For example, the presence of mammary glands is a synapomorphy for mammals in relation to tetrapods but is a symplesiomorphy for mammals in relation to one another—rodents and primates, for example. So the concept can be understood as well in terms of "a character newer than" (autapomorphy) and "a character older than" (plesiomorphy) the apomorphy: mammary glands are evolutionarily newer than vertebral column, so mammary glands are an autapomorphy if vertebral column is an apomorphy, but if mammary glands are the apomorphy being considered then vertebral column is a plesiomorphy.

The cranial simplification combined with the shortening of the vertebral column and shift towards a partly firmisternal girdle may be adaptations to the peculiar tumbling behaviour displayed by Oreophrynella.

The vertebral column of humans takes a forward bend in the lumbar (lower) region and a backward bend in the thoracic (upper) region. Without the lumbar curve, the vertebral column would always lean forward, a position that requires much more muscular effort for bipedal animals. With a forward bend, humans use less muscular effort to stand and walk upright. Together the lumbar and thoracic curves bring the body's center of gravity directly over the feet.

Differences result from proportions skull-length/stature and length of vertebral column/length of limbs. A well-developed clavicle is extant. Scaphoid, lunar and central are distinct. Metatarsals are elongated.

Within the vertebral column (spine) of vertebrates, including the human spine, each bone has an opening at both its top and bottom to allow nerves, arteries, veins, etc. to pass through.

In 2016 it was reported that the waterfall climbing cave fish walks with a tetrapod-like diagonal-couplets lateral sequence gait, displaying a robust pelvic girdle attached to the vertebral column.

A similar depression can be seen on the massive neural arches, running from the prezygapophyses to the postzygapophysis. These depressions allowed the vertebral column to be lighter while still retaining a sturdy build.

Additional joints like the hyposphene-hypantrum articulations, which add rigidity to the vertebral column, are found in several different reptile lineages; a known example are the zygosphene-zygantrum articulations found in snakes. Hyposphene-hypantrum articulations are found in several unrelated groups within the Archosauromorpha. They occur especially in large forms, for example in rauisuchids and in silesaurids and – within the Dinosauria – in saurischians. They evolved to make the vertebral column more rigid and stable and probably had supported the gigantism in sauropod dinosaurs.

In the human vertebral column the size of the vertebrae varies according to placement in the vertebral column, spinal loading, posture and pathology. Along the length of the spine the vertebrae change to accommodate different needs related to stress and mobility.McGraw-Hill Science and Technology Each vertebra is an irregular bone. Side view of vertebrae Every vertebra has a body, which consists of a large anterior middle portion called the centrum (plural centra) and a posterior vertebral arch, also called a neural arch.

This allows the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear. A fully functioning Weberian apparatus consists of the swim bladder, the Weberian ossicles, a portion of the anterior vertebral column, and some muscles and ligaments.

The partitioning of the vertebral column followed that of most maniraptorans. The neck was very long with elongated cervical vertebrae. The tail was relatively long. The arm was moderately long with a somewhat robust humerus.

Skeletal restoration by Williston The locomotion of Cacops aspidephorus has been explored through two studies by David Dilkes. Two series of osteoderms of the presacral vertebral column affect the biomechanics of the axial skeleton. Cacops have an internal series, which consist of an osteoderm fused to the distal tips of each neural spine and an external series, which lie dorsal to and between the segments of the internal series. The portions of the vertebral column with osteoderms had limited lateral flexion, thus limiting lateral movement.

Two fossil specimens of Sclerothorax were discovered in the German state of Hesse in the 1920s. German paleontologist Friedrich von Huene studied the remains and named the new genus and species Sclerothorax hypselonotus in 1932. The holotype specimen preserved only the vertebral column, but was identifiable as a temnospondyl by its rhachitomous vertebrae and as a new species by its tall neural spines. Huene's second specimen included a complete skull, pectoral girdle, and back portion of the dorsal vertebral column that was also clearly a temnospondyl.

The vertebral column in bowfin is ossified and in comparison to earlier fish, the centra are the major support for the body, whereas in earlier fish the notochord was the main form of support. Neural spines and ribs provide additional support and help stabilize unpaired fins. In bowfin neural spines and ribs also increase in prominence, an evolutionary aspect that helps them stabilize unpaired fins. The evolution of the vertebral column allows the bowfin to withstand lateral bending that puts the column under compression without breaking.

It is known only from the early Triassic of Poland. Its vertebral column may have been short as in other salientians, but the exact count is unknown. It had a short tail, and an elongated ilium.

The accessory hemiazygos vein, also called the superior hemiazygous veinis a vein on the left side of the vertebral column that generally drains the fourth through eighth intercostal spaces on the left side of the body.

Its back was described as ridged and saw-like, a configuration similar to the appearance of a fossil vertebral column eroding from rock. In more recent times Lakota storyteller James LaPointe has explicitly called Unktehi a dinosaur.

Humans have a "tail bone" (the coccyx) attached to the pelvis; it comprises fused vertebrae, usually four, at the bottom of the vertebral column. It does not normally protrude externally - humans are an acaudal (or acaudate ) species.

A laminotomy is an orthopaedic neurosurgical procedure that removes part of the lamina of a vertebral arch in order to relieve pressure in the vertebral canal. A laminotomy is less invasive than conventional vertebral column surgery techniques, such as laminectomy because it leaves more ligaments and muscles attached to the vertebral column intact and it requires removing less bone from the vertebra. As a result, laminotomies typically have a faster recovery time and result in fewer postoperative complications. Nevertheless, possible risks can occur during or after the procedure like infection, hematomas, and dural tears.

University of Texas at Austin. 553 pp. Paul Sereno et al. (1993), supported the notion that Eoraptor was an adult specimen based on the closure of sutures in the vertebral column, and the partial fusion of the scapulocoracoid.

This muscle's origin is the lumbodorsal fascia and ribs. Its insertion is at the pubis and linea alba (via aponeurosis), and its action is the compression of abdominal contents. It also laterally flexes and rotates the vertebral column.

Barsboldia (meaning "of Barsbold", a well-known Mongolian paleontologist) was a genus of large hadrosaurid dinosaur from the early Maastrichtian Nemegt Formation of Ömnogöv', Mongolia. It is known from a partial vertebral column, partial pelvis, and some ribs.

Their marked elasticity serves to preserve the upright posture, and to assist the vertebral column in resuming it after flexion. The elastin prevents buckling of the ligament into the spinal canal during extension, which would cause canal compression.

The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It is a complex structure with two distinct divisions; the axial skeleton, which includes the vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton.

Human Vertebral Column Vertebra Superior View The spinal cord is housed in a bony hollow tube called the vertebral column.McKinley, Michael; O'Loughlin, Valerie; Pennefather-O'Brian, Elizabeth; Harris, Ronald (2015). Human Anatomy (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. pp. 204–213. .

Size compared to a human Eurhinosaurus was a large-bodied, small-toothed, slender ichthyosaur. The vertebral column was composed of roughly 50 precaudal, 45 tail stock and less than 100 fluke vertebrae. Emily A. Buchholtz 2000. Swimming styles in Jurassic Ichthyosaurs.

It is a large retroperitoneal vein that lies posterior to the abdominal cavity and runs along the right side of the vertebral column. It enters the right auricle at the lower right, back side of the heart. The name derives from .

An initial incision is made down the middle of the back exposing the vertebrae on which the laminotomy will be performed. In this procedure, the spinous process and the ligaments of the vertebral column are kept intact, but the muscles adjacent to the vertebral column known as the paraspinous muscles (example: spinalis muscle) must be separated from the spinous process and vertebral arch. In a unilateral laminotomy, these muscles are detached only from the side on which the laminotomy is being performed. During a bilateral laminotomy, these muscles must be removed on both sides of the vertebrae.

The anterior back was curved toward the ground, with the neck flexed upward and the rest of the back and tail held horizontally. Most of the back and tail were lined by ossified tendons arranged in a latticework along the neural spines of the vertebrae. This condition has been described as making the back and at least part of the tail "ramrod" straight. The ossified tendons are interpreted as having strengthened the vertebral column against gravitational stress, incurred through being a large animal with a horizontal vertebral column otherwise supported mostly by the hind legs and hips.

S. novomexicanum appears to have been smaller than S. validum, but it is disputed whether the known specimens (incomplete skulls) are adults or juveniles. The vertebral column of Stegoceras is incompletely known. The articulation between the zygagophyses (articular processes) of successive dorsal (back) vertebrae appears to have prevented sideways movement of the vertebral column, which made it very rigid, and it was further strengthened by . Though the neck vertebrae are not known, the downturned occipital condyle (which articulates with the first neck vertebra) indicates that the neck was held in a curved posture, like the "S"- or "U"-shape of most dinosaur necks.

Its body is short and cylindrical, and the tail is very short. The dorsal scales are smooth, without apical pits, in 19 [or 17] rows. Ventral scales are rounded; the subcaudals occur in two rows. The vertebral column has hypapophyses developed throughout.

Robertia had either two or three sacral vertebrae. The vertebral column was flexible, the pre- zygapophyses being flat and wide and articulating horizontally with the post- zygapophyses. The tail is only slightly muscular and is about one-eighth the length of the body.

This includes the caudal region of the vertebral column. Slender ribs attached have holocephalous heads joined by a web of bones. The proximal ends are slender while the heads are triangular in shape. Very slender gastralia are present in the aggregate fossil.

In humans, the occipitofrontalis only serves for facial expressions. In apes, however, the head is not balanced on the vertebral column, and apes therefore need strong muscles that pull back on the skull and prominent supraorbital ridges for the attachment of these muscles.

The coloring on the dorsal side contains stripes, bands, and spots near or on where the vertebral column is located. The coloring on the ventral side are white, light yellow, deep orange, or green. The tails of juveniles are often bright green or blue.

The vertebral column consists of irregular bones. # Sesamoids: Bones embedded within a tendon. The horse's proximal digital sesamoids are simply called the "sesamoid bones" by horsemen, his distal digital sesamoid is referred to as the navicular bone. Ligaments and tendons hold the skeletal system together.

Pseudhesperosuchus is based on PVL 3830\. This specimen consists of a skull and lower jaws, most of the vertebral column, the shoulder girdle, and parts of the arms and legs. The genus was named by José Bonaparte in 1969. The type species is P. jachaleri.

The vertebral column consisted of eleven cervical, twelve dorsal, five sacral and at least forty-nine caudal vertebrae. The point of the tail is missing. In the tail, the spines and chevrons strongly inclined to the back. The gastralia had very short lateral segments.

Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots. As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column, the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina. There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges: Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb.

A complete Basilosaurus skeleton was found in 2015, and several attempts have been made to reconstruct the vertebral column from partial skeletons. estimated a total of 58 vertebrae, based on two partial and nonoverlapping skeletons of B. cetoides from Alabama. More complete fossils uncovered in Egypt in the 1990s allowed a more accurate estimation: the vertebral column of B. isis has been reconstructed from three overlapping skeletons to a total of 70 vertebrae with a vertebral formula interpreted as seven cervical, 18 thoracic, 20 lumbar and sacral, and 25 caudal vertebrae. The vertebral formula of B. cetoides can be assumed to be the same.

1962; 4th ed. 1970) The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, in which the notochord (a stiff rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of stiffer elements (vertebrae) separated by mobile joints (intervertebral discs, derived embryonically and evolutionarily from the notochord). However, a few fish have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon. The vertebral column consists of a centrum (the central body or spine of the vertebra), vertebral arches which protrude from the top and bottom of the centrum, and various processes which project from the centrum or arches.

Functional coupling takes the idea that organisms are integrated networks of functional interactions (for example, the vertebral column of vertebrates is involved in the muscle, nerve, and vascular systems as well as providing support and flexibility) and therefore cannot be radically altered without causing severe functional disruption. This may be viewed as one type of trade-off. As Rupert Riedl pointed out, this degree of functional constraint — or burden — generally varies according to position in the organism. Structures literally in the centre of the organism — such as the vertebral column — are often more burdened than those at the periphery, such as hair or toes.

Tiludronate has been used primarily for the treatment of diseases in horses that are associated with inappropriate osteolysis, such as navicular disease and osteoarthritis. It has specifically been shown to improve lameness in horses with osteoarthritis of the distal hock joints (bone spavin) and vertebral column.

Size comparison The vertebral column consists of nine cervical vertebrae, fourteen dorsals and five sacrals. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown. The cervical vertebrae of the neck are strongly pneumatised. They possess pleurocoels at their sides and their insides are hollowed out by large air chambers.

The hindlimbs were much larger than the forelimbs, and in the pelvis the ilium lacked a bony connection to the vertebral column (a classic feature of aquatic tetrapods). The tail, only known from a few vertebrae fragments, is assumed to have been long and laterally compressed.

The rhomboid major is a skeletal muscle on the back that connects the scapula with the vertebrae of the spinal column. In human anatomy, it acts together with the rhomboid minor to keep the scapula pressed against thoracic wall and to retract the scapula toward the vertebral column.

An intervertebral disc (or intervertebral fibrocartilage) lies between adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column. Each disc forms a fibrocartilaginous joint (a symphysis), to allow slight movement of the vertebrae, to act as a ligament to hold the vertebrae together, and to function as a shock absorber for the spine.

SAM 7416, another paratype, consists of an articulated vertebral column composed of the last dozen presacrals, both sacrals and at least the first 15 caudal vertebrae, fragments of right forelimb, pelvic girdle, complete right femur, right crus and partial left crus, and right and left tarsi and pedes.

Spondyloarthropathy or spondyloarthrosis refers to any joint disease of the vertebral column. As such, it is a class or category of diseases rather than a single, specific entity. It differs from spondylopathy, which is a disease of the vertebra itself. However, many conditions involve both spondylopathy and spondyloarthropathy.

Currently only S. validum and S. novomexicanum, named in 2011 from fossils found in New Mexico, remain. The validity of the latter species has also been debated. Stegoceras was a small, bipedal dinosaur about long, and weighed around . It had a rigid vertebral column, and a stiffened tail.

The cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine is composed of a total of 24 presacral vertebrae and their main functions are to protect the spinal cord, provide an attachment site for many muscles of the body. They also function by distributing one's bodyweight when standing upright."Vertebral column". Encyclopædia Britannica.

Modern human hip joints are larger than in quadrupedal ancestral species to better support the greater amount of body weight passing through them, as well as having a shorter, broader shape. This alteration in shape brought the vertebral column closer to the hip joint, providing a stable base for support of the trunk while walking upright. Also, because bipedal walking requires humans to balance on a relatively unstable ball and socket joint, the placement of the vertebral column closer to the hip joint allows humans to invest less muscular effort in balancing. Change in the shape of the hip may have led to the decrease in the degree of hip extension, an energy efficient adaptation.

The hip of Cricosaurus araucanensis contains several features that create an unusually large pelvic opening. The acetabulum, or femur articulation on the hip, is placed very far towards of the bottom of the body relative to the vertebral column, and the sacral ribs are angled downwards at 45°, further increasing the distance between the vertebral column and the pubis-ischium. The hip was effectively a vertical ellipse in cross-section, being tall and wide. In other pseudosuchians like Steneosaurus, Machimosaurus, and Pelagosaurus, the sacral ribs are less angled and more horizontal; in this way, Cricosaurus is actually more similar to aquatic reptiles like Chaohusaurus, Utatsusaurus, and Keichousaurus, the latter of which live birth has been suggested for.

In combination with the strong occiput of the skull, this interlocking resulted in a stiffening of the front section of the vertebral column. Such stiffening can be observed in other thunnosaurian ichthyosaurs, though not to the degree seen in Acamptonectes. The neural arches of the vertebrae feature narrow pre- and postzygapophyses (articular processes) that are unpaired (fused into a single element) in the whole vertebral column; this is in contrast to Platypterygius hercynicus and Sveltonectes, where these processes are paired in the front part of the column. The neural spines (upwards projections) are of variable height; in some dorsals they are markedly longer, reaching 1.25 times the height of the largest centrum.

This specimen consists of large portions of the tail, left forelimb, hip, and hindlimbs. Other Marasuchus fossils are stored at the PVL as well. PVL 3870 includes skull material, the entire presacral vertebral column, and a nearly complete hip and hindlimbs. PVL 3872 is a braincase and associated cervical (neck) vertebrae.

Due to the more wooded barren savannahs of northern Africa, O. tugenensis and australopiths began to change, which is evident in morphological data accumulated from the remains of the different species. These major morphological changes differentiate them from pronograde hominin seen in the skull, vertebral column, pelvis, and femur fossils.

If they had a vertebral column at all, it would have been cartilage rather than bone. Likely, the axial skeleton consisted of an unsegmented notochord. A fleshy appendage emerged laterally on each side, behind the head shield, functioning as pectoral fins. The tail had a single, wrap-around tail- fin.

Craniate: Hagfish Craniates all have distinct skulls. They include the hagfish, which have no vertebrae. Michael J. Benton commented that "craniates are characterized by their heads, just as chordates, or possibly all deuterostomes, are by their tails". Most craniates are vertebrates, in which the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column.

A new rauisuchian reptile (Diapsida: Archosauria) from the Late Triassic of Poland. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25(1):78–86. It also had a hyposphene-hypantrum articulation that gave the vertebral column extra rigidity. This feature is also seen in several other rauisuchians such as Postosuchus as well as saurischian dinosaurs.

Feathers are preserved alongside the entire vertebral column of Jianianhualong. On the bottom of the neck, feathers are preserved with a length of at least . Those along the back and over the hip are longer, with a length of about . Behind the tibia, there are also some feathers measuring in length.

Invertebrates lack a vertebral column, and some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton. As on land and in the air, marine invertebrates have a large variety of body plans, and have been categorised into over 30 phyla. They make up most of the macroscopic life in the oceans.

Under the new US regulations (69 FR 1862, January 12, 2004), SRMs are: the brain, skull, eyes, trigeminal ganglia, spinal cord, vertebral column (with some exclusions), dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of cattle 30 months of age and older, and the tonsils and distal ileum of the small intestine of all cattle.

This ultimately allows a rigid and sturdy vertebral column (body) that is beneficial in flight. Having a rigid body during glided flight gives the flying fish aerodynamic advantages, increasing its speed and improving its aim. Furthermore, flying fish have developed vertebral columns and ossified caudal complexes.Dasilao, J. C., & Sasaki, K. (1998).

Movement is not limited to only synovial joints, although they allow for most freedom. Muscles also run over symphysis, which allow for movement in for example the vertebral column by compression of the intervertebral discs. Additionally, synovial joints can be divided into different types, depending on their axis of movement.

A major tributary is the hemiazygos vein, a similar structure on the opposite side of the vertebral column. Other tributaries include the bronchial veins, pericardial veins, and posterior right intercostal veins. It communicates with the vertebral venous plexuses. The origin and anatomical course of the azygos vein are quite variable.

Scoliosis: Review of diagnosis and treatment; Joseph A Janicki, Benjamin Alman, 2007. Scoliosis is also classified according to the region(s) they affect. The vertebral column can be deformed at the thoracic level, at the lumbar level or at both. In the lumbar region, scoliosis induces perturbations to standing balance.

A relatively primitive sauropod identified as a "cetiosaur" when first discovered in 1981, Atlasaurus appears to be closer to Brachiosaurus than to any other known sauropod based on detailed similarities between the vertebral column and limbs. However, more recent analyses have considered it to be a putative member of the Turiasauria.

That year, first several ribs were uncovered and later part of the vertebral column. In October, close to some neck vertebrae a skull and lower jaws were discovered. From 5 June 1912 onwards more neck and trunk vertebrae were found. Initially it was thought that a single skeleton was being uncovered.

He realised that playing could be more comfortable if the instrument is held from the both end facilitating to play finest Meend (sliding), Gamak and other technical applications. Other aspect was to avoid the 'Excessive Flexion' of the vertebral column of the performer, instead of resting violin somewhere of the body.

Exact knowledge of scalation of Pachyophis is not definitive. Scale repetition is defined in transverse rows, running parallel to one at notable right angles to the cervical vertebral column. Each bulge believed to be a scale is approximately 2.2mm in length, with minimal thickness and spacing between neighbors of about 0.8mm.

D. spurensis compared to a human Desmatosuchus was a large quadruped upwards of 4.5 meters in length. Its vertebral column had amphicoelus centra and 3 sacral vertebrae. The scapulae had large acromion processes. The forelimbs were much shorter than the hindlimbs, with humeri less than two-thirds the length of the femurs.

It usually presents in the vertebral column or long bones. Approximately 40% of all osteoblastomas are located in the spine. The tumors usually involve the posterior elements, and 17% of spinal osteoblastomas are found in the sacrum. The long tubular bones are another common site of involvement, with a lower extremity preponderance.

The shell is not an exoskeleton, but a modified ribcage and part of the vertebral column. Because of the shell, the pectoral and pelvic girdles are located within the ribcage. The limb bones are also modified to accommodate to the shell. The earliest known turtles are from fossils in the Upper Triassic.

The crus of diaphragm (pl. crura), refers to one of two tendinous structures that extends below the diaphragm to the vertebral column. There is a right crus and a left crus, which together form a tether for muscular contraction. They take their name from their leg-shaped appearance – crus meaning leg in Latin.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) A/G variant rs10440635 close to the PTGER4 gene on human chromosome 5 has been associated with an increased incidence of Ankylosing spondylitis in a population recruited from the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. Ankylosing spondylitis is a chronic inflammatory disease involving excessive bone deposition in the Vertebral column and increased expression of EP4 at vertebral column sites of involvement. Thus, excessive EP4 activation may contribute to the pathological bone remodeling and deposition found in ankylosing spondylitis and the rs10440635 variant may predispose to this disease by influencing EP4's production or expression pattern. The GG genotype at -1254G>A in PTGER4 is associated with the non- steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-exacerbated cutaneous disease (NECD).

The former is a partial skeleton consisting of a well-preserved set of jaws, a pair of five gills, and some vertebra while the latter is a near-complete skeleton with an almost complete vertebral column and an exceptionally preserved skull holding much of the cranial elements, jaws, teeth, a set of scales, and fragments of pectoral girdles and fins in their natural positions. Both skeletons are currently housed in the Sternberg Museum of Natural History. In 1968, a collector named Tim Basgall discovered another notable skeleton that, similar to FHSM VP-2187, also consisted of a near- complete vertebral column and a partially preserved skull. This fossil is housed in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History as KUVP 69102.

According to these researchers, the shoulder blade would have been inclined at a horizontal angle of 55–65°, much steeper than previously thought, resulting in an elevated shoulder region. With the vertebral column of the trunk and neck held in a relatively straight line, this would result in an elevated position of the head.

The internal skeleton gives shape, support, and protection to the body and can provide a means of anchoring fins or limbs to the body. The vertebral column also serves to house and protect the spinal cord that lies within the column. Marine vertebrates can be divided into two groups, marine fish and marine tetrapods.

Lull and Wright, Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America, pp. 157-159. The ridge on the lower jaw may have reinforced the long, slender structure.Lull and Wright, Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America, pp. 163-164. As mounted, the vertebral column of E. annectens includes twelve neck, twelve back, nine sacral, and at least thirty tail vertebrae.

Ctenosauriscus is known from the holotype, GZG.V.4191, a single partial preserved postcranial skeleton including partial vertebral column, ribs and girdle. The holotype is composed of four slabs, which were labeled A1, A2, B1, and B2 in a 2011 study. Slabs A1 and B1 form the part and slabs A2 and B2 form the counterpart.

The azygos vein is a vein running up the right side of the thoracic vertebral column draining itself towards the superior vena cava. It connects the systems of superior vena cava and inferior vena cava and can provide an alternative path for blood to the right atrium when either of the venae cavae is blocked.

A myelomere is the segment of spinal cord to which a given pair of dorsal and ventral roots is attached. Because the adult spinal cord does not extend down as far as the vertebral column does, the lower myelomeres are not opposite their correspondingly numbered vertebrae. Thus myelomere S1 is opposite the T12 vertebra.

Illustration depicting normal standing posture and osteoporosis Osteoporosis itself has no symptoms; its main consequence is the increased risk of bone fractures. Osteoporotic fractures occur in situations where healthy people would not normally break a bone; they are therefore regarded as fragility fractures. Typical fragility fractures occur in the vertebral column, rib, hip and wrist.

It has a short head, thick trunk, and no easily discernible neck. The tail is simply extended skin, spread wide like a fin, and unsupported by any bony projections from the vertebral column. The stomach is comparatively wide. Massing together near the shore, it breeds between narrow cracks in the reef and in caves.

Efficacy of tiludronate in the treatment of horses with signs of pain associated with osteoarthritic lesions of the thoracolumbar vertebral column. American Journal of Veterinary Research 68:329-337 and osteoarthritic conditions such as bone spavin.Gough MR, Thibaud D, Smith RK. 2010. Tiludronate infusion in the treatment of bone spavin: a double blind placebo-controlled trial.

A chicken embryo, showing the paraxial mesoderm on both sides of the neural fold. The anterior (forward) portion has begun to form somites (labeled "primitive segments"). All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo's length into somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body (most obviously seen in the vertebral column.

In 2002, the discovery of a very large pliosauroid was announced in Mexico. This pliosauroid came to be known as the "Monster of Aramberri". Although widely reported as such, it does not belong to the genus Liopleurodon. The remains of this animal, consisting of a partial vertebral column, were dated to the Kimmeridgian of the La Caja Formation.M.-C.

The holotype IVPP 84019 was discovered in the Junggar Basin, in layers of the Wucaiwan Formation dating from the Bathonian-Callovian. It consists of a rather complete skeleton including the skull, lower jaws, vertebral column and pelvis. The rear of the tail, the shoulder girdle and the limbs are lacking. It represents an adult or subadult individual.

Li et al. 2014 mentioned a third specimen labelled under the number BMNHC PH000911. This specimen hails from the Sihetun locality at the Beipiao County in Liaoning Province and compromises a partial individual preserving the skull (badly crushed), most of the vertebral column, both arms and other postcrania. Traces of feather integument were extensively found around the neck area.

The spinal cord extends down to between the first and second lumbar vertebrae, where it ends. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. It is around in men and around long in women. The diameter of the spinal cord ranges from in the cervical and lumbar regions to in the thoracic area.

Its chondrocranium, the cartilaginous skull, would have had a blockier and more robust appearance than that of the great white. Its fins were proportional to its larger size. Some fossil vertebrae have been found. The most notable example is a partially preserved vertebral column of a single specimen, excavated in the Antwerp Basin, Belgium, in 1926.

This large muscular and tendinous mass varies in size and structure at different parts of the vertebral column. In the sacral region, it is narrow and pointed, and at its origin chiefly tendinous in structure. In the lumbar region, it is larger, and forms a thick fleshy mass. Further up, it is subdivided into three columns.

CVM is caused by a missense mutation in the bovine SLC35A3 gene. The mutant protein has the amino acid phenylalanine at position 180 instead of valine. This causes abnormal nucleotide-sugar transport into the Golgi apparatus, leading to malformations of the vertebral column. CVM is the first genetic disorder found to be caused by defects in the SLC35A3 gene.

The aorta then arches back over the right pulmonary artery. Three vessels come out of the aortic arch: the brachiocephalic artery, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. These vessels supply blood to the head, neck, thorax and upper limbs. Behind the descending thoracic aorta is the vertebral column and the hemiazygos vein.

The centra are amphicoelous and notochordal, with swollen, relatively massive neural arches. The vertebral column is differentiated into presacral, sacral, and postsacral or caudal vertebrae.Fox 1966 Similarly to extant reptiles, C. aguti has a functional “mesotarsal” joint. It divides the tarsus into a proximal and distal unit, where the centrale is linked mechanically to the proximal (astragalus- calcaneum) unit.

In 1922, Ermine Cowles Case described a partial vertebral column (UMMP 7507) he'd discovered in 1921 from the Tecovas Member of the Carnian-age Upper Triassic Dockum Formation of Crosby County, Texas, as Coelophysis sp. (Coelophysis at that time also being poorly known).Case, E.C. (1922). New reptiles and stegocephalians from the Upper Triassic of western Texas.

The odontoid may have been encased in a keratinous covering so that it could occlude with the teeth. Apart from the skull, the skeleton of Istiodactylus was similar to those of other ornithocheiroid pterosaurs. The vertebral column, forelimb, and trunk bones were pneumatised by air sacs. The neural arches of the vertebrae had tall, sloping laminae.

Primitive sauropods had vertebrae that were either flat on both ends (amphiplaty) or concave on both (amphicoely). Venenosaurus may have had a condition intermediate between the two. The possession of amphiplatyan caudal centra with anteriorly facing neural spines is a unique identifier of this species. Sometimes the form of central articulations change within a single individual's vertebral column.

Frequently, movement becomes limited at the major joints, especially at the elbows and hips. However, loose knee and finger joints can occur. Signs of osteoarthritis usually begin in early adulthood. Children with recessive MED experience joint pain, particularly of the hips and knees, and commonly have deformities of the hands, feet, knees, or vertebral column (like scoliosis).

The location of anatomical structures can also be described in relation to different anatomical landmarks. They are used in anatomy, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology. Structures may be described as being at the level of a specific spinal vertebra, depending on the section of the vertebral column the structure is at. The position is often abbreviated.

These are a lateral cosiform process, a mammillary process and an accessory process.Postacchini, Franco (1999) Lumbar Disc Herniation p. 19 The superior, or upper tubercle is the mammillary process which connects with the superior articular process. The multifidus muscle attaches to the mammillary process and this muscle extends through the length of the vertebral column, giving support.

The vertebral column of Typothorax is shortened, with individual vertebrae being reduced in length. However, the osteoderms that overly the vertebrae are not shortened. Instead, they are reduced in number so that each dorsal paramedian osteoderm (osteoderm that covers the back) overlies several dorsal vertebrae. In nearly all other crurotarsans, there is one row of osteoderms per vertebra.

To cut a T-bone from butchered cattle, a lumbar vertebra is sawn in half through the vertebral column. The downward prong of the 'T' is a transverse process of the vertebra, and the flesh surrounding it is the spinal muscles. The small semicircle at the top of the 'T' is half of the vertebral foramen.

Sophineta is known from holotype ZPAL RV/175, a nearly complete right maxilla. Many specimens are referred to the species and represent frontals, parietals, prefrontal, postfrontals, postorbitals, jugals, squamosals, pterygoids, quadrates, maxillae, premaxilla, dentaries, vertebrae and ilia. Skull fragments and vertebral column were associated. All specimens are housed in the Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw.

Having listened to Cope's interpretation for a while, Marsh suggested that a simpler explanation of the strange build would be that Cope had reversed the vertebral column relative to the body as a whole. When Cope reacted indignantly to this suggestion, Leidy silently took the skull and placed it against the presumed last tail vertebra, to which it fitted perfectly: it was in fact the first neck vertebra, with still a piece of the rear skull attached to it. Mortified, Cope tried to destroy the entire edition of the textbook and, when this failed, immediately published an improved edition with a correct illustration but an identical date of publication. He excused his mistake by claiming that he had been misled by Leidy himself, who, describing a specimen of Cimoliasaurus, had also reversed the vertebral column.

In fact the main difference between Neandertals and modern humans was reported in the vertebral column. Several features also indicated ongoing brain growth. It was observed that the pattern of vertebral maturation and extended brain growth might reflect the broad Neanderthal body form and physiology, rather than a fundamental difference in the overall pace of growth in Neanderthals compared to modern humans.

This minimally invasive procedure is often used to treat patients with excessive pressure in the vertebral column that must be relieved. In this procedure, the same spinal ligaments are kept intact and the paraspinous muscles must still be detached.Levy, Robert; Deer, Timothy (2012). "Systematic Safety review and Meta-Analysis of Procedural Experience Using Percutaneous Access to Treat Symptomatic Lumbar Spinal Stenosis".

Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is because the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, providing a greater surface area for muscle attachment. This allows more efficient locomotion among these negatively buoyant cartilaginous fish. By contrast, most bony fish possess a homocercal caudal fin.

Fryette's Laws are a set of three laws pertaining to skeletal anatomy named after Harrison Fryette, D.O. The laws are defined as a set of guiding principles used by practitioners of osteopathic medicine to discriminate between dysfunctions in the axial skeleton. The first two laws solely apply to the lumbar and thoracic spinal regions, but the third applies to the entire vertebral column.

The psoas major ( or ) is a long fusiform muscle located in the lateral lumbar region between the vertebral column and the brim of the lesser pelvis. It joins the iliacus muscle to form the iliopsoas. In animals, this muscle is equivalent to the tenderloin. Its name derives from Greek ψόας, psóās, meaning 'of the loins' (genitive singular form of ψόα, psóa: 'the loins').

Pelvis area of holotype MPC D-102/109 The vertebral column of Halszkaraptor contains ten neck vertebrae, twelve back vertebrae and six sacral vertebrae. The preserved tail vertebrae include the first twenty caudals and a series of six from the middle tail. The neck is very elongated. It equals 290% of the skull length and 150% of the back length.

Grassi Giovanni Battista Grassi's earlier works were on anatomy and then entomology. He studied the development of the vertebral column in bony fishes and also endemic goiter. His studies on bees, myriapods and termites were monumental. He also studied the chetognates and the reproduction of eels, and he described a new species of spider, Koenenia mirabilis in 1885, dedicated to his wife.

Paul, in 1988, stated that the ribs of Brachiosaurus were longer than in Giraffatitan, which was questioned by Taylor in 2009. Behind the dorsal vertebral column, the sacrum consisted of five co-ossified sacral vertebrae. As in Giraffatitan, the sacrum was proportionally broad and featured very short neural spines. Poor preservation of the sacral material in Giraffatitan precludes detailed comparisons between both genera.

In Lancelets the notochord persists throughout life as the main structural support of the body. In Tunicates the notochord is present only in the larval stage, being completely absent in the adult animal. In vertebrates the notochord develops into the vertebral column, becoming vertebra and the intervertebral disc the center of which retains a structure similar to the original notochord.

Additionally, there is a distinct ridge on the posterior surface of each dorsal eminence. Dorsal eminences are small projections on the surfaces of paramedian scutes that line the back of the animal on either side of the vertebral column. In Sierritasuchus, the dorsal eminence touches the posterior margin of the paramedian scute. Each paramedian scute is covered in a random pattern of pits.

The most obvious morphological feature of box turtles is their bony boxy shell that consists of scutes covering the carapace. The scutes are used to enhance structural support and give the box turtles their sculpted appearance. In box turtles, the bones in their shell fuse together unlike in other turtles. Their ribs and vertebral column are fused with their bony shell.

Tillaux was a famous surgeon, also working at the Beaujon Hospital, who produced publications about the surgical treatment of fractures of the vertebral column, among other subjects. In the body of the article, Labbé described various kinds of intracranial connections of cerebral veins. In his paragraph on the communications between dural sinuses, he reported the presence of the vein that bears his name.

The Vertebral Column Cervical manipulation, commonly known as neck manipulation, is a procedure involving adjustment of the upper 7 vertebrae of the spinal column. This procedure is most often utilized by chiropractors, as well as osteopathic physicians who practice osteopathic manipulation. This type of manipulation may increase the risk of stroke and other issues, with studies suggesting the relationship is causative.

Comparison of A. ajax (orange) and A.louisae (red) with a human (blue) and Brontosaurus parvus (green) Apatosaurus was a large, long-necked, quadrupedal animal with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs. Most size estimates are based on specimen CM3018, the type specimen of A.louisae. In 1936 this was measured to be , by measuring the vertebral column.

The frog spends most of its life underground and surfaces only during the monsoon, for a period of two weeks, for mating. With few field scientists out in the field during the rainy season the species was discovered and studied only in recent times. Males emerge to call beside temporary rainwater streams. They mount females and grip them (amplexus) along the vertebral column.

For most living crocodylians, young individuals have many unfused elements in their vertebral column. Other features such as a deeply pitted skull roof and the fusing of the frontal bones in some individuals also suggest that the known material of Fruitachampsa represent mature individuals. Therefore, it is unlikely that Fruitachampsa grew much larger in body size than the specimens indicate.

In contrast, dorudontines had a shorter but powerful vertebral column. They too had a fluke and, unlike basilosaurids, they probably swam similarly to modern cetaceans, by using caudal oscillations. The forelimbs of basilosaurids were probably flipper-shaped, and the external hind limbs were tiny and were certainly not involved in locomotion. Their fingers, however, retained the mobile joints of their ambulocetid relatives.

Vertebrates have a segmented vertebral column. Segmentation in biology is the division of some animal and plant body plans into a series of repetitive segments. This article focuses on the segmentation of animal body plans, specifically using the examples of the taxa Arthropoda, Chordata, and Annelida. These three groups form segments by using a "growth zone" to direct and define the segments.

Knickerbocker Press, 1903. There are also about 34 presacral vertebrae, with 11 cervical and 23 thoracic-lumbar vertebrae. The presence of accessory articulations, like the zygantra and the zygosphenes, are there to supposedly to have dampened the twisting movements of the vertebral column. On the axial pleurocentrum, there is a process that is distinctly analogous to the odontoid structure found in mammals.

Progression of the shape of vertebral column with age in osteoporosis There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g.

Life reconstruction of a subadult Triceratops horridus Chasmosaurines showed little variation in their postcranial skeleton. The skeleton of Triceratops is markedly robust. Both Triceratops species possessed a sturdy build, with strong limbs, short hands with three hooves each, and short feet with four hooves each. The vertebral column consisted of ten neck, twelve back, ten sacral and about forty-five tail vertebrae.

Pipid frogs from the Upper Cretaceous of In Beceten, Niger. Palaeontology 41(4):669-691 The fossils have been dated to the late/upper Coniacian to Santonian periods. These amphibians are anurans, of the family Pipidae. They are distinguished by a few soft anatomical characters, namely their larvae, and many skeletal features that involve the structure of the skull and the vertebral column.

Most species have a rich mane of long hair running from the withers or from the head. With the exception of the spotted hyena, hyaenids have striped coats, which they likely inherited from their viverrid ancestors. Their ears are large and have simple basal ridges and no marginal bursa. Their vertebral column, including the cervical region are of limited mobility.

The ribs, humerus, and coracoid, however, were displaced to the left side of the vertebral column, indicating transportation by a water current. This is further evidenced by an isolated ilium of Diplodocus that apparently had drifted against the vertebral column, as well as by a change in composition of the surrounding rocks. While the specimen itself was embedded in fine-grained clay, indicating low-energy conditions at the time of deposition, it was cut off at the seventh vertebra by a thick layer of much coarser sediments consisting of pebbles at its base and sandstone further up, indicating deposition under stronger currents. Based on this evidence, Riggs in 1904 suggested that the missing front part of the skeleton was washed away by a water current, while the hind part was already covered by sediment and thus got preserved.

During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells.

Cacops was a medium-sized dissorophid, being smaller than later dissorophids from Eurasia such as Kamacops. Like other dissorophids, Cacops had osteoderms associated with the vertebral column. Internal osteoderms are fused to the neural spines, while external osteoderms overlapped adjacent positions with a ventral flange that inserted between successive internal osteoderms. The osteoderms are associated with only the first 15 vertebrae, beginning at the axis.

Macroscelesaurus is known from a single holotype consisting of the mold of a partial skeleton. The impression was found on a sandstone block that made up the wall of a kraal or sheep enclosure near the town of Victoria West. It includes most of the postcranial skeleton, including the vertebral column, ribs, limbs, and the pelvic and pectoral girdles. Most of the skull is not preserved.

Tails provide thrust, making speed and acceleration dependent on tail shape. Caudal fin shapes vary considerably between shark species, due to their evolution in separate environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is because the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, providing a greater surface area for muscle attachment.

The cauda equina forms as a result of the fact that the spinal cord stops growing in length at about age four, even though the vertebral column continues to lengthen until adulthood. This results in the fact that sacral spinal nerves actually originate in the upper lumbar region. The spinal cord can be anatomically divided into 31 spinal segments based on the origins of the spinal nerves.

The lumbosacral joint is a joint of the body, between the last lumbar vertebra and the first sacral segment of the vertebral column. In some ways, calling it a "joint" (singular) is a misnomer, since the lumbosacral junction includes a disc between the lower lumbar vertebral body and the uppermost sacral vertebral body, as well as two lumbosacral facet joints (right and left zygapophysial joints).

A fluorescence image of a sagittal section of an 18 d.p.c. mouse embryo double stained with biotinylated-CHP (detected by AlexaFluor647-streptavidin, orange) and an anti-collagen I antibody (detected by AlexaFluor555-labeled donkey anti-rabbit IgG H&L;, cyan). mx, maxilla; md, mandibular bone; bp, basisphenoid bone; bo, basioccipital bone; vc, vertebral column; rb, rib; h, hipbone; d, digital bones. Scale bar: 3 mm.

The diagnostic characters of the Bufo biporcatus group are the presence of , , and supratympanic crests, lack of a tarsal ridge, presence of vocal sacs but absence of melanophores in the surrounding muscle tissue, lack of tibial glands, lack supinator manus humeralis and adductor longus muscles, presence of paired crests on the vertebral column, rugose skull, squamosal bones with broad dorsal plates, and smooth palatine bones.

The atlas and axis are specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. They are responsible for the nodding and rotation movements of the head. The atlanto-occipital joint allows the head to nod up and down on the vertebral column. The dens acts as a pivot that allows the atlas and attached head to rotate on the axis, side to side.

Limnoscelis had 26 presacral vertebrae. These vertebrae had swollen neural arches, and amphicoelous notochordal centra. The vertebrae of Limnoscelis were typically longer than they were wide, but varied in size and hape throughout the vertebral column, along with neural spine height. Limnoscelis had a multipartite atlas and axis complex, with a ventral anterior process of the axis intercentrum articulating with that of the atlas.

Spinal tumors are neoplasms located in either the vertebral column or the spinal cord. There are three main types of spinal tumors classified based on their location: extradural and intradural (intradural-intramedullary and intradural-extramedullary). Extradural tumors are located outside the dura mater lining and are most commonly metastatic. Intradural tumors are located inside the dura mater lining and are further subdivided into intramedullary and extramedullary tumors.

The neural arches are elongated to form uroneurals which provide support for this upper lobe. In addition, the hypurals, bones that form a flattened plate at the posterior end of the vertebral column, are enlarged providing further support for the caudal fin. In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness.

Their hindlimbs were reduced and probably short. In some species, the pelvis was not connected to the vertebral column, suggesting the hind limbs could not have supported the body weight. Dorudon atrox Basilosaurids, which had tiny hind limbs and flipper-shaped fore limbs, were obligatorily aquatic and came to dominate the oceans. They still lacked the echolocation and baleen of modern odontocetes and mysticeti.

FWS is characterized mainly by skeletal abnormalities, which include nasal hypoplasia, a depressed or narrowed nasal bridge, scoliosis, and calcifications in the vertebral column, femur, and heel bone, which show a peculiar stippled appearance on X-rays. Limb abnormalities, such as brachydactyly (unusually short fingers and toes) or underdeveloped extremities, can also occur. Common nonskeletal features of FWS include low birth weight and developmental disabilities.

The vertebral column of Coelophysis Cope. Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan 2:209-222. These additional remains have since been recognized as belonging to a variety of other Triassic animals, all of which were poorly known or unknown at the time: the femur to an aetosaur, possibly Desmatosuchus,Hunt, A.P, Lucas, S.G., Heckert, A.B., Sullivan, R.M., and Lockley, M.G. (1998).

The vertebral column contains seventy-four vertebrae: ten of the neck, thirteen dorsals, twelve sacrals and thirty-nine caudals. Typically chasmosaurines have twelve dorsals, ten sacrals and up to forty-six tail vertebrae. Mallon presumed that the synsacrum, the fused vertebrae supporting the pelvis, had shifted to the rear. The neck of NMC 8547 is exceptionally long, with four syncervicals, fused anterior cervical vertebrae.

The holotype specimen was found in 1911 in the Lower Permian Abo Formation in New Mexico. It consists of the skull and postcranial material including femora, humeri, scapulae, pelvis, a section of the vertebral column, and osteoderms. It was originally described by Case et al. (1913) as a referred specimen of Aspidosaurus (sometimes "Broiliellus") novomexicanus but was subsequently determined to be a distinct species by Carroll (1964).

Vertebrae articulate with each other to give strength and flexibility to the spinal column, and the shape at their back and front aspects determines the range of movement. Structurally, vertebrae are essentially alike across the vertebrate species, with the greatest difference seen between an aquatic animal and other vertebrate animals. As such, vertebrates take their name from the vertebrae that compose the vertebral column.

Patagoniaemys is an extinct genus of stem turtle which existed in central Patagonia, Chubut Province, Argentina during the late Cretaceous epoch (Campanian to Maastrichtian age). It is known from skull fragments and several postcranial elements including a nearly complete vertebral column recovered from the La Colonia Formation. It was first named by Juliana Sterli and Marcelo S. de la Fuente in 2011, and the type species is Patagoniaemys gasparinae.

Laminotomies are also performed to create a window into the spinal canal. Laminotomies are frequently used as a way to surgically repair a spinal disc herniation at any level of the vertebral column (cervical, thoracic, lumbar). A herniated disc can compress spinal nerves and cause intense pain and impaired sensation. Removing a portion of the lamina allows physicians to be able to access and repair the herniated disc.

P. carinata is unusual in possessing greatly fragmented head shields, a peculiar maxillary dentition (3rd to 6th largest, posterior-most tooth large and grooved), a reduced number of palatine teeth (including a greatly enlarged "fang"), and hypapophyses developed throughout the vertebral column. It was once thought to be a possible evolutionary intermediate between vipers and non-venomous colubroids, but it is now known not to be closely related to vipers.

Fossils now attributed to Tawa were first discovered in 2004. The holotype, a juvenile individual, cataloged GR 241, consists of a mostly complete but disarticulated skull, forelimbs, a partial vertebral column, hindlimbs, ribs, and gastralia. The determination was made that this specimen is a juvenile based on the presence of an open braincase and unfused neurocentral sutures. Fossils of at least seven other individuals were also discovered at the site.

The baleen whale fossils comprise a complete skeleton, including the skull, baleen, mandibles, flippers, and vertebral column. The holotype fossils are housed in a private collection, belonging to Allejandro Pezzia Asserto, while a paratype is stored in the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde in Stuttgart, Germany. The skull of the whale has a length of and a width of and intermediate in size between Balaenoptera acutorostrata and B. borealis.Demeré et al.

Pelvic digits may be located at any level of the pelvis, the lower ribs, or even the anterior abdominal wall. It is theorized that pelvic digit anomalies arise during the mesenchymal stage of bone growth, within the first six weeks of embryogenesis. Their formation may result from a failure of the primordium of the coccyx to fuse to the vertebral column, leading to the independent development of a proto-rib structure.

From the mesoderm surrounding the neural tube and notochord, the skull, vertebral column, and the membranes of the brain and medulla spinalis are developed. A postembryonic vestige of the notochord is found in the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. Isolated notochordal remnants may escape their lineage-specific destination in the nucleus pulposus and instead attach to the outer surfaces of the vertebral bodies, from which notochordal cells largely regress.

Opabinia, an extinct stem group arthropod appeared in the Middle Cambrian The earliest animals were marine invertebrates, that is, vertebrates came later. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes, and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. Marine invertebrates are animals that inhabit a marine environment apart from the vertebrate members of the chordate phylum; invertebrates lack a vertebral column. Some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton.

In Talpa europaea, there are several unique changes in ossification sequence in the postcranial elements. Many of the shifts are seen in the vertebral column, specifically the cervical and thoracic regions. The shifts allow the moles to have a more stabilized body axis and cervical region after they are born. After a European mole is born and begins to develop, it will begin to crawl around and dig.

The spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity or spinal canal) is the cavity that contains the spinal cord within the vertebral column, formed by the vertebrae through which the spinal cord passes. It is a process of the dorsal body cavity. This canal is enclosed within the vertebral foramen of the vertebrae. In the intervertebral spaces, the canal is protected by the ligamentum flavum posteriorly and the posterior longitudinal ligament anteriorly.

On June 6, 2014, Van Dyken was in a severe ATV accident and severed her spinal cord at the T11 vertebra. She was conscious when rescued and airlifted to a hospital where she had emergency surgery to stabilize her spinal cord and vertebral column. Following the initial surgical measures, she was in satisfactory condition. The injury to the area came within millimeters of impacting and potentially rupturing her aorta.

Lutrine opossums are quadrupedal and extremely agile. Although they are primarily terrestrial they are also adept climbers and swimmers. Their long body, proportionally short limbs, and no undulation of the vertebral column disqualifies them from being categorized as a specialized semi-aquatic mammal. Although they cannot be classified as truly specialized mammals, they are still considered strong swimmers drawing power from the hind limbs as the forelimbs paddle.

Along with its sister genus Pachyrhachis, Haasiophis does not possess either a sacral rib or vertebrae. Also like Pachyrhachis there is no preserved indication of a connection between the vertebral column and the pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle is partly obscured by overlaying bones reducing the detail which can be seen. Radiographs of the specimen reveal H. terrasanctus possessing a simple triradiate similar to that possessed by Pachyrhachis.

The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood.

Based on the basic connectivity of the central axis. Includes the vertebral column but also includes the mobility and motility of other axial structures such as the digestive tract and the spinal cord. In the Basic Neurocellular this actually manifests as 2 prevertebral patterns - mouthing and soft-spinal - and four vertebral patterns (see above). Spinal movement has a strong relationship with the horizontal plane and oral/anal rooting.

Silvano Beltrametti (born 22 March 1979) is a former Swiss alpine skier, and was one of the young, promising downhill racers of Switzerland. Beltrametti is now unable to walk due to vertebral column injuries suffered in a World Cup racing accident on December 8th, 2001, in Val d'Isère. His accident led to the introduction of the blue lines in ski competitions, which lead the way to the next poles.

Current surgical procedures used to treat spondylosis aim to alleviate the signs and symptoms of the disease by decreasing pressure in the spinal canal (decompression surgery) and/or by controlling spine movement (fusion surgery). Decompression surgery: The vertebral column can be operated on from both an anterior and posterior approach. The approach varies depending on the site and cause of root compression. Commonly, osteophytes and portions of intervertebral disc are removed.

Life reconstruction The holotype, MPUM 6009, was found in a layer of the Calcari di Zorzino Formation dating from the early Norian (upper Alaunian). It consists of a partial skeleton including the skull, compressed on a single plate. It is largely articulated and includes the lower jaws, most of the wings, much of the vertebral column except the tail, and hindlimb elements. Some bones have only been preserved as impressions.

Nelipa, Killing Rasputin, loc 5043 The bullet lodged into the vertebral column. The body was taken inside and Rasputin was shot in the forehead at point-blank range. In a rage, Yusopov kicked Rasputin's corpse with the tip of his military boots smashing the nose, the right eye, and disfiguring the face. Then, the assassins drove to Varshavsky Rail Terminal where they burned Rasputin's clothes and returned to Yusupov's home.

The two tiny but well-formed hind legs of basilosaurids were probably used as claspers when mating. The pelvic bones associated with these hind limbs were not connected to the vertebral column as they were in protocetids. Essentially, any sacral vertebrae can no longer be clearly distinguished from the other vertebrae. Both basilosaurids and dorudontines are relatively closely related to modern cetaceans, which belong to parvorders Odontoceti and Mysticeti.

In a scoliotic patient, the vertebral column experiences extension forces on the convex side and compression forces on the concave side. At the apical vertebra, average bone density for the concave cortical bone is higher than for the convex cortical bone, and cancellous bone density is higher for the concave side than for the convex side.Adam, C. & Askin, G. (2009). Lateral bone density variations in the scoliotic spine.

This feature also supports the idea that they were myrmecophagous, as modern mammals employ this technique to break into termite mounds. Its vertebral column is also very similar to armadillos, sloths, and anteaters (order Xenarthra). It had extra points of contact among vertebrae similar to the xenarthrous process that are only known in these modern forms. These processes generate a rigid and relatively inflexible backbone, which is good for digging.

If you count the coccyx and sacrum each as one vertebra, then there are 26 vertebrae. If the fused vertebrae are all counted separately, then the total number of vertebrae comes to between 32 and 34. The vertebral column consists of 5 parts. The most cranial (uppermost) part is made up by the cervical vertebrae (7), followed by thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5) and coccygeal vertebrae (4).

He repudiated his earlier theory that vertebral subluxations caused pinched nerves in the intervertebral spaces in favor of subluxations causing altered nerve vibration, either too tense or too slack, affecting the tone(health) of the end organ and noted, "A subluxated vertebra . . . is the cause of 95 percent of all diseases. . . . The other five percent is caused by displaced joints other than those of the vertebral column."Keating J.(1996).

Galectin induces cell death in its victims and cystatins inhibit defense enzymes. In humans, these toxins lead to increased blood flow in the superficial capillaries and cell death. Despite the number of cells and toxins that are within the stingray, there is little relative energy required to produce and store the venom. The venom is produced and stored in the secretory cells of the vertebral column at the mid-distal region.

The vertebral column consists of anywhere between 200 and 400 (or more) vertebrae. Tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs, while body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle attachment enabling locomotion without limbs. Autotomy of the tail, a feature found in some lizards is absent in most snakes.

Hagfishes lack a true vertebral column, and are therefore not properly considered vertebrates, but a few tiny neural arches are present in the tail. Hagfishes do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as "Craniata" when discussing morphology. Molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that the hagfishes are most closely related to lampreys, and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense.

All of the bones are articulated. With up to 28 vertebrae, the presacral vertebral column (the part of the column in front of the pelvic girdle) is long. Each vertebral segment is composed of a large principal centrum and a pair of two small bones that fit in front of it. The spinal cord passes through the larger bones, while the smaller bones are positioned to either side of the midline.

However recent studies using molecular phylogenetics has contradicted this view, with evidence that the Cyclostomata (Hyperoartia and Myxini) is monophyletic; this suggests that the Myxini are degenerate vertebrates, and therefore the vertebrates and craniates are cladistically equivalent, at least for the living representatives. The placement of the Myxini within the vertebrates has been further strengthened by recent anatomical analysis, with vestiges of a vertebral column being discovered in the Myxini.

Along with co-author Paul Sereno, Dong reviewed his initial description of Huayangosaurus, an ankylosaurid he'd discovered in Dashanpu in 1979 and described in 1982. This 1992 review saw Dong and Sereno determine that Huayangosaurus had a parasacral spine, or a vertebral column which ran adjacent to the sacrum; and that the animal's heightened pedicles may have helped keep its dorsal plates in place without ossified tendons to hold them upright.

Meningitis with myelitis was found and attributed to exposure to cold or fatigue. In five traumatic cases, the vertebral column was often but not invariably fractured and could compress the cord. He recorded one instance in a 33-year-old woman of a thoracic disk prolapse compressing the cord, without evident trauma. Tumours also figured in seven of his 32 patients; two were metastatic from kidney and lung.

Nacholapithecus is a Middle Miocene genus of hominoid found in the Nachola formation in northern Kenya. It is a key genus in early hominid evolution. Similar in body plan to Proconsul, it had a long vertebral column with six lumbar vertebrae, no tail, a narrow torso, large upper limbs with mobile shoulder joints, and long feet. Together with other Kenyapithecinae such as Equatorius, Kenyapithecus, and Griphopithecus, Nacholapithecus displayed synapomorphies with Anoiapithecus.

1980s Margarita Rosa de Francisco was born in Cali on August 8, 1965. She is the daughter of Gerardo de Francisco, a musician and actor, and fashion designer Mercedes Baquero. She is also the sister of TV personality Martin de Francisco. As a child, Margarita took ballet classes in the Antonio Maria Valencia Conservatory in Cali, which she had to quickly retire from due to problems in the vertebral column.

The abdominal aorta begins at the level of the diaphragm, crossing it via the aortic hiatus, technically behind the diaphragm, at the vertebral level of T12. It travels down the posterior wall of the abdomen, anterior to the vertebral column. It thus follows the curvature of the lumbar vertebrae, that is, convex anteriorly. The peak of this convexity is at the level of the third lumbar vertebra (L3).

This loss of height causes laxity of the longitudinal ligaments, which may allow anterior, posterior, or lateral shifting of the vertebral bodies, causing facet joint malalignment and arthritis; scoliosis; cervical hyperlordosis; thoracic hyperkyphosis; lumbar hyperlordosis; narrowing of the space available for the spinal tract within the vertebra (spinal stenosis); or narrowing of the space through which a spinal nerve exits (vertebral foramen stenosis) with resultant inflammation and impingement of a spinal nerve, causing a radiculopathy. DDD can cause mild to severe pain, either acute or chronic, near the involved disc, as well as neuropathic pain if an adjacent spinal nerve root is involved. Diagnosis is suspected when typical symptoms and physical findings are present; and confirmed by x-rays of the vertebral column. Occasionally the radiologic diagnosis of disc degeneration is made incidentally when a cervical x-ray, chest x-ray, or abdominal x-ray is taken for other reasons, and the abnormalities of the vertebral column are recognized.

The rhomboid major helps to hold the scapula (and thus the upper limb) onto the ribcage. Other muscles that perform this function include the serratus anterior and pectoralis minor. Both rhomboids (major and minor) also act to retract the scapula, pulling it towards the vertebral column. The rhomboids work collectively with the levator scapulae muscles to elevate the medial border of the scapula, downwardly rotating the scapula with respect to the glenohumeral joint.

The ears are short and nearly round. Costina type of domestic chinchilla standing on its hind legs The costina type is weaker in musculature and bone structure, with the most distinctive feature being its longer hind legs. The fore legs are shorter and placed closer together, and the shoulders are narrower. The vertebral column is more arched; the neck line is sometimes very deep, forming a slight hump on the back of the animal.

The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the midbrain, pons and medulla. It lies in the back part of the skull, resting on the part of the base known as the clivus, and ends at the foramen magnum, a large opening in the occipital bone. The brainstem continues below this as the spinal cord, protected by the vertebral column. Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge directly from the brainstem.

All species have a vertebral column made up of 25 vertebrae. Many species in this family are important food fishes, and some have been introduced outside their native ranges to provide fishing stocks. The freshwater Nile perch, a fierce predator, has become infamous, as its introduction into Lake Victoria in the 1950s has wrought devastation on the native fishes of the lake, causing the extinction of many endemic cichlids there.Pringle, R.M. (2005).

Full body spinal immobilization is the process by which a person with obvious or suspected spinal trauma is secured to a long backboard (LBB) in a neutral in-line position. The goal of immobilization is to effectively splint the spine in order to prevent movement and additional damage to the vertebral column and spinal cord.Shade, Bruce R., Mikel A. Rothenberg, Elizabeth Wertz, Shirley A. Jones, and Thomas E. Collins. "Head and Spinal Trauma".

Cosmoid scales act as thick armor to protect the coelacanth's exterior. Several internal traits also aid in differentiating coelacanths from other lobe-finned fish. At the back of the skull, the coelacanth possesses a hinge, the intracranial joint, which allows it to open its mouth extremely wide. Coelacanths also retain an oil-filled notochord, a hollow, pressurized tube which is replaced by the vertebral column early in embryonic development in most other vertebrates.

Pneumatization is extensive in the skulls and vertebrae of the more advanced members. Oviraptorosauria have thick, U-shaped furculae and a large sternal plates that are wider (together) than they are long, unlike in birds and dromaeosaurs. The arms are around half the length of the legs and over half the length of the presacral vertebral column. The hands are long, and tridactyl, with a reduced third finger in Caudipteryx and Ajancingenia.

Salgado, L., R. A. Coria, and J. O. Calvo. 1997. "Evolution of titanosaurid sauropods. I: phylogenetic analysis based on the postcranial evidence". Ameghiniana 34: 3-32 Fifth dorsal vertebra in front of the pelvis of the holotype, compared to the same region of a human vertebral column Many cladistic analyses have since suggested that at least some genera can be assigned to the Brachiosauridae, and that this group is a basal branch within the Titanosauriformes.

In the fetus, vertebral segments correspond with spinal cord segments. However, because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not correspond to vertebral segments in the adult, particularly in the lower spinal cord. For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and L2, and the spinal cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.

Vertebral column Nankangia is distinguished from all other oviraptorosaurians based on a combination of traits, some of which are autapomorphic (i.e. unique). On the ventral surface near the base of the transverse process of the dorsal vertebrae two infradiapophyseal fossae are present. The sacral vertebrae bear slit-like pneumatic fossae. The neural spines of the anterior caudal vertebrae are wider transversely than anteroposteriorly, forming a large posterior fossa with a rugose central area.

As of now, 101 bones, or about 34% of Bucky's skeleton, has been discovered and verified. Bucky is the sixth-most complete Tyrannosaurus rex out of more than 40 that have been discovered. Bucky's tail is the third-most complete tail of any Tyrannosaurus rex known and has a nearly complete vertebral column to the end of the pelvis. Bucky's skull is a reconstruction which utilized modified casts of other Tyrannosaurus rex specimens.

Only the more structurally-sound parts of the dinosaur are on display, with the more-fragile parts stored elsewhere. Much of what can be seen in the display is a representation (replica), and not the actual dinosaur. The model's vertebral column seen on display has fourteen cervicals, ten dorsals, five sacrals and about fifty caudals. The dinosaur display was taken to London to be featured on the children's television programme Blue Peter.

The stomach of the little tunny is a long sac that stretches almost the entire length of its body. The intestinal tract is fairly short, coming from the left and right sides of the stomach, and extending without looping down the length of its body. The different sections are characterized by their diameter and color. The ventral vertebral column of the little tunny has unique trelliswork, which is important to its family (Scombridae).

In most groups of mammals, the vertebral column is highly conserved, with the same number of vertebrae found in the neck of a giraffe, for example, as in mammals with shorter necks. However, in the Afrotheria clade, which includes elephant shrews, golden moles and elephants, there is an increase in the number of thoracolumbar vertebrae. This is a synapomorphy of the clade: a shared feature considered to be derived from a common ancestor.

A study on vertebral column proportions suggested that, while young Mesosaurus might have been fully aquatic, adult animals spent some time on land. This is supported by the rarity of adult animals in aquatic settings, and a coprolite possessing drying fractures. However, how terrestrial these animals were is difficult to say, as their pachyostosis and other adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle would have made foraging on land difficult.Pablo Nuñez Demarco et al.

Acteosaurus is described as slender or snake-like, similar to other dolichosaurids. Its shortened forelimbs and long tail help to distinguish it from other genera, and its vertebral column is similar to more modern varanid lizards. The holotype, when it was discovered, was unfortunately missing its head. So, while Meyer was unable to come up with an exact number, he noted that Acteosaurus has at least 10 cervical vertebrae, and 27 dorsals.

116-123 The holotype specimen, GCC V20501, had been dug up in a layer of the Lower Shaximiao Formation. It consists of a partial skeleton with skull. Elements of most parts of the body have been preserved, the skull, vertebral column, shoulder girdle, frontlimbs and hindlimbs but all are very limited and/or damaged. The lower jaws, pelvis and the end of the tail had probably been entirely destroyed by the machine.

It weakly prevents hyperflexion of the vertebral column and limits spinal disc herniation, although it is much narrower than the anterior longitudinal ligament, such that spinal disc herniations usually occur in a posterolateral direction. This ligament is composed of smooth, shining, longitudinal fibers, denser and more compact than those of the anterior ligament, and consists of superficial layers occupying the interval between three or four vertebræ, and deeper layers which extend between adjacent vertebrae.

The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity. The boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. In vertebrates, the abdomen is a large body cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, at front and to the sides, and by part of the vertebral column at the back. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls.

There are three layers of muscles in the abdominal wall. They are, from the outside to the inside: external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominal. The first three layers extend between the vertebral column, the lower ribs, the iliac crest and pubis of the hip. All of their fibers merge towards the midline and surround the rectus abdominis in a sheath before joining up on the opposite side at the linea alba.

When the glottis is closed and the thorax and pelvis are fixed, they are integral in the cough, urination, defecation, childbirth, vomit, and singing functions. When the pelvis is fixed, they can initiate the movement of the trunk in a forward motion. They also prevent hyperextension. When the thorax is fixed, they can pull up the pelvis and finally, they can bend the vertebral column sideways and assist in the trunk's rotation.

In the fish and all subsequent vertebrates, the notochord forms the backbone (or vertebral column). The backbone strengthens the body, supports strut-like limbs, and protects the vital dorsal nerve cord, while at the same time allowing the body to bend. A Pikaia lookalike, the lancelet Branchiostoma, still exists today. With a notochord and paired muscle blocks, the lancelet and Pikaia belong to the chordate group of animals from which the vertebrates descended.

Illustrations of the vertebrae and the humerus of Pyrotherium romeroi. Some postcranial bones of Pyrotherium romeroi have been recovered, mainly from the limbs. The vertebral column is very poorly known; the remains found mainly include cervical vertebrae, including the atlas, the axis and the third and fourth vertebrae, all of which are very short. Additionally, a lumbar vertebra is known, which is massive and with a reduced spine, somewhat similar to that of Astrapotherium.

Modern skin beetles mainly feed on muscle tissue but not on moist materials, and their activity is prevented by rapid burial. It is therefore thought that specimen MPC-D107/15 was only partially buried at first, with the upper part being exposed enough for a colony of skin beetles to develop. Some damage to the skeleton (especially in the vertebral column) may also have been caused by the scavenging of small mammals.

A. FHSM VP-323 B1-B9. Portions of the vertebral column from FHSM VP-2187 C. Vertebral centrum from C. mantelli D1-D2. Vertebral centrum from C. agassizensis E. Associated centra of C. cf. agassizensis Like all mackerel sharks, Cretoxyrhina grew a growth ring in its vertebrae every year and is aged through measuring each band; due to the rarity of well-preserved vertebrae, only a few Cretoxyrhina individuals have been aged.

In 2011, additional specimens of Masiakasaurus were described. The braincase, premaxilla, facial bones, ribcage, portions of the hands and pectoral girdle, and much of the cervical and dorsal vertebral column were described for the first time. The discovery of this new material clarified many aspects of noasaurid anatomy and made the genus among the best known dinosaurs. The new finds did however not allow for a detailed study of its evolutionary relationships among ceratosaurs.

Gryponyx africanus is known from the holotype SAM 3357-59, a nearly complete postcranial skeleton which includes partial vertebral column, pelvis, both forelimbs and both hindlimbs. Gryponyx has been estimated to have been about in length. It was collected from the Upper Elliot Formation of the Stormberg Group (Karoo Basin), dating to the Hettangian to Sinemurian stages of the Lower Jurassic period. It was originally described by Broom (1911) as a theropod.

The human back, also called the dorsum, is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest. The vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the shoulders at the top and the pelvis at the bottom.

By invading the bones, the pneumatic diverticula would replace marrow with air, reducing the overall body mass. Reducing the body mass would make it easier for pterosaurs and birds to fly as there is less mass to keep aloft with the same amount of muscle powering the flight strokes. Pneumatizing the vertebral column of sauropods would reduce the weight of these organisms, and make it easier to support and move the massive neck.

Femur, tibia and fibula of Shringasaurus. The vertebral column is well known in Shringasaurus, including the whole cervical series, various dorsal vertebrae, both sacral vertebrae and some caudal vertebrae. Like other azendohsaurids, the first-through-middle cervical vertebrae are characteristically elongated, giving Shringasaurus a long, raised neck, although it is proportionately shorter than in Azendohsaurus and Pamelaria. The neck is also much taller than in other azendohsaurids, with tall, prominent neural spines.

Transverse section, showing the relations of the capsule of the kidney. The costovertebral angle () is the acute angle formed on either side of the human back between the twelfth rib and the vertebral column. The kidney lies directly below this area, so is the place where, with percussion (), pain is elicited when the person has kidney inflammation. The presence of pain is marked as a positive Murphy's punch sign or as costovertebral angle tenderness.

Sand shiners have a compressed, slender body covered in leptoid scales, more specifically cycloid scales which are generally round and lack a tooth-like cteni. They have a subterminal mouth position (the end of the snout projects only slightly past the mouth) and a homocercal tail (the vertebral column does not enter the caudal fin).Page, L. M., and B. M. Burr. 1991. A Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes of North America, north of Mexico.

Chimpanzees are far better at brachiation than humans. Their clavicles possess a cranially oriented twist on the acromial end, conducive to better force transfer through it - a very important function in arboreal locomotion. Chimpanzee scapulas also possess a considerably larger supraspinous fossa, allowing for a larger supraspinatus muscle. Through the process of evolution, humans have lost the Atlantoclavicularis muscle, originating on the atlas of the vertebral column, and inserting onto the acromial clavicle.

Pelophylax esculentus showing bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and limbs. Frogs have no tail, except as larvae, and most have long hind legs, elongated ankle bones, webbed toes, no claws, large eyes, and a smooth or warty skin. They have short vertebral columns, with no more than 10 free vertebrae and fused tailbones (urostyle or coccyx). Like other amphibians, oxygen can pass through their highly permeable skins.

Finally, the neural tube also secretes neurotrophin 3 (NT-3), so that the somite creates the dermis. Boundaries for each somite are regulated by retinoic acid (RA) and a combination of FGF8 and WNT3a. So retinoic acid is an endogenous signal that maintains the bilateral synchrony of mesoderm segmentation and controls bilateral symmetry in vertebrates. The bilaterally symmetric body plan of vertebrate embryos is obvious in somites and their derivates such as the vertebral column.

Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata. Familiar examples of invertebrates include arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and myriapods), mollusks (chitons, snail, bivalves, squids, and octopuses), annelid (earthworms and leeches), and cnidarians (hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones, and corals). The majority of animal species are invertebrates; one estimate puts the figure at 97%.

The next documented entry into the cave did not occur until 2008, when archaeologists from the Tennessee Division of Archaeology revisited the site. Regions Bank and UBS maintained a display in their first floor lobby that included bones from the Smilodon and other faunal material from the site. In 2016, the display was moved to Bridgestone Arena. Smilodon remains on display include portions of the lower jaw and molars, vertebral column, ribs, humerus, metacarpals, and metatarsals.

In Macrotus the position of the hind limbs during level flight differs even more form that in most other mammals. The hind limbs are held behind the bat in a spider-leg- like posture, with the femur extending dorsad and caudad, and with the shank partially flexed and extending caudad and more or less downward. Vertebral Column The number of post cervical vertebrae in Macrotus are as follows: twelve thoracic, six lumbar, five sacral, seven caudal.

The complete slab; the pieces added by Todesco have not been removed The vertebral column of Scipionyx probably includes ten cervical vertebrae and thirteen dorsal vertebrae; due to the fact the specimen is just a hatchling, the differentiation between the two categories has not fully developed, making any distinction rather arbitrary. With certainty five sacral vertebrae are present. The fossil has preserved just nine tail vertebrae; likely fifty or more had been originally present. The neck vertebrae are opisthocoelous.

The internal intercostal muscles (intercostales interni) are a group of skeletal muscles located between the ribs. They are eleven in number on either side. They commence anteriorly at the sternum, in the intercostal spaces between the cartilages of the true ribs, and at the anterior extremities of the cartilages of the false ribs, and extend backward as far as the angles of the ribs, hence they are continued to the vertebral column by thin aponeuroses, the posterior intercostal membranes.

A. microbrachis Adriosaurus was first described by Seeley (1881) based on a single specimen from near Comen, Slovenia. This fossil consists of the posterior half of the vertebral column, the pelvis and hindlimbs. Later Nopcsa (1908, 1923) described a nearly complete skeleton from Hvar, Croatia. However, at that time, Nopsca's systematic conclusions were not accurate. Michael S. Y. Lee and Michael W. Caldwell redescribed Adriosaurus suessi specimen NHMR2867.Michael S. Y. Lee and Michael W. Caldwell. 2000.

The denticulate ligaments are triangular shaped ligaments that anchor the spinal cord along its length, at each side, to the dura mater. The bases of the ligaments arise in the pia mater and they are firmly attached to the arachnoid mater and dura mater at the apex. They have 21 attachments per side. Named for their tooth-like appearance, the denticulate ligaments are traditionally believed to provide stability for the spinal cord against motion within the vertebral column.

The holotype, MUCPv-208, was uncovered in a layer of the Anacleto Formation, dating from the early Campanian, about 83 million years old. It consists of a partial skeleton with skull, lacking much of the vertebral column. The paratype is MUCPv-212, a tail with lower hindlimb elements. In 1997 three additional specimens were described: MUCPv 213, a partial skeleton with skull; MCSPv 111, a postcranial skeleton; and MCSPv 112, a skull with hindlimbs and pelvis.

In particular, the sternum was poorly developed, which would have made walking difficult out of water. Instead, it probably swam by undulating its body and tail, and holding its legs close to the body to increase streamlining. A more recent study however indicates that its vertebral column tail and leg proportions are closer to those of terrestrial reptiles, though it is noted that marine iguanas similarly only differ from terrestrial counterparts very subtly.Pablo Nuñez Demarco et al.

A stiffening of the vertebral column, in the region of contacting limbs, was apparently essential for swimming. He also describes that in Metoposaurus diagnosticus krasiejowensis, the parapophyses become shorter posteriorly, similarly to plagiosaurids. The intercentra of dorsal and sacral vertebrae are fully ossified and form quite short disks, not connected with the neural arches. In the dorsal and sacral region, they have anterior and posterior surfaces that are concave, or the posterior surface is almost flat.

In anatomy, Luschka's joints (also called uncovertebral joints, neurocentral joints) are formed between uncinate process or "uncus" below and uncovertebral articulation above. They are located in the cervical region of the vertebral column between C3 and C7. Two lips project upward from the superior surface of the vertebral body below, and one projects downward from the inferior surface of vertebral body above. They allow for flexion and extension and limit lateral flexion in the cervical spine.

The Devonian period 419–359 Ma (Age of Fishes) saw the development of early sharks, armoured placoderms and various lobe-finned fishes including the tetrapod transitional species The evolution of fish began about 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion. It was during this time that the early chordates developed the skull and the vertebral column, leading to the first craniates and vertebrates. The first fish lineages belong to the Agnatha, or jawless fish. Early examples include Haikouichthys.

The only known specimen of Gerobatrachus is a nearly complete skeleton (USNM 489135) about long, that is articulated, preserved in ventral view, missing only the stylopodia, zeugopodia, and ventral portions of the skull and pectoral girdle. It is preserved in red siltstone with only its underside exposed. Like other amphibamid temnospondyls, Gerobatrachus has a rounded and flattened head, well-developed limbs, and a small tail. Its vertebral column is somewhat shorter than those of related amphibamids.

Spondyloarthropathy with inflammation is called axial spondyloarthritis.Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. © 2009 In the broadest sense, the term spondyloarthropathy includes joint involvement of vertebral column from any type of joint disease, including rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, but the term is often used for a specific group of disorders with certain common features, the group often being termed specifically seronegative spondylarthropathies. They have an increased incidence of HLA-B27, as well as negative rheumatoid factor and ANA.

This allows the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear. In anotophysians, the three first vertebrae are specialized and associated with one or more cephalic ribs (a primitive Weberian apparatus). In the otophysians, a distinct modification of the anterior four or five first vertebrae is found, as well as the Weberian ossicles. The fully functioning Weberian apparatus consists of the swim bladder, the Weberian ossicles, a portion of the anterior vertebral column, and some muscles and ligaments.

This is a type of deformity that starts and progresses because of the collapse of the vertebral column in an asymmetrical manner. As bones start to become weaker and the ligaments and discs located in the spine become worn as a result of age-related changes, the spine begins to curve. The word 'de novo' is associated with this form of scoliosis as it means 'new', referring to the occurrence of the condition during later life.

Evidence found of the body reveals that a cross section of this fish would have been oval in shape. On the sides of the body, Onychodus had a series of pores which provided a sensory system that enabled the fish to locate prey and to position itself in narrow spaces. The tail fin is almost symmetrical around the vertebral column. It was rounded slightly and would have been very flexible with a broad sweep producing forward motion.

Her work contributed to her degree. She received a Master's in 1921, and a Ph.D. in anatomy in 1924, whereupon she became an instructor of anatomy. She accepted a National Research Council Fellowship in Physical Anthropology for the 1925-26 academic year, and studied at Oxford University in England, with Arthur Thomson. As a result of this work, she published her first research paper on bone, "The Moveable Segments of the Vertebral Column in Old Egyptians".

The notochord in most vertebrates is replaced by the vertebral column and cartilage is replaced by bone in most adults. In three phyla and one subclass of animals, endoskeletons of various complexity are found: Chordata, Echinodermata, Porifera, and Coleoidea. An endoskeleton may function purely for support (as in the case of sponges), but often serves as an attachment site for muscle and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue.

On the front of the right leg a fish extends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design. The left leg also bears tattoos, but these designs could not be clearly distinguished. In addition, the chief's back is tattooed with a series of small circles in line with the vertebral column.

The Batson Venous plexus, or simply Batson's Plexus, runs through the inner vertebral column connecting the thoracic and pelvic veins. These veins get their notoriety from the fact that they are valveless, which is believed to be the reason for metastasis of certain cancers. The great saphenous vein is the most important superficial vein of the lower limb. First described by the Persian physician Avicenna, this vein derives its name from the word safina, meaning "hidden".

The relatively well-preserved specimen of a juvenile Neanderthal recovered from the Galería del Osario, El Sidrón J1, allowed researchers to study the ontogeny of Neanderthals. By analyzing its dentition, researchers estimate that El Sidrón J1 was between 7 and 8 years old at the time of death. Around 36% of the juvenile specimen's remains was recovered, including key cranial, dental and vertebral column elements. 138 fossil elements were recovered, including 30 dental elements and a complete mandible.

In Triceratops the first four and last two sacrals had transverse processes, connecting the vertebral column to the pelvis, that were fused at their distal ends. Sacrals seven and eight had longer processes, causing the sacrum to have an oval profile in top view. On top of the sacrum a neural plate was present formed by a fusion of the neural spines of the second through fifth vertebrae. Triceratops had a large pelvis with a long ilium.

To positionally compensate the additional load due to the pregnancy, pregnant mothers often extend their lower backs. As the fetal load increases, women tend to arch their lower backs, specifically in the lumbar region of their vertebral column to maintain postural stability and balance. The arching of the lumbar region is known as lumbar lordosis, which recovers the center of mass into a stable position by reducing hip torque. According to a study conducted by Whitcome, et al.

Life restoration of Amargasaurus Amargasaurus was small for a sauropod, measuring in length and weighing approximately . It followed the typical sauropod body plan, with a long tail and neck, a small head, and a barrel-shaped trunk supported by four column- like legs. The neck of Amargasaurus was shorter than in most other sauropods, a common trait within the Dicraeosauridae. Measuring in length, the neck corresponded to 136% of the length of the dorsal vertebral column.

There are different ligaments involved in the holding together of the vertebrae in the column, and in the column's movement. The anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments extend the length of the vertebral column along the front and back of the vertebral bodies. The interspinous ligaments connect the adjoining spinous processes of the vertebrae. The supraspinous ligament extends the length of the spine running along the back of the spinous processes, from the sacrum to the seventh cervical vertebra.

Surface projections of organs of the torso. The transpyloric line is seen at L1 Individual vertebrae of the human vertebral column can be felt and used as surface anatomy, with reference points are taken from the middle of the vertebral body. This provides anatomical landmarks that can be used to guide procedures such as a lumbar puncture and also as vertical reference points to describe the locations of other parts of human anatomy, such as the positions of organs.

Vertebrae are defined by the regions of the vertebral column that they occur in, as in humans. Cervical vertebrae are those in the neck area. With the exception of the two sloth genera (Choloepus and Bradypus) and the manatee genus, (Trichechus), all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae. In other vertebrates, the number of cervical vertebrae can range from a single vertebra in amphibians to as many as 25 in swans or 76 in the extinct plesiosaur Elasmosaurus.

Balance in theropods was aided by a vertebral column which was almost horizontal, placing the center of gravity near the hips. Tetanurans were named for their zygapophysis-stiffened tails to counterbalance long grasping claws. Deinonychosauria had elongated processes along the neural arches, which stiffened the tail and counterbalanced its long arms. Some theropods, like Tyrannosaurus rex, evolved very small arms relative to body size, which are thought, in part, to have allowed for increased head and jaw size.

Thorax of the neotype. The vertebral column of Scelidosaurus contained at least six neck vertebrae, seventeen dorsal vertebrae, four sacral vertebrae and at least thirty-five tail vertebrae. Though perhaps the actual total of cervical vertebrae was as high as seven or eight, the neck was only moderately long. The torso was relatively flat in side view, however, despite the belly being broad, it was not extremely vertically compressed as with ankylosaurs but taller than wide.

Parahongshanornis is known from the holotype PMOL-AB00161, which was found near Yuanjiawa, Chaoyang, in the middle Aptian Jiufotang Formation of the Jehol Biota, about 120 million years old. It consists of a nearly complete and articulated skeleton missing the skull but showing remains of the soft parts of the body, including some feathering. Most of the vertebral column is obscured by the sternum and pelvis. Parahongshanornis is a small species with a femur length of twenty-four millimetres.

Real-time MRI of the human heart The human heart is in the middle of the thorax, with its apex pointing to the left. The human heart is situated in the middle mediastinum, at the level of thoracic vertebrae T5-T8. A double- membraned sac called the pericardium surrounds the heart and attaches to the mediastinum. The back surface of the heart lies near the vertebral column, and the front surface sits behind the sternum and rib cartilages.

Modern predators, such as crocodiles, use this technique to catch some of their prey. How the animal breathed is uncertain. It may have breathed similarly to the giant salamander genus Andrias, by moving the floor of the mouth by muscles attached to the hyoid and branchial arches. The ribs surround the upper part of the body, and articulate with the vertebral column by a wide and essentially two-headed upper end, attached obliquely to the spinal column.

Illustrations of various Istiodactylus bones, including the neck vertebrae and notarium The vertebral column of ornithocheiromorphs was heavily pneumatized by an extensive system of air sacs, leaving prominent pneumatic foraminae. The neck of ornithocheiromorphs was typically relatively long and robust, being longer than the torso in some derived clades. The neural spines of ornithocheiromorph cervical vertebrae were generally tall and spikelike. In some genera such as Tropeognathus and Istiodactylus, up to six dorsal vertebrae are fused into a notarium.

Related diplodocids like Apatosaurus and Diplodocus had long, low skulls with peg-like teeth confined to the front of the jaws. Size comparison Most of the distinguishing skeletal features of Barosaurus were in the vertebrae, although a complete vertebral column has never been found. Diplodocus and Apatosaurus both had 15 cervical (neck) and 10 dorsal (trunk) vertebrae, while Barosaurus had only 9 dorsals. A dorsal may have been converted into a cervical vertebra, for a total of 16 vertebrae in the neck.

As a result, their dentition is similar to notoungulates, but it seems to have evolved independently. The cheek teeth are similar to rhinocerotoids, including similar microstructure, which indicate they had the same function. Postcranially, astrapotheres are relatively robust and more or less graviportal but have slender long bones, most notably in the hindlegs, suggesting they were amphibious. In order to support their proboscises and large heads they had relatively long and massive necks in relation to the rest of the vertebral column.

The front neck vertebrae, the atlas and axis, are grown together. The cervical vertebrae have very long joint processes, zygapophyses, showing that thick intervertebral discs must have been present and that the neck was longer and more flexible than is often assumed. The short rib and the diapophysis of the first dorsal vertebra are fused with the coracoid, immobilising the entire shoulder girdle relative to the vertebral column. The coracoids are small but sharply curving to the inside below, almost meeting each other.

Stenosis is classified as a decaying disease because it causes the canal to gradually become more and more narrow which can cause pain or loss of function. Common symptoms of lumbar stenosis are pain, fatigue, weakness of the muscle and numbness. Stenosis can be caused by old age or an injury to the vertebral column and usually requires a CT scan or MRI to diagnose. Performing a laminotomy can relieve pressure in the spinal canal caused by lumbar stenosis and therefore alleviate symptoms.

The holotype specimen of Tambachia trogallas, known as MNG 7722, has been found from an outcrop of the Tambach Formation at the Bromacker locality in the Thuringian Forest of central Germany. It consists of a skull and much of the postcranial skeleton. The only major portion of the skeleton that is missing is the presacral vertebral column. The Bromacker locality is a sandstone quarry that is well known for tetrapod trackways and articulated skeletons of terrestrial and semiterrestrial amphibians and reptiles.

A review of "Leidyosuchus" (Crocodyliformes, Eusuchia) from the Cretaceous through Eocene of North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17(4):679–697. "L." multidentalis was first described by Charles Mook in 1930 on the basis of the holotype AMNH 5179, consisting of a partial vertebral column, mandible, partial left ilium, and left tibia, found from a locality in Torrejon Arroyo, New Mexico (then referred to as the Torrejon beds, and now thought to be part of the Nacimiento Formation).Mook, C. C. (1930).

Between each of the pleurals are a series of neural bones, which although always present are not always visible, in many species of Pleurodire they are submerged below the pleurals. Beneath the neural bone is the Neural arch which forms the upper half of the encasement for the spinal chord. Below this the rest of the vertebral column. Some species of turtles have some extra bones called mesoplastra, which are located between the carapace and plastron in the bridge area.

The skeleton is cartilaginous. The notochord is gradually replaced by a vertebral column during development, except in Holocephali, where the notochord stays intact. In some deepwater sharks, the column is reduced.Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the gonads, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system).

The ischium retains the primitive character of a prominent, triangular obturator process and lack the proximodorsal process that is found in birds. In advanced oviraptorosaurians, the ischium is curved posteriorly. The pectoral girdle is also primitive; the scapula is a broad blade that is distally expanded, it lies on the lateral aspect of the thorax at an angle to the vertebral column, and the coracoid has the primitive coelurosaur shape with a proximal supracoracoidal nerve foramen and a moderate biceps tubercle.Witmer, L.M. (2005).

The vertebral segmentation is a process that forms a distinctive feature of the group. At first, somites form as a spherical epithelial structure with a central lumen lined by radially arranged cells. Structures such as mesenchymal sclerotome which later develop as the vertebral column along with notochord, and dermomyotome which further divides to form two types of cells, develop from these somites. The sequential epithelialization of the mesodermal mesenchymal rods lead to the formation of somites and the vertebrae originate from these structures.

Brachiosaurus differed in its body proportions from the closely related Giraffatitan. The trunk was about 25–30% longer, resulting in a dorsal vertebral column longer than the humerus. Only a single complete caudal (tail) vertebra has been discovered, but its great height suggests that the tail was larger than in Giraffatitan. This vertebra had a much greater area for ligament attachment due to a broadened neural spine, indicating that the tail was also longer than in Giraffatitan, possibly by 20–25%.

Unktehi was described as a snakelike monster equipped with feet, like the elongate sinuous mosasaurs who had four short limbs. Its back was described as ridged and saw like, a configuration similar to the appearance of a fossil vertebral column eroding from rock. In more recent times Lakota storyteller James LaPointe has explicitly called Unktehi a dinosaur. The Sioux of the Standing Rock Reservation, which straddles the border between North and South Dakota, have a long history of familiarity with dinosaur bonebeds.

Restoration of Pistosaurus longaevus Pistosaurus was about long, and had a body form resembling that of nothosaurs, aquatic reptiles that flourished during the Triassic. However, the vertebral column was stiff, like that of a plesiosaur, implying that the animal used its paddle-like flippers to propel itself through the water, as the plesiosaurs probably did. The head also resembled that of a plesiosaur, but with the primitive palate of a nothosaur, and numerous, sharp teeth ideal for catching and eating fish.

Thalattoarchon is an extinct genus of ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic of the western United States. The type species Thalattoarchon saurophagis (meaning "lizard-eating sovereign of the sea" in Greek) was discovered in Nevada, USA, in 2010 and formally described in 2013. It is known from a single skeleton, holotype FMNH PR 3032, consisting of a partial skull, vertebral column, hip bones, and parts of the hind fins. The total length of Thalattoarchon is estimated to have been at least .

The corpus calcareum and radial lamellae, the two outermost layers of a mackerel shark vertebra, which are associated with the relationship between length and weight, were thicker than those of other large predatory mackerel sharks, suggesting that Cardabiodon was significantly heavier and stockier, although no estimation of its weight has been attempted yet. The vertebral column was rigid and spindle- shaped, which would be poorly flexible but efficient for fast swimming. Cardabiodon also had a larger body relative to its teeth.

It is relatively non-invasive, requiring an initial injection of the radioisotope, and sedation throughout the procedure. The bone scan offers several advantages over traditional radiographs. In some cases, it may be more sensitive due to the fact that some lesions are only apparent on radiographs after they have become chronic. The bone scan allows imaging of the pelvis, vertebral column, and upper limbs, which are areas that are usually poorly imaged by radiographs on the adult horse, due to their size.

However, what is clear is that they are adapted even further to an aquatic life-style. In Rodhocetus, for example, the sacrum – a bone that in land-mammals is a fusion of five vertebrae that connects the pelvis with the rest of the vertebral column – was divided into loose vertebrae. However, the pelvis was still connected to one of the sacral vertebrae. Furthermore, the nasal openings are now halfway up the snout; a first step towards the telescoped condition in modern whales.

Calyptosuchus was named by Long and Ballew (1985) on the basis of UMMP 13950, an partial carapace with a vertebral column and pelvis that had been discovered in the Tecovas Formation of western Texas in 1931 by Ermin Cowles Case, who only went as far to assign the specimen to Phytosauria in a 1932 paper.Case EC. 1932. A perfectly preserved segment of the armor of a phytosaur, with associated vertebrae. Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology. University of Michigan 4:57-80.

A skeletal illustration of Williston (1911)'s Seymouria baylorensis specimen. Note that the fourth finger of the hand is too long and too many caudal ribs are illustrated. The vertebral column is fairly short, with a total of 24 vertebrae in front of the hip. The vertebrae are gastrocentrous, meaning that each vertebra has a larger, somewhat spool-shaped component known as a pleurocentrum, and a smaller, wedge-shaped (or crescent-shaped from the front) component known as an intercentrum.

Sunnybatrachus is a genus of extinct frog that lived during the Berriasian epoch of the Early Cretaceous of England. The only known material, including the holotype ilium as well as bones of the skull, vertebral column, forelimb, pelvis, and hindlimb was named Sunnybatrachus purbeckensis by Susan E. Evans and Gerard J. McGowan in 2002. The species name describes the Purbeck Limestone Group, while the genus name is for the Sunnydown Farm locality of the Lulworth Formation, where the fossils were found.

Layers protecting the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers. Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough meningeal membranes, and enclosed in the bones of the skull and vertebral column, which combine to form a strong physical shield. Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the blood–brain barrier, which prevents most types of chemicals from moving from the bloodstream into the interior of the CNS.

Yoga flexes, extends and rotates the vertebral column, helping to prevent or manage back pain. Yoga helps to keep bones and joints in a healthy state. In particular, it helps to maintain bone strength; it also helps to maintain both joint mobility (range of motion), and joint stability. It improves posture, muscular strength, coordination and confidence (reducing anxiety), all of which reduce the risk of injury and bone fracture, and which may therefore be helpful to people with conditions such as osteoporosis.

It lacks the dorsal and anal fins (fish fin) and its tail is more like those of early tetrapods than the caudal fins of other lobe-fins. The shoulders exhibits several tetrapod-like features, while the humerus is longer than those found in other lobe-fins. The vertebral column is ossified throughout its length and the vertebrae are comparable to those of early tetrapods. On the other hand, the distal parts of the front fins are unlike those of tetrapods.

A right squamosal bone from another adult individual was recovered from the same Canyon Bone Bed site as MOR 485 (and catalogued under the same number), but only reported in 2010. Two other specimens were collected on the Blacktail Creek, to the south of Cut Bank and referred to Achelousaurus by Sampson in 1995. Specimen MOR 591 is a partial skull and an about 60% complete skeleton of a sub-adult specimen that includes the vertebral column, pelvis, sacrum and a femur.

Water is much denser than air, holds a relatively small amount of dissolved oxygen, and absorbs more light than air does. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage (cartilaginous fish) or bone (bony fish). The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong.

Sauropod skull bones are rarely found, and the Amargasaurus skull is only the second skull known from a member of the Dicraeosauridae. Major parts of the skeleton were found in their original anatomical position: the vertebral column of the neck and back, which consisted of 22 articulated vertebrae, was found connected to both the skull and the sacrum. Of the skull, only the temporal region and the braincase are preserved. The sacrum, despite being partly eroded prior to burial, is fairly complete.

Some E. rugosidens specimens are known that possess a "cheek plate" above the lower jaw. Contrary to that discovered with Panoplosaurus, it is "free-floating", not fused with the lower jaw bone. The vertebral column contains about eight neck vertebrae, about twelve "free" back vertebrae, a "sacral rod" of four fused rear dorsal vertebrae, three sacral vertebrae, two caudosacrals and at least twenty, but probably about forty, tail vertebrae. In the neck the first two vertebrae, the atlas and axis, are fused.

There are many morphological changes that allowed the pelvic girdle of Acanthostega to become a weight-bearing structure. In more ancestral states the two sides of the girdle were not attached. In Acanthostega there is contact between the two sides and fusion of the girdle with the sacral rib of the vertebral column. These fusions would have made the pelvic region more powerful and equipped to counter the force of gravity when not supported by the buoyancy of an aquatic environment.

Spondylocostal dysostosis, also known as Jarcho-Levin syndrome (JLS), is a rare, heritable axial skeleton growth disorder. It is characterized by widespread and sometimes severe malformations of the vertebral column and ribs, shortened thorax, and moderate to severe scoliosis and kyphosis. Individuals with Jarcho-Levin typically appear to have a short trunk and neck, with arms appearing relatively long in comparison, and a slightly protuberant abdomen. Severely affected individuals may have life-threatening pulmonary complications due to deformities of the thorax.

Hagfish, of the class Myxini (also known as Hyperotreti), are eel-shaped, slime-producing marine fish (occasionally called slime eels). They are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column, although hagfish do have rudimentary vertebrae. Along with lampreys, hagfish are jawless; they are the sister group to jawed vertebrates, and living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago.Myxini – University of California Museum of Paleontology The classification of hagfish had been controversial.

Assynt salmon hatchery, near Inchnadamph in the Scottish Highlands Very young fertilised salmon eggs, notice the developing eyes and vertebral column. Salmon egg hatching: In about 24 hr, it will be a fry without the yolk sac. The aquaculture or farming of salmonids can be contrasted with capturing wild salmonids using commercial fishing techniques. However, the concept of "wild" salmon as used by the Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute includes stock enhancement fish produced in hatcheries that have historically been considered ocean ranching.

The specific name honours Dr. Ray H. Marr who has propagated the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology at the SMU. The holotype, SMU 72834, was found in a layer of the Twin Mountains Formation dating from the Aptian. It consists of a partial skeleton with skull. It preserved the cranium with the lower jaws, the vertebral column up to the twenty-third tail vertebra, the shoulder girdle, the left arm, the right humerus, the pelvis, both thighbones, both shinbones and the left calfbone.

Veterinary care is best left to a reptile specialist. A wild common snapping turtle will make a hissing sound when it is threatened or encountered, but they prefer not to invoke confrontations. It is a common misconception that common snapping turtles may be safely picked up by the tail with no harm to the animal; in fact, this has a high chance of injuring the turtle, especially the tail itself and the vertebral column. Lifting the turtle with the hands is difficult and dangerous.

The holotype specimen of Ixalerpeton, numbered ULBRA-PVT059, consists of parts from the skull, vertebral column, and all four limbs. The specimen comes from the Carnian Santa Maria Formation of Brazil, and it was found alongside two individuals of Buriolestes as well as a set of femora belonging to second individual of Ixalerpeton. The genus name of Ixalerpeton combines the Greek words ixalos ("leaping") and erpeton ("reptile"), and the species name polesinensis references the town of São João do Polêsine, where the dig site is located.

Vertebral osteomyelitis is a type of osteomyelitis (infection and inflammation of the bone and bone marrow) that affects the vertebrae. It is a rare bone infection concentrated in the vertebral column. Cases of vertebral osteomyelitis are so rare that they constitute only 2%-4% of all bone infections. The infection can be classified as acute or chronic depending on the severity of the onset of the case, where acute patients often experience better outcomes than those living with the chronic symptoms that are characteristic of the disease.

The vertebral column is composed of many ring-like bones called vertebra (plural: vertebrae) and it spans from the skull to the sacrum. Each vertebra has a hole in the center called the vertebral foramen through which the spinal cord traverses. Laminae (singular: lamina) are the anatomical structures of primary importance in a laminotomy. Laminae are part of the vertebral arch which is the region of bone on the back side of each vertebra that forms a protective covering for the back side of the spinal cord.

The posterior half of the skeleton was found in articulation and the anterior dorsal and cervical vertebrae and forelimbs were found partially disarticulated prior to burial. The skull was discovered slightly separated from the vertebral column. The skull and anterior presacrals were also exposed at the time of discovery and had been partially been destroyed by erosion. From the material known of the snout, only a small fragment of the right maxilla has been recovered and shows that the interdental plates are fused, but not striated.

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and entering the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae.

The cervical enlargement, stretching from the C5 to T1 vertebrae, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms and trunk. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3, handles sensory input and motor output coming from and going to the legs. The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults.

The hindlimbs are strongly reduced and does not articulate with the vertebral column which lack true sacral vertebrae. Basilosaurid forelimbs have broad and fan-shaped scapulae attached to a humerus, radius, and ulna which are flattened into a plane to which the elbow joint was restricted, effectively making pronation and supination impossible. Because of a shortage of forelimb fossils from other arachaocetes, it is not known if this arrangement is unique to basilosaurids. Some of the characteristics of basilosaurids are also present in Georgiacetus.

In Protoceratopsidae, the nasal cavity, which was ancestrally one large cavity, was split into two by the hard palate. This splitting likely happened to accommodate the deeper oral cavity. The vertebral column of protoceratopsids was S-shaped, and the vertebrae had unusually long neural spines, with spines on caudal vertebrae that were five times as tall as the centrum. The neural spines on the caudal vertebrae were longer in the middle of the tail than at the base, increasing the tail's height and flattening it.

A specimen catalogued as MPN 19457 formed the type specimen of a new species, E. gouldi, which they named after the late biologist Stephen Jay Gould; it is a skeleton preserved bottom-side-up, which includes the skull and parts of the vertebral column and limbs. A second specimen consists of a disarticulated skull, which is preserved as part of the gut contents of an indeterminate rhynchocephalian catalogued as MPN A01/82. Both specimens are stored in the Museum of Palaeontology at the University of Naples (MPN).

The specimen has since been transferred to the Museum of Paleontology at the National University of La Rioja (PULR), where it bears the specimen number PULR 08. This specimen, which would become the holotype of Gracilisuchus, consists of a partial skull, an incomplete vertebral column, parts of the scapula and humerus, gastralia, and several associated osteoderms. Several other specimens are mixed in with these remains on the same slab. A vertebral series ("Series A"), originally identified as the tail of Gracilisuchus, has been reassigned to Tropidosuchus.

The large, round head and shortened vertebral column are features Gerobatrachus shares in common with frogs and the early salamander Karaurus.Science Daily, "Ancient Amphibian: Debate Over Origin Of Frogs And Salamanders Settled With Discovery Of Missing Link" Accessed 22 May 2008. Gerobatrachus also has a large embayment at the back of the skull called an otic notch, which is seen other amphibamids and in frogs and supports the tympanum, an eardrum-like structure used in hearing. Many finer details of the skull link Gerobatrachus with modern amphibians.

On 7 June 2014, Esparragoza Moreno (aged 65) reportedly died of a heart attack following a car accident he had suffered fifteen days earlier. According to unconfirmed reports, Esparragoza Moreno was confined to a bed after injuring his vertebral column in the wreck. When he tried to get up from his bed, he suffered a heart attack and died. Sources disagree on the exact location of his death; some state he died in Mexico City, while others suggest it may have been in Guadalajara.

The deep cervical fascia (or fascia colli in older texts) lies under cover of the platysma, and invests the muscles of the neck; it also forms sheaths for the carotid vessels, and for the structures situated in front of the vertebral column. Its attachment to the hyoid bone prevents the formation of a dewlap.Anatomy & Physiology, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill Co., 2008. The investing portion of the fascia is attached behind to the ligamentum nuchæ and to the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra.

Cutaway diagram showing various organs of a fish The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles.

The vertebral column is flexible and finely segmented, with many more vertebrae than most other fish in the family; they have up to 50 vertebrae, whereas most gobies have about 26. This extra-segmented spine helps Luciogobius species burrow in their common habitat, gravel beaches. Most vertebrates would have difficulty living in gravel that is constantly stirred by tidal action, but the flexibility of the bodies of Luciogobius is likely an adaptation to this environment. They also lack scales and the first dorsal fin.

Antlerpeton had several adaptations for a terrestrial lifestyle. While early tetrapods like Ichthyostega and Acanthostega were mostly aquatic, Antlerpeton could probably move effectively on land with its robust legs and pelvic girdle. The femur is large, and many bony ridges provide anchorage for muscles that would have been useful for both swimming and moving on land. The thickened pubis and acetabulum of the pelvic girdle and the large sacral vertebrae that connect it with the vertebral column allowed Antlerpeton to withstand the stresses of terrestrial locomotion.

Polesinesuchus is known from a relatively small- sized individual, probably a juvenile based on the incomplete fusion of neural arches to their centra in the whole vertebral column. Polesinesuchus can be distinguished from all other aetosaurs by a unique combination of characters not controlled by ontogeny, most of which are found in its vertebrae. Its cervical vertebrae show prezygapophyses that widely extend laterally through most of the anterior edge of the diapophyses. In Polesinesuchus, hyposphene articulations are absent in both cervical and mid-dorsal vertebrae.

Some protocetids had short, wide fore- and hindlimbs that were likely to have been used in swimming, but the limbs gave a slow and cumbersome locomotion on land. It is possible that some protocetids had flukes. However, it is clear that they were adapted even further to an aquatic life-style. In Rodhocetus, for example, the sacrum (a bone that, in land-mammals, is a fusion of five vertebrae that connects the pelvis with the rest of the vertebral column) was divided into loose vertebrae.

The evolution of human bipedalism, which began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with Sahelanthropus, or about 12 million years ago with Danuvius guggenmosi, has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement and size of the bones of the foot, hip size and shape, knee size, leg length, and the shape and orientation of the vertebral column. The evolutionary factors that produced these changes have been the subject of several theories.

The human skull is balanced on the vertebral column: The foramen magnum is located inferiorly under the skull, which puts much of the weight of the head behind the spine. Furthermore, the flat human face helps to maintain balance on the occipital condyles. Because of this, the erect position of the head is possible without the prominent supraorbital ridges and the strong muscular attachments found in, for example, apes. As a result, in humans the muscles of the forehead (the occipitofrontalis) are only used for facial expressions.

The coccyx (plural: coccyges or coccyxes), commonly referred to as the tailbone, is the final segment of the vertebral column in all apes, and analogous structures in certain other mammals such as horses. In tailless primates (e.g. humans and other great apes) since Nacholapithecus (a Miocene hominoid),Nakatsukasa 2004, Acquisition of bipedalism (See Fig. 5 entitled First coccygeal/caudal vertebra in short-tailed or tailless primates..)Note: Nacholapithecus and Nakaliphitecus nakayamai are two different species of Miocene hominoids (specimens from Nakali and Nachola respectively).

A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body. In the human body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, one on each side of the vertebral column. These are grouped into the corresponding cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions of the spine. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one pair of coccygeal nerves.

This skeleton was reported to measure in length and consists of a partial vertebral column with skeletal remains of a Xiphactinus as stomach contents and partial jaws with about 150 teeth visible. This skeleton was considered to be one of the greatest scientific discoveries of that year due to the unexpected preservation of cartilage. George F. Sternberg would later discover more O. mantelli skeletons throughout his career. His most notable finds were FHSM VP-323 and FHSM VP-2187, found in 1950 and 1965 respectively.

The upper and lower jaws of Tyrannosaurus, like those of many dinosaurs, possessed numerous foramina, or small holes in the bone. Various functions have been proposed for these foramina, such as a crocodile-like sensory system or evidence of extra-oral structures such as scales or potentially lips. The vertebral column of Tyrannosaurus consisted of ten neck vertebrae, thirteen back vertebrae and five sacral vertebrae. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and could well have varied between individuals but probably numbered at least forty.

In a human's vertebral column, there are normally thirty-three vertebrae; the upper twenty-four are articulating and separated from each other by intervertebral discs, and the lower nine are fused in adults, five in the sacrum and four in the coccyx, or tailbone. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae. The number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same.

Aenigmaspina was a small (<1 m long) archosaur with a slender skeleton and build. It is mostly known from the front half of its body, including its vertebral column, ribs, shoulder and parts of the forelimb, as well as possibly pieces of skull and pelvis that may belong to it. The vertebrae of Aenigmaspina are its most distinctive feature. These are characterised by their spine tables, where the tops of the neural spines split into a broad 'V' shape with a deep groove between them.

The R. zetlandicus holotype at the Yorkshire Museum R. zetlandicus is known from the holotype YORYM G503 (pictured), a nearly complete skull and vertebral column in association with parts of the limbs. It was collected from the Alum Shale of Whitby Mudstone Formation, Yorkshire, dating to the Toarcian stage. R. thorntoni was first named by Phillips in 1854 and its skull was described in detail by Taylor (1992). Later it was revised by Cruickshank (1996) as a junior synonym of R. cramptoni, alongside R. thorntoni.

This shows that the taxon diverged early from the stem and evolved separately as a distinct lineage by the Early Cretaceous in East Asia. The skull is described as being short and wide and is well preserved. The maxillary region is less well-preserved but it can be determined that each premaxilla bears 18-20 slender and conical teeth, and the maxilla bears approximately 40-50 fine pedicellate teeth. The vertebral column consists of nine presacral vertebrae, a single sacral vertebra, and a free urostyle.

An unusual feature of the neural spines of the trunk region, from the 11 vertebra to the first caudal, is that each is divided into two distinct units by a suture line. One is proximinal to the rest of the vertebra and the other is distal to it. Some anteroposterior displacement of these two units occurs along the vertebral column, suggesting they are not ossified to one another. In vertebrae 8-14, the distal ends of the distal portions of the neural spines are expanded posteriorly.

EOS is a medical imaging system whose aim is to provide frontal and lateral radiography images, while limiting the X-ray dose absorbed by the patient in a sitting or standing position. The system relies on the high sensitivity of a detector (multi-wire chamber) invented by Georges Charpak (which gave him the 1992 Nobel prize). EOS is commercialized by the French company EOS imaging as an orthopedic application whose main feature is the 3D visualization of the vertebral column and/or lower limbs of the patients.

The first known fossil of Stratiotosuchus was a nearly complete skeleton, cataloged as DGM 1477-R. It was found by paleontologist José Martin Suárez in the town of Irapuru in São Paulo State in 1988. This skeleton and all other specimens of Stratiotosuchus come from the Adamantina Formation, which is either Turonian-Santonian in age (about 85 million years old) or Campanian-Maastrichtian in age (about 70 million years old). DGM 1477-R includes a nearly complete skull, partial lower jaw, vertebral column, and limb bones.

A shoulder presentation refers to a malpresentation at childbirth where the baby is in a transverse lie (its vertebral column is perpendicular to that of the mother), thus the leading part (the part that first enters the birth canal) is an arm, a shoulder, or the trunk. While a baby can be delivered vaginally when either the head or the feet/buttocks are the leading part, it usually cannot be expected to be delivered successfully with a shoulder presentation unless a cesarean section (C/S) is performed.

Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are conventionally considered twelve pairs. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck, including the special senses of vision, taste, smell, and hearing. The cranial nerves emerge from the central nervous system above the level of the first vertebrae of the vertebral column. Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides.

PVL 4619, the PVL specimen mentioned by Romer, was a partial skeleton including a complete pelvis and left hindlimb, as well as a partial right hindlimb. PVL 4625 was another skeleton discovered later, which included portions of the left hip, left hindlimb, and vertebral column. Paul Sereno and Arcucci redescribed the known material in 1994 and mentioned that an isolated partial femur of this species was also present at the PVL, although Martin Ezcurra (2016) noted that the provided catalogue number, PVL 5000, actually referred to a notoungulate mammal.

Their pelts are thick and course with guard hairs measuring up to 30 mm. Additionally they have vibrissae that provide tactile feedback located above the eyes, under the chin, along the back and sides, on the abdomen and on the fore- and hind limbs. These vibrissae, or whiskers, measure 90 mm long on the snout, and 70 mm elsewhere. Other noted features include: the Jacobsen's organ which is as a specialized olfactory structure, a compartmentalized stomach into nonglandular cranial and glandular caudal sections, and a vertebral column that is convex from neck to tail.

231 Finds of tail clubs of gigantic individuals suggest larger sizes but their reference to Saichania cannot be substantiated as the holotype, the only specimen sufficiently described, only consists of the front of the animal. Saichania shared the general ankylosaurid build, being a low-slung, broad, heavily armoured dinosaur, with short forelimbs. Even for an ankylosaurid however, Saichania is exceptionally robust, its rump strengthened by ossifications and fusions of the vertebral column, ribs, shoulder girdle and breast bones. Arbour in 2014 established a revised list of distinguishing traits.

The vertebral arch is composed of several anatomical features in addition to laminae that must be taken into account when performing a laminotomy. In the center of the vertebral arch is a bony projection called the spinous process. The spinous process is located on the posterior or back side of the vertebra and serves as the attachment point for ligaments and muscles which support and stabilize the vertebral column. Each vertebra has two lateral bony projections called the transverse processes which are located on either side of the vertebral arch.

Embryonic therizinosaurid based on stage D fossilized embryos At least four developmental embryonic stages were reported from the Nanchao embryos; Kundrát and colleagues classified them from stages A to D depending on the development. Stage A is the earliest of all and is characterized by the poor ossification of bones and the porous structure of the centra in the vertebral column. During stages B and C the bones become slightly more articulated and ossified. These seem to correspond with developmental levels of 45–50, and 64-day-old embryos of the american alligator.

The giraffe (right) and its close relative the okapi (left) both have seven cervical vertebrae The giraffe has an extremely elongated neck, which can be up to in length, accounting for much of the animal's vertical height. The long neck results from a disproportionate lengthening of the cervical vertebrae, not from the addition of more vertebrae. Each cervical vertebra is over long. They comprise 52–54 per cent of the length of the giraffe's vertebral column, compared with the 27–33 percent typical of similar large ungulates, including the giraffe's closest living relative, the okapi.

Following this, Raiden would finish Solidus by decapitating him similar to samurai fashion. The scene was rejected and instead Raiden would slice Solidus' stomach, another idea taken from samurais. However, this concept was also scrapped to simply Raiden slicing Solidus' vertebral column with the boss falling from the area to give the idea he could not accept his defeat. Konami kept Raiden's starring role in Metal Gear Solid 2 secret until the game's North American release; the company replaced Raiden with Snake in teaser trailers and other preview materials.

The limbs of the cheetah are longer than what is typical for other cats its size; the thigh muscles are large, and the tibia and fibula are held close together making the lower legs less likely to rotate. This reduces the risk of losing balance during runs, but compromises the ability to climb. The highly reduced clavicle is connected through ligaments to the scapula, whose pendulum-like motion increases the stride length and assists in shock absorption. The extension of the vertebral column can add as much as to the stride length.

The merle gene is an incomplete dominant, meaning only one copy of the gene is needed to show the merle coloring; two merle genes produce excessive white markings and many health issues such as deafness, blindness, or other debilitating ocular issues. Great Danes can also develop wobbler disease, a condition affecting the vertebral column. Since these dogs do grow at a rapid rate, the bones in their vertebae can push up against the spinal cord and cause weakness in the legs. This can be treated with surgery or may heal itself over time.

This suggests that the primitive carapacial ridge functioned differently and must have gained the function of mediating the ribs and carapace development later. The Pax1 and Sonic hedgehog gene (Shh) serve as key regulators during the development of the vertebral column. Shh expression in the neural tube is essential for the maintenance of Pax1 expression in the ventral sclerotome and thus plays a key role in carapacial rib development. Genetic observations of Pax1 and Shh further provide an understanding in key gene expression that could potentially be responsible for changing turtle morphology.

Besides the articular processes, the hyposphene-hypantrum articulation formed an additional articulation between vertebrae, making the vertebral column more rigid; in Brachiosaurus, the hyposphene was much more pronounced than in Giraffatitan. Femur (left) and humerus of the holotype The coracoid was semicircular and taller than broad. Differences from Giraffatitan are related to its shape in side view, including the straighter suture with the scapula. Moreover, the articular surface that forms part of the shoulder joint was thicker and directed more sideward than in Giraffatitan and other sauropods, possibly indicating a more sprawled forelimb.

Oedaleops lacks the enlarged caniniform teeth and blunt snout of Eothyris. Because no tail bones are known, the total body length of Oedaleops is uncertain. The length of the dorsal vertebral column (the length of vertebrae making up the back) can be estimated at around from the lengths of individual dorsal vertebrae in Oedaleops and the number of dorsal vertebrae present in related synapsids. Adding the length of the skull gives a snout- vent length (the length of the body from the tip of the skull to hips) of .

Size compared to a human Massospondylus was a mid-size sauropodomorph, around in length and weighed approximately 1000 kilograms (2200 lb), although a few sources have estimated its length at up to . It was a typical early sauropodomorph, with a slender body, a long neck and a proportionally very small head. Life restoration of a bipedal adult M. carinatus The vertebral column was composed of nine cervical (neck) vertebrae, 13 dorsal (back) vertebrae, three sacral (hip) vertebrae, and at least 40 caudal (tail) vertebrae. The pubis faced forward, as with most saurischians.

Several amateur paleontologists, among them Keith and Jenny Simmonds, now began to search for additional remains of the predator. Ultimately, the total of secured bones included the snout, teeth, a front lower jaw, most of the vertebral column, ribs, belly ribs, chevrons, the left shoulder girdle, pelvis bones and a hindlimb. These were accessioned under numbers BMNH R10001 and MIWG 6348. They equalled approximately 70% of the skeleton. In 1985, excavations undertaken by Dr Steve Hutt of the MIWG revealed two vertebrae of a second individual, specimen MIWG.5470.

Naish and colleagues in 2004 supported the theory that Irritator hunted both aquatic and terrestrial animals as a generalist within the coastal area and in addition probably searched for carrion. A tooth belonging to Irritator was discovered still inserted into the fossil neck vertebral column of an ornithocheirid pterosaur, likely with a wingspan of . This indicates that Irritator ate pterosaurs as well, although it is not known if it actively hunted these animals or simply scavenged the remains. In 2018, Aureliano and colleagues presented a possible scenario for the food web of the Romualdo Formation.

Upon finding the partially exposed specimen, he and a companion argued about whether or not the remains were recent or fossil. Hunter demonstrated that they were brittle and thus stone by kicking the tops off the vertebrae, an act later lamented by the eventual collector Barnum Brown. Another cowboy, Alfred Sensiba, bought the specimen from Hunter for a pistol, and later sold it to Brown, who excavated it for the American Museum of Natural History in 1906. This specimen had a nearly complete vertebral column, permitting the restoration of Cope's specimen.

Compared with Suevoleviathan and Temnodontosaurus, the fluke of Eurhinosaurus was relatively short. The caudal fin of Eurhinosaurus was in hypocercal shape (the notochord extended into the lower lobe) with cartilaginous chevrons which could be used for swimming in a high speed. Life restoration In the vertebral column, the neural spins of the dorsal vertebrae were remarkably short, less than the height of the centrum, which was also found in other lower Jurassic large-bodied ichthyosaur such as Temnodontosaurus and Platypterygius. The forefins of Eurhinosaurus offered a peculiarity: the radius was much larger than the ulna.

OUM J13576, an articulated sacrum Although the exact numbers are unknown, the vertebral column of Megalosaurus was probably divided into ten neck vertebrae, thirteen dorsal vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae and fifty to sixty tail vertebrae, as is common for basal Tetanurae. The Stonesfield Slate material contains no neck vertebrae; but a single broken anterior cervical vertebra is known from the New Park Quarry, specimen BMNH R9674. The breakage reveals large internal air chambers. The vertebra is also otherwise heavily pneumatised, with large pleurocoels, pneumatic excavations, on its sides.

Nothosaurs still had functional legs The Plesiosauria have their origins within the Sauropterygia, a group of perhaps archosauromorph reptiles that returned to the sea. An advanced sauropterygian subgroup, the carnivorous Eusauropterygia with small heads and long necks, split into two branches during the Upper Triassic. One of these, the Nothosauroidea, kept functional elbow and knee joints; but the other, the Pistosauria, became more fully adapted to a sea-dwelling lifestyle. Their vertebral column became stiffer and the main propulsion while swimming no longer came from the tail but from the limbs, which changed into flippers.

M. planirostris scutes Mystriosuchus possesses many vertebrae, with 25 in the neck and torso, two in the pelvis, and 74 in the tail. The vertebral column is complete and nearly all articulated, although a portion of the tail can only be seen from top view. The vertebrae behind the axis vertebra are platycoelous (one surface flat and one concave), and are approximately rectangular in shape. Because of incomplete preservation, it can't be distinguished where the neck meets the torso, although at least 17 of the 25 vertebrae come from the latter.

Eunotosaurus was named in 1892, but it was not until 1914 that it was proposed to be an ancestor of Chelonia, the turtle order. English zoologist D. M. S. Watson claimed that Eunotosaurus was transitional between cotylosaurs (now referred to as captorhinids) and Chelonia. He compared it to "Archichelone", a name he devised for a hypothetical chelonian ancestor, noting that its ribs appeared to be intermediate between those of turtles and other tetrapods. Watson's "Archichelone" had a pelvic girdle that was pushed back on the vertebral column and placed under the shell.

The description was limited to the skull. Kunbarrasaurus was one of eighteen dinosaur taxa from 2015 to be described in open access or free-to-read journals. Skull from above and below The holotype, QM F1801, was found in a layer of the Allaru Formation, marine sediments dating from the late Albian, or possibly the early Cenomanian. It consists of an almost complete skeleton with skull, containing the vertebral column up to the middle tail, the left shoulder girdle, the left arm minus the hand, the pelvis, both thighbones and most of the body armour.

Nuclear scintigraphy, or the "bone scan," involves injecting a radioactive substance, often technetium-99, into the horse and then measuring uptake, which is strongest in the areas of rapid bone remodeling. The bone scan is often useful for lameness that can't be easily localized to one area, that affects multiple limbs, or lameness that is thought to originate in areas not easily imaged by other means, such as the vertebral column. Although it provides localization for lameness, it does not give a definitive diagnosis.Winter MD, Berry CR, Reese DJ. Nuclear scintigraphy in horses.

Mollesaurus is known from the holotype MOZ 2282 V, articulated partial skeleton which preserved partial skull and most of the vertebral column. It was collected in the Chacaico Sur locality from the Emileia giebeli ammonoid zone of the Los Molles Formation, Cuyo Group, dating to the early Bajocian stage of the Middle Jurassic, about 171.6-170 million years ago. Mollesaurus, along with Chacaicosaurus cayi which was found at the same locality, are the only diagnostic ichthyosaur specimens from the Aalenian-Bathonian interval. It was found near Zapala city of the Neuquén Basin.

In the lower jaw, a ridge on the outer surface of the angular bone articulated with the rear of the dentary bone, creating a locking mechanism unique to Tarbosaurus and Alioramus. Other tyrannosaurids lacked this ridge and had more flexibility in the lower jaw. Restoration of an adult and subadult Tarbosaurus next to a human Tyrannosaurids varied little in body form, and Tarbosaurus was no exception. The head was supported by an S-shaped neck, while the rest of the vertebral column, including the long tail, was held horizontally.

Scute and skeletal elements of the chelid carapace The cervical scute is usually present, though it is absent in some species of Elseya and Myuchelys. Otherwise, the carapace has the usual complement of four costals, five vertebrals and twelve marginals (per side). Internally, the carapace is made of eight pleurals (per side), eleven peripherals (per side), a nuchal at the front and a suprapygal and pygal at the rear of the shell. As noted earlier, neurals, although always present, often exist as subsurface elements above the vertebral column.

The intercentrum is the larger of the two bones in rhachitomes, while the pleurocentra are present as two smaller bones in a dorsal position between the intercentra. Schizomerous tetrapods differ from rhachitomes in that their pleurocentra have descended to a more ventral position in the vertebral column. The pleurocentra enlarged in reptiliomorphs to become the main element of the vertebral centrum. While the compound vertebrae of Antlerpeton are similar to those of classic rhachitomes, the pleurocentra form a distinctive connection with the intercentra in front of and behind them.

Spondylosis is the degeneration of the vertebral column from any cause. In the more narrow sense it refers to spinal osteoarthritis, the age-related wear and tear of the spinal column, which is the most common cause of spondylosis. The degenerative process in osteoarthritis chiefly affects the vertebral bodies, the neural foramina and the facet joints (facet syndrome). If severe, it may cause pressure on the spinal cord or nerve roots with subsequent sensory or motor disturbances, such as pain, paresthesia, imbalance, and muscle weakness in the limbs.

The report pointed out that the thoracic cavity was not penetrated. # This bullet produced contusions both of the right apical parietal pleura and of the apical portion of the right upper lobe of the lung. The bullet contused the strap muscles of the right side of the neck, damaged the trachea, and exited through the anterior surface of the neck. # The single bullet theory of the Warren Commission Report places a bullet wound at the sixth cervical vertebra (C6) of the vertebral column, which is consistent with below the ear.

Within the vertebral column it is noted that the intercentrum is smaller than the rhomboidal paried pleurocentrum and the posterior centrum having a concave shape that will meet with the next intercentrum. The notochord was encompassed by a thickened wall formed by the intercentra. With examination it was also found that a long tail was not likely present in this animal. In regards to the ribs, they are generally short and costal cartilage appear to have once been present because of swelling that is found where the end of the shaft is.

The pelvic (hip) girdle was fairly typical by early tetrapod and stem-tetrapod standards, with a two-pronged ilium, a plate-like ischium, and no bony pubis. The leg bones were rectangular and the five-toed feet had a phalangeal formula (number of joints per toe) of 2-3-4-5-?. None of the specimens preserve a complete vertebral column, but based on the number of ribs the body was probably rather short and squat. The dorsal (trunk) ribs themselves were only slightly curved and shorter and more tapering near the pelvic area.

Galton suggested that when Stegoceras held its skull vertically, perpendicular to the neck, force would be transmitted from the skull, with little chance of it being dislocated, and the dome could therefore be used as a battering-ram. He believed it was unlikely to have been used mainly as defence against predators, because the dome itself lacked spikes, and those of the parietosquamosal shelf were in an "ineffective" position, but found it compatible with intra-specific competition. Galton imagined the domes were bashed together, while the vertebral column was held in a horizontal position.

During normal development, cutaneous ectoderm separates from neuroectoderm to allow for the insertion of mesoderm. That is, the skin separates from the tissue of the spinal cord to allow proper formation of the vertebral column. In cases of congenital dermal sinus there is a failure in this process, resulting in formation of a persistent connection between the skin and neural tissue. This manifests as a tract extending from the surface of the skin to the spinal cord lined with stratified squamous epithelium, surrounded by dermal and neurological tissue.

However, it was not apparent that the specimen belonged to the same species as the first until Huene exposed more of the crushed vertebrae and found that they were similar to those of his first specimen. A third specimen of Sclerothorax was discovered in 1967 that preserved the vertebral column and the lower jaw. It was described in 2004 by Michael Fastnacht, who also reported that the specimen had an impression of the palate. The palate seemed to be long and narrow like that of another German temnospondyl called Trematosaurus.

3D Medical Animation still shot of Human Skull The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 86 bones and is composed of six parts; the skull (22 bones), the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. The axial skeleton together with the appendicular skeleton form the complete skeleton. Another definition of axial skeleton is the bones including the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, ribs, and sternum.

Although a very early and unspecialized sauropod, Barapasaurus shows the building plan typical for later, more derived sauropods: the cervical vertebrae were elongated, resulting in a long neck. The trunk was short and holds columnar limbs which indicate an obligate quadrupedal posture. Even the size, which is estimated at approximately 14 meters, is comparable with that of later sauropods. The vertebral column already shows many traits that are typical for later sauropods which allowed them to attain great body sizes, although in later sauropods these traits are much more developed.

It is also represented by vertebrae but this species however, differs in geological age and lacks authentic characteristics compared to the later, making its affinity to the genus unsupported. It was a large-sized therizinosaurid that is estimated to have cover nearly in length and to have weighed about . Nanshiungosaurus had a very pneumatized vertebral column with the posterior cervical vertebrae of the long neck being unusually robust and slightly more elongated than the dorsals. It was equipped with a broad torso as seen on the bulky pelvis.

In the cervical region, the transverse processes are placed in front of the articular processes, lateral to the pedicles and between the intervertebral foramina. In the thoracic region they are posterior to the pedicles, intervertebral foramina, and articular processes. In the lumbar region they are in front of the articular processes, but behind the intervertebral foramina. ;Lateral surfaces The sides of the vertebral column are separated from the posterior surface by the articular processes in the cervical and thoracic regions and by the transverse processes in the lumbar region.

As a result, these cells dissociate from neural folds, gain motility, and disseminate to various parts of the embryo, where they differentiate to many other cell types. Also, craniofacial crest mesenchyme that forms the connective tissue forming the head and face, is formed by neural tube epithelium by EMT. EMT takes place during the construction of the vertebral column out of the extracellular matrix, which is to be synthesized by fibroblasts and osteoblasts that encircle the neural tube. The major source of these cells are sclerotome and somite mesenchyme as well as primitive streak.

Pott disease is a tuberculous disease of the vertebrae marked by stiffness of the vertebral column, pain on motion, tenderness on pressure, prominence of certain vertebral spines, and occasionally abdominal pain, abscess formation, and paralysis. Ankylosing spondylitis is an inflammatory disease involving the spine and sacroiliac joints, so is also a form of spondylarthritis. A combination of spondylitis and inflammation of the intervertebral disc space is termed a spondylodiscitis. Spondylitis is one of the most common causes of back and neck pain, and results from inflammation of the vertebral joints.

This type of connection permits a wide range of motion in most directions, while still protecting the underlying nerve cord. The central point of rotation is located at the midline of each centrum, and therefore flexion of the muscle surrounding the vertebral column does not lead to an opening between vertebrae. In many species, though not in mammals, the cervical vertebrae bear ribs. In many groups, such as lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae.

Articulated neck-vertebrae of specimen DFMMh/FV 838 The cervical vertebrae of Europasaurus are the best preserved and most represented of the vertebral column. However, not the entire neck is known, so the cervical number could be between Camarasaurus (12 vertebrae) and Rapetosaurus (17 vertebrae). Additionally, the multiple cervical vertebrae come from different-aged individuals, and the centrum length and internal structure are known to change throughout development. The adult cervical centra are elongated and (anterior end is ball-shaped), with a notch in the top of the rear end of the centrum.

The IVC is consist by the joining of the left and right common iliac veins and brings collected blood into the right atrium of the heart. It also joins with the azygos vein (which runs on the right side of the vertebral column) and venous plexuses next to the spinal cord. The inferior vena cava begins as the left and right common iliac veins behind the abdomen unite, at about the level of L5. It passes through the thoracic diaphragm at the caval opening at the level of T8.

The vertebrae bear distinct condyles for articulation with other vertebrae, and the neural spines are directed backwards and upwards; the ones near the middle also have prominent zygapophyses. Further along the vertebral column, there would have been 13 dorsal vertebrae in total, followed by six sacral vertebrae that form a sacrum. These two types of vertebrae are similar, although the sideways- projecting transverse processes are more robust in the latter. In the tail were 22 caudal vertebrae, totalling to long, which is 173% the length of the humerus.

In vertebrates, rachis can refer to the series of articulated vertebrae, which encase the spinal cord. In this case the rachis usually forms the supporting axis of the body and is then called the spine or vertebral column. Rachis can also mean the central shaft of pennaceous feathers. In the gonad of the invertebrate nematode C. elegans, a rachis is the central cell-free core or axis of the gonadal arm of both adult males and hermaphrodites where the germ cells have achieved pachytene and are attached to the walls of the gonadal tube.

Spinal fusion is the most widely performed surgery for scoliosis. In this procedure, bone [either harvested from elsewhere in the body (autograft) or from a donor (allograft)] is grafted to the vertebrae so when they heal, they form one solid bone mass and the vertebral column becomes rigid. This prevents worsening of the curve, at the expense of some spinal movement. This can be performed from the anterior (front) aspect of the spine by entering the thoracic or abdominal cavities, or more commonly, performed from the back (posterior).

Alexia González-Barros González (7 March 1971 - 5 December 1985) was a Spanish Roman Catholic child. González-Barros studied in school in Madrid and in her childhood received a papal blessing from Pope John Paul II during her trip to Rome. But in late 1984 she began feeling pains in her arm and back that led to a diagnosis two months later as being a malignant tumor in the vertebral column transforming into spinal cancer. Her siblings and friends remembered her for her piousness and her dedication to practicing holiness in all aspects of life.

But two months later she noticed her left arm felt weak and she was suffering from back pains which prompted a return to doctors for assessment. The doctors diagnosed González-Barros on 4 February 1985 as having a malignant spinal tumor in the vertebral column which led to four operations to manage her condition that evolved into spinal cancer. The doctors discovered the lesion of the spinal column was due to Ewing's sarcoma with widespread metastases. Her first operation was held on 9 February and the second on 28 March both in Madrid.

Sophineta resembles lepidosaurs in having weak zygosphenes, short vertebrae and single−headed ribs throughout the column, but differs in having a shallower pleurodont tooth implantation and the apparent absence of both a thyroid fenestra and functional caudal autotomy. Sophineta had unspecialised vertebral column but fairly derived skull structure, including the tall facial process of the maxilla, reduced lacrimal and pleurodonty. These traits also resemble those of early lepidosaurs rather than stem−lepidosaurs. A reconstruction of the skull of Sophineta revealed a "modified diapsid skull" with a relatively short preorbital region.

Halazhaisuchus is an extinct genus of archosauriform from the Early Triassic of China. It is known from a single species, Halazhaisuchus qiaoensis, which was named in 1982 from the lower Ermaying Formation in Shaanxi. It was assigned to the family Euparkeriidae as a close relative of the genus Euparkeria from South Africa. Halazhaisuchus is known from a single holotype specimen called V6027, which was discovered in 1977 and includes a portion of the vertebral column, some ribs, two scapulae and two humeri, the right radius and ulna, and a left coracoid.

Frontiers in Earth Science. 5: Article 23. doi:10.3389/feart.2017.00023. A study on the vertebral column torso and tail proportions of Mesosaurus suggests that, while juveniles may have been fully aquatic, adults might have spent some time on land; this is further vindicated by the rarity of adult animals in aquatic settings and some faeces showing signs of drying fracture. However, how terrestrial they were is difficult to say, as this same study states that terrestrial foraging would have been difficult due to their speciations to an aquatic life.

One of his major discoveries was the homology of the opercular plates of the gill cover of fishes with the inner ear ossicles of mammals. Geoffroy's methods worked well for vertebrates, but when he compared vertebrates to invertebrates by turning invertebrates upside down and partly inside out – "every animal is either inside or outside its vertebral column" – he met his nemesis. The Geoffroy-Cuvier debate in Paris before the Académie des Sciences (15 February 1830) saw Georges Cuvier demolish his claim that the four Cuvierian branches of the animal kingdom could be reduced to one.Mayr The Growth of Biological Thought p.

The specimen preserved almost 70% of the skeleton, and included most of the vertebral column, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, the femora, and the left tibia and fibula. In 1995, this specimen (MUCPv-Ch1) was preliminarily described by Coria and Salgado, who made it the holotype of the new genus and species Giganotosaurus carolinii (parts of the skeleton were still encased in plaster at this time). The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words gigas/γίγας (meaning "giant"), notos/νότος (meaning "austral/southern", in reference to its provenance) and -sauros/-σαύρος (meaning "lizard"). The specific name honors Carolini, the discoverer.

Asterolepis lower jaw Reconstruction of Asterolepis dermal skeleton Sketches of Asterolepis fossil found in 1889 by Woodward Fossil of Asterolepis maxima Primitive features such as jaw ossifications, a palatoquadrate, and a Meckel's cartilage are present in the Asterolepis that are important features shared between antiarchs and other Gnathostomata. Additionally the Asterolepis has box-like dermal armour covering the head and thorax with highly modified pectoral fins that are enclosed in interlocking dermal plates protecting a cartilaginous endocranium and gill region. Also, the vertebral column and the pectoral girdle are cartilaginous. The Asterolepis does not have an anal fin or pelvic fins.

Borsuk-Białynicka, in her 1977 description, noted the presence of eleven dorsal vertebrae. Gregory Paul in 2019, however, argued that the known part of the vertebral column actually includes the first cervical (neck vertebra), leaving only ten dorsals, typical of titanosaurs. As in other titanosaurs, the back was quite flexible due to the lack of accessory vertebral joints (hyposphene-hypantrum articulations), while the pelvic region was strengthened by an additional sixth hip vertebra. The anterior vertebrae of the tail were opisthocoelous, which means they were convex on their anterior sides and concave on their back sides, forming ball-and-socket joints.

General symptoms found in a cross-section of patients with vertebral osteomyelitis include fever, swelling at the infection site, weakness of the vertebral column and surrounding muscles, episodes of night sweats, and difficulty transitioning from a standing to a sitting position. Additionally, persistent back pain and muscle spasms may become so debilitating that they confine the patient to a sedentary state, where even slight movement or jolting of the body results in excruciating pain. In children, the presence of vertebral osteomyelitis can be signaled by these symptoms, along with high-grade fevers and an increase in the body's leukocyte count.

This thinner intestine turns to the back, running parallel to the ascending tract of the duodenum and ultimately disappearing under it, at the level of the twelfth dorsal vertebra. Apparently a loop to the front is made because it resurfaces below the tenth dorsal vertebra, first running upwards and then turning to the back below the hind vertebral column — or at places even over it: probably after death its position partly shifted upwards. The jejunum seems to blend with an exceptionally short ileum. A contraction below the thirteenth dorsal vertebra might indicate the transition to the rectum.

Au. afarensis has six total lumbar vertebrae with also twelve thoracic vertebra Another key characteristic that enforced upright posture in hominin was the shape of the lumbar vertebra. The “s” shape of the lumbar vertebra is called spinal lordosis, which produces the unique convex curvature seen in upright bipeds. The vertebral column of australopith fossils also share the curved morphology of modern humans. Lordosis in the lower lumbar spine centers the mass of the body on the lower joints such as the pelvis and femur such that the body is self-stabilizing and can remain upright.

Other characteristics that distinguish it from modern frogs include the possession of a short tail with unfused vertebrae, a separate radius and ulna in the fore limb, and separate tibia and fibula in the hind limb. The features it shares with modern frogs include a forward-sloping ilium, the fusion of the frontal and parietal bones into a single structure known as the frontoparietal, and a lower jaw bone with no teeth. Czatkobatrachus is another proto-frog with some characteristics similar to Triadobatrachus. It is from the early Triassic in Poland and has a shortened vertebral column, reduced tail, and elongated ilium.

In addition, the cartilage endplates begin thinning, fissures begin to form, and there is sclerosis of the subchondral bone. Since the fissures are formed in the anulus fibrosus due to osteo-arthritic bones or degeneration in general, the inner nucleus pulposus can seep out and put pressure on any number of vertebral nerves. A herniated disc can cause mild to severe pain such as sciatica and treatment for herniated discs range from physical therapy to surgery. Other degeneration of the vertebral column includes diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) which is the calcification or ossification of the ligaments surrounding the vertebrae.

Life restoration As the genus is only known from very fragmentary material, it has been problematic to determine the size of Erlikosaurus, especially as most of the vertebral column of the holotype is missing. The skull of the holotype specimen length is approximately long, indicating a very small individual. Overall, Erlikosaurus was a small-sized therizinosaurid, estimated to have reach about with a more lightly built than the ponderous Segnosaurus. Genus List for Holtz 2012 Weight Information In 2012 Stephan Lautenschlager and colleagues used theropod-specific equations to estimate the body mass of Erlikosaurus and other therizinosaurs.

The hip bone first appears in fishes, where it consists of a simple, usually triangular bone, to which the pelvic fin articulates. The hip bones on each side usually connect with each other at the forward end, and are even solidly fused in lungfishes and sharks, but they never attach to the vertebral column. In the early tetrapods, this early hip bone evolved to become the ischium and pubis, while the ilium formed as a new structure, initially somewhat rod-like in form, but soon adding a larger bony blade. The acetabulum is already present at the point where the three bones meet.

The aircraft wreckage scattered across tidal mud flats located on The Wash bombing range. Both airmen ejected from the aircraft and were rescued by two scrambled RAF Westland Sea King helicopters from Wattisham Airfield and RAF Leconfield. The pilot and navigator were flown to Queen Elizabeth Hospital in King's Lynn, their condition was not thought to be life-threatening, but were being assessed as standard procedure and whether or not there had been any stress to their Vertebral column. Bird strike was thought at the time of the incident to have caused the crash, resulting in the aircraft's sudden engine failure.

In May 2015, Flatley revealed that much of his vertebral column was irreparably damaged and that he had a damaged left knee, a torn right calf/triceps surae muscle, two ruptured Achilles tendons, a fractured rib, and a recurring broken bone in his foot. In November 2015, Flatley's show Lord of the Dance: Dangerous Games premiered at the Lyric Theatre, a Broadway theatre. Due to his injuries, Flatley was only able to perform in the final two numbers of the performance. After shows in New York, Flatley went on a final tour in the United States.

They have among the densest bones in the animal kingdom, which may be used as ballast, counteracting the buoyancy effect of their blubber and help keep sirenians suspended slightly below the water's surface. Manatees do not possess blubber, per se, but rather have thick skin, and, consequently, are sensitive to temperature changes. Likewise, they often migrate to warmer waters whenever the water temperature dips below . The lungs of sirenians are unlobed; they, along with the diaphragm, extend the entire length of the vertebral column, which help them control their buoyancy and reduce tipping in the water.

The upper arm (humerus) was very distinct from therizinosaurids, making Suzhousaurus to be considered as a therizinosauroid. Unlike derived (advanced) therizinosaurids, the vertebral column was not highly pneumatized, however, the pelvis shows a marked therizinosaurid-like opisthopubic build. Like other therizinosauroids, Suzhousaurus had elongated claws and neck for browsing, robust hindlimbs and a large trunk that ended on a reduced tail. With the description of the more complete second specimen, the autapomorphies and validity of Suzhousaurs became more clear and with this, numerous anatomical traits indicate that Suzhousaurus is a non-therizinosaurid therizinosauroid, therefore, excluded from the derived Therizinosauridae.

The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) has established recommendations and guidelines for SRM removal based on the level of risk. In the U.S., tonsils are removed from cattle of all ages. SRMs must be removed at slaughter and disposed as inedible material. The dorsal root ganglia must be removed during the deboning process and in animals older than 30 months, the vertebral column (excluding the vertebrae of the tail, the transverse processes of the lumbar and thoracic vertebrae, and the wings of the sacrum) is removed to be certain the dorsal root ganglia is extracted in its entirety.

He joined the Stranger Team when the Raitai had his rules changed by Kaku, and was defeated by Retsu during a long fight, in which Jaku focused on defense and managed to take many hits without being so harmed. In the end, Retsu hits his vertebral column, and takes him down with one punch in the face, despite this, Jaku remains standing even when unconscious, which leads Retsu to declare him the victor. He reappears in Baki: Son of Ogre, in the military base, searching to fight Pickle. He also has a tendency to ask other fighters to return to Japan with him.

The specimen, which was catalogued under the specimen number IVPP V9492, consists of teeth, most of the vertebral column (save for the first seven (neck vertebrae) and the end of the tail), , the right shoulder girdle and arm (, , , , , and ), and the right hip girdle and leg (, , , , , and ). At the time of its discovery, the specimen was already weathered. After it was transported to Beijing, with preparation and restoration work beginning in 1985, it deteriorated further due to fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Nearly all of the bones underwent reconstruction and painting, and many of them were encased in a metal armature for display.

The anterior end of the adult female worm protrudes from the host animal's body, most commonly on a lower limb, through an ulcer. When the worm feels the presence of cold water, muscle contractions in its body cause its uterus (which fills the whole body cavity) to burst, releasing hundreds of thousands of first-stage larvae into the water, where they can find new hosts. D. insignis infects dogs and wild carnivores, causing cutaneous lesions, ulcers, and sometimes heart and vertebral column lesions. Like D. medinensis, it is also known as Guinea worm, as well as Dragon or Fiery Dragon.

The Batson venous plexus (Batson veins) is a network of valveless veins in the human body that connect the deep pelvic veins and thoracic veins (draining the inferior end of the urinary bladder, breast and prostate) to the internal vertebral venous plexuses. Because of their location and lack of valves, they are believed to provide a route for the spread of cancer metastases. These metastases commonly arise from cancer of the pelvic organs such as the rectum and prostate and may spread to the vertebral column or brain. The plexus is named after anatomist Oscar Vivian Batson, who first described it in 1940.

A neck vertebra of Arambourgiania The vertebral column of pterosaurs numbered between thirty-four and seventy vertebrae. The vertebrae in front of the tail were "procoelous": the cotyle (front of the vertebral body) was concave and into it fitted a convex extension at the rear of the preceding vertebra, the condyle. Advanced pterosaurs are unique in possessing special processes projecting adjacent to their condyle and cotyle, the exapophyses, and the cotyle also may possess a small prong on its midline called a hypapophysis. The neck of Anhanguera was longer than the torso The neck of pterosaurs was relatively long and straight.

The basivertebral veins are veins within the vertebral column. They are contained in large, tortuous channels in the substance of the bones, similar in every respect to those found in the diploë of the cranial bones. They emerge from the foramina on the posterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies. They communicate through small openings on the front and sides of the vertebral bodies with the anterior external vertebral plexuses, and converge behind to the principal canal, which is sometimes double toward its posterior part, and open by valved orifices into the transverse branches which unite the anterior internal vertebral plexuses.

A laminectomy is also the name of a spinal operation that conventionally includes the removal of one or both lamina, as well as other posterior supporting structures of the vertebral column, including ligaments and additional bone. The actual bone removal may be carried out with a variety of surgical tools, including drills, rongeurs and lasers. The success rate of a laminectomy depends on the specific reason for the operation, as well as proper patient selection and the surgeon's technical ability. The first laminectomy was performed in 1887 by Victor Alexander Haden Horsley, a professor of surgery at University College London.

Cobb angle measurement of a scoliosis; concave side on the left; convex side on the right Vertebra and curves of the vertebral column Cobb angle is a common measure to classify scoliosis. The greater the angle, the more serious is the disease but the smaller is the number of patients. One to three out of every hundred people have idiopathic scoliosis curves greater than 10° with an equal proportion of boys and girls. One to three out of every thousand people have idiopathic scoliosis curves greater than 30° with a ratio of eight girls for every one boy.

Since idiopathic scoliosis and its surgery affect the vertebrae and the joints along the spine, the range of motion is expected to be different between patients and non-scoliotic people. There is a hypothesis that states that the vertebral column behaves like a torsional spring: while walking, the angular momentum of the shoulders compensates the angular momentum of the pelvis (i.e. when the shoulders rotate clockwise, the pelvis rotates counterclockwise; when the pelvis rotates clockwise, the shoulders rotate counterclockwise).An hypothesis for the role of the spine in human locomotion: A challenge to current thinking; S. Gracovetsky, 1985.

Paraplesiobatis heinrichsi is a lightly armored pseudopetalichthyid placoderm from the Hunsrückschiefer Lagerstätte of Early Devonian Germany. The type and only known specimen is an articulated, but very incomplete individual consisting of a large, incomplete, plate-covered head, and some of the vertebral column, with a total length of 10 centimeters. The specimen strongly resembles Pseudopetalichthys to the point that many experts suggest they may be of the same genus or species, though because the only specimens of both genera are so poorly preserved, talk of synonymizing the two can not begin (let alone continue) until more, better preserved specimens are found.

Restoration Atlasaurus differs from Brachiosaurus relative to the estimated length of the dorsal vertebral column (assuming 12 vertebrae, ), in having a proportionately larger skull, a shorter neck (with at least 13 cervical vertebrae, shorter and more uniform in length than Brachiosaurus), a longer tail and more elongated limbs (humerus to femur ratio: 0.99; ulna to tibia ratio: 1.15). The teeth are spoon-shaped and have denticles. The lower jaw of Atlasaurus is about long, the neck was about long, the humerus long, and the femur about long. It has been estimated at in length, and in weight.

Spinosuchus (meaning "spined crocodile") is an extinct genus of trilophosaurid allokotosaur from the Late Triassic of Texas, southern United States. It has been assigned to a variety of groups over its history, from coelophysid dinosaur to pseudosuchian to uncertain theropod dinosaur and to Proterosuchidae. This uncertainty is not unusual, given that it was only known from a poorly preserved, wall-mounted, partial vertebral column of an animal that lived in a time of diverse, poorly known reptile groups. However, newly collected material and recent phylogenetic studies of early archosauromorphs suggest that is represents an advance trilophosaurid very closely related to Trilophosaurus.

Size of Pannoniasaurus inexpectatus compared to human It is difficult to estimate how the unknown girdle and limb elements of Pannonisasaurus may have looked. It had a primitive vertebral column, a posteriorly oriented ilium and an elongated humerus with a distal epiphysis, all most similar to aigialosaurs. These suggest that P. inexpectatus had an overall aigialosaur-like postcranial morphology (including plesiopelvia and plesiopedia). However, Dallasaurus, for example, has an anteriorly oriented, hydropelvic ilium in combination with primitive-looking proximal limb elements, and therefore a flattened, derived distal limb morphology is not entirely impossible for that taxon.

Size of various spinosaurids (Baryonyx in yellow, second from left) compared with a human Baryonyx is estimated to have been between long, in hip height, and to have weighed between . The fact that elements of the skull and vertebral column of the B. walkeri holotype specimen (NHM R9951) do not appear to have co-ossified (fused) suggests that the individual was not fully grown, and the mature animal may have been much larger (as is the case for some other spinosaurids). On the other hand, the specimen's fused sternum indicates that it may have been mature.

The mesentery of the small intestine arises from the root of the mesentery (or mesenteric root) and is the part connected with the structures in front of the vertebral column. The root is narrow, about 15 cm long, 20 cm in width, and is directed obliquely from the duodenojejunal flexure at the left side of the second lumbar vertebra to the right sacroiliac joint. The root of the mesentery extends from the duodenojejunal flexure to the ileocaecal junction. This section of the small intestine is located centrally in the abdominal cavity and lies behind the transverse colon and the greater omentum.

Cavities of human body Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body.

Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the NHMUK, had "great pleasure" to recommend to the Trustees of the NHMUK the fossil be purchased. The purchase was sanctioned on 25 February 1899, along with the purchase of assorted other remains for just over £357 (~£43,596 now), where the Leeds sauropod gained the accession number BMNH R3078 (now NHMUK R3078). Known elements of Cetiosauriscus The amount of material made NHMUK R3078 the most complete sauropod specimen from the United Kingdom, comparable only later to the "Rutland Dinosaur" (referred to Cetiosaurus) discovered in 1967. Known regions of the specimen include the forelimb, hindlimb and vertebral column.

Spinal epidural abscess (SEA) is a collection of pus or inflammatory granulation between the dura mater and the vertebral column. Currently the annual incidence rate of SEAs is estimated to be 2.5-3 per 10,000 hospital admissions. Incidence of SEA is on the rise, due to factors such as an aging population, increase in use of invasive spinal instrumentation, growing number of patients with risk factors such as diabetes and intravenous drug use. SEAs are more common in posterior than anterior areas, and the most common location is the thoracolumbar area, where epidural space is larger and contains more fat tissue.

There is no nictitating membrane and the cornea is continuous with the skin surrounding the eyes. The gill slits are on the ventral surface just behind the head and there are five in all species except the sixgill stingray (Hexatrygon bickelli). The front few vertebrae are fused into a synarcual and this either articulates with the bones of the well-developed pectoral girdle or is fused to them, the suprascapulae uniting above the vertebral column. Most species have enlarged, thorn-like dermal denticles on their skin, often with a row of large denticles along the spine.

The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs. The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist.

In 1911, Paul Miller discovered the remains of various dissorophid bones in New Mexico that were attributed to a new species, Aspidosaurus novomexicanus. The skull closely resembled that of a specimen of Cacops aspidephorus found in Texas but the arrangement of ridges in the otic region was different. The teeth found were slender and conical and all of an approximately equal size. The vertebral column, pelvis and limb bones were also similar but the new specimen was distinguished from Cacops by the armour, the single row of vertical plates that were originally attached to the neural spines of the vertebrae.

All vertebrates are built along the basic chordate body plan: a stiff rod running through the length of the animal (vertebral column and/or notochord), with a hollow tube of nervous tissue (the spinal cord) above it and the gastrointestinal tract below. In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the anterior end of the animal, while the anus opens to the exterior before the end of the body. The remaining part of the body continuing after the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and spinal cord, but no gut.Romer, A.S. (1949): The Vertebrate Body.

It usually begins in the left ascending lumbar vein or renal vein, and passes upward through the left crus of the diaphragm to enter the thorax. It continues ascending on the left side of the vertebral column, and around the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra, it passes rightward across the column, behind the aorta, esophagus, and thoracic duct, to end in the azygos vein. The hemiazygos may or may not be continuous superiorly with the accessory hemiazygos vein. It receives the 9th, 10th, and 11th posterior intercostal veins and the subcostal vein of the left side, and some esophageal and mediastinal veins.

Reconstruction of Turkana boy by Élisabeth Daynès In 1984, the vertebral column of the 1.6 Ma adolescent Turkana boy indicated that this individual did not have properly developed respiratory muscles in order to produce speech. In 2001, American anthropologists Bruce Latimer and James Ohman concluded that Turkana boy was afflicted by skeletal dysplasia and scoliosis. In 2006, American anthropologist Marc Meyer and colleagues described a 1.8 Ma H. e. georgicus specimen as having a spine within the range of variation of modern human spines, contending that Turkana boy had spinal stenosis and was thus not representative of the species.

The cave was inhabited between 60,000 and 48,000 BP and is famous for its excavated finds of hominid remains, made under the direction of Professor Ofer Bar-Yosef. Dorothy Garrod and Francis Turville-Petre excavated in the cave in the early 1930s, but by far the most significant discovery made at Kebara Cave was Kebara 2 in 1982, the most complete postcranial Neanderthal skeleton found to date. Nicknamed "Moshe" and dating to circa 60,000 BP, the skeleton preserved a large part of one individual's torso (vertebral column, ribs and pelvis). The cranium and most of the lower limbs were missing.

The remaining caudals become longer and lower again, and the caudals that formed the fin are as long as high, a condition which is known in only one other species, Platypterygius platydactylus. The first two cervicals, the atlas and axis, are fused together to a single complex, which is wide in rear view. The front section of the dorsal (trunk) vertebral column have the diapophyses (bony sidewards projections) fused to their vertebrae; this also occurs in some other ophthalmosaurids. The centra of the dorsal vertebrae were distinct in being tightly interlocking and having extensive posterolateral lamella.

Anterior and posterior dorsal vertebrae from AMNH FARB 30680-30683) The vertebral column is represented by four cervical, ten dorsal, seven sacral and thirty three caudal vertebrae of several specimens. The vertebrae are mostly similar to those of other hadrosauroids but some traits can be noted. The cervical vertebrae of specimens AMNH FARB 30671-30673 have centra that are opisthocoelous (concave on their posterior sides), heart-shaped in a posterior view and flattened on the inner side. The centra of the anterior dorsals in AMNH FARB 30674-3068 appear to be less opisthocoelous but they also have heart-shaped facets.

It is defined as the greatest angle at a particular region of the vertebral column, when measured from the superior endplate of a superior vertebra to the inferior endplate of an inferior vertebra. However, the endplates are generally parallel for each vertebra, so not all sources include usage of a superior versus inferior endplate in the definition. Unless otherwise specified it is generally presumed to refer to angles in the coronal plane, such as projectional radiography in posteroanterior view. In contrast, a sagittal Cobb angle is one measured in the sagittal plane such as on lateral radiographs.

Oreste Scalzone Oreste Scalzone (born 26 January 1947) is an Italian Marxist intellectual and one of the founders of the communist organization Potere Operaio. Scalzone was born in Terni, Umbria. In 1968 he came to know Franco Piperno, and on 1 March that year he took part in the clashes against Italian police at Valle Giulia. A few days later his vertebral column was seriously injured by a desk thrown from a window by neofascist students, mostly belonging to the Italian Social Movement, that were occupying the faculty of Law of the University La Sapienza in Rome.

The trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column (backbone): this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates. The distinction is one of convenience only; it is not based on any clear biologically homologous trait, any more than the common trait of having wings functionally unites insects, bats, and birds, or than not having wings unites tortoises, snails and sponges. Being animals, invertebrates are heterotrophs, and require sustenance in the form of the consumption of other organisms. With a few exceptions, such as the Porifera, invertebrates generally have bodies composed of differentiated tissues.

Whether it is considered to be a subfield of paleontology, paleozoology, or paleobiology, this discipline is the scientific study of prehistoric invertebrates by analyzing invertebrate fossils in the geologic record. By invertebrates are meant the non-vertebrate creatures of the kingdom Animalia (or Metazoa) in the biotic domain of Eukaryota. By phyletic definition, these many-celled, sub- vertebrate animals lack a vertebral column, spinal column, vertebrae, backbone, or long, full-length notochord—in contrast to the vertebrates in the one phylum of Chordata. Relatedly, invertebrates have never had a cartilaginous or boney internal skeleton, with its skeletal supports, gill slits, ribs and jaws.

Appendicular forelimb skeleton The appendicular skeleton contains the fore and hindlimbs. The hindlimb attaches to the vertebral column via the pelvis, while the forelimb does not directly attach to the spine (as a horse does not have a collar bone), and is instead suspended in place by muscles and tendons. This allows great mobility in the front limb, and is partially responsible for the horse's ability to fold his legs up when jumping. Although the hindlimb supports only about 40% of the weight of the animal, it creates most of the forward movement of the horse, and is stabilized through attachments to the spine.

The Iberian worm lizard has similar morphology to a worm because of its limbless ringed body, but unlike worms it possesses small, underdeveloped eyes, small smooth scales, and most importantly it has all characteristics of a typical vertebrate like, vertebral column, lungs, and closed circulatory system. The head is small and blunt, used for digging, with underdeveloped eyes covered by skin, and a characteristically ridged ringed body covered in scales. Iberian worm lizard tails are short and possess the same scales. It has a small forked tongue used for chemosensory signaling purposes, and a row of small but sharp teeth within the mouth's interior.

Autoantibodies specific for AS have not been identified. Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) are associated with AS, but do not correlate with disease severity. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) A/G variant rs10440635 close to the PTGER4 gene on human chromosome 5 has been associated with an increased number of cases of ankylosing spondylitis in a population recruited from the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. The PTGER4 gene codes for the prostaglandin EP4 receptor (EP4), one of four receptors for prostaglandin E2. Activation of EP4 promotes bone remodeling and deposition (see EP4, bone) and EP4 is highly expressed at vertebral column sites involved in ankylosing spondylitis.

Although RLP is thought to have certain benefits, including decreased cost and reduced risk of adverse effects, some diseases must be treated systemically, such as osteoarthritis of the vertebral column. Systemic administration is often given by adding a 1 mg/kg dose into a 1-liter fluid bag, which is slowly given over 60–90 minutes. Its effects are reported to last 4 months or longer, with a peak effect 6–8 weeks post treatment. The effects of regional limb perfusion has come into question due to in vitro studies showing that high doses given by RLP or intraarticular injection may damage articular cartilage by chondrocyte apoptosis.

Williams suggested that humans, in evolving to stand erect, severely deformed the vertebral column, redistributing body weight to the posterior aspect of the intervertebral discs in the lumbar spine. At the 4th and 5th lumbar levels, great pressure is said to be exerted on the posterior aspect of each vertebra and transferred from the vertebra to the disc. Williams specified that in most cases the 5th lumbar disc ruptures and the nuclear material of the disc moves into the spinal canal causing pressure on the spinal nerves. In addition to the ruptured disc, irritation of the nerve at the intervertebral foramen where the nerve exits from the spinal canal may result.

On average, 40% of patients with an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis experience some type of neurological deficiency; this is a sign that the infection has been progressing for some time. In advanced cases, the untreated infection will attack the nervous system through the spinal cord which runs parallel to the vertebral column, placing the patient at risk for paralysis of the extremities. Additionally, loss of the ability to move is a trademark symptom of neurologic problems in advanced cases of vertebral osteomyelitis. Any further signs of neurological deficit signal an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis that requires immediate intervention to prevent further threat to the spinal cord.

The term was first applied to biology in a non-evolutionary context by the anatomist Richard Owen in 1843. Homology was later explained by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in 1859, but had been observed before this, from Aristotle onwards, and it was explicitly analysed by Pierre Belon in 1555. In developmental biology, organs that developed in the embryo in the same manner and from similar origins, such as from matching primordia in successive segments of the same animal, are serially homologous. Examples include the legs of a centipede, the maxillary palp and labial palp of an insect, and the spinous processes of successive vertebrae in a vertebral column.

Outdated life restoration depicting Yarasuchus as a "raisuchian" with osteoderms. Almost the whole vertebral column is represented in Yarasuchus, including at least 8 cervicals (including the atlas and axis), 17 dorsals, 2 sacral, and at least 11 proximal caudal vertebrae. The long neck of Yarasuchus is made up of a series of characteristically elongated cervical (neck) vertebrae, in contrast to its proportionately small skull. The articulating surfaces of the zygapophyses that connect between each vertebra are inclined and the centra are strongly curved along the bottom margin with offset faces, indicating that the neck was held raised up from the body and arched along its length.

This gene is a member of the paired box (PAX) family of transcription factors which are essential during fetal development. It is required for the development of the ventral vertebral column. Its expression is limited to the pharyngeal pouches and the cells that surround the developing vertebrae near the top where the head will be established to help give rise to the neck and the start of the formation of the shoulders and arm buds. Cancers, such as ovarian and cervical cancers, add a methyl (CH3) group which silences, or disables, the gene which may be able to suppress the tumor by regulating when other cells divide and increase.

Restoration with hypothetical head, arms, and feet Vertebrae and tail of the holotype specimen The remains, consisting of most of the vertebral column, pelvic girdle and left tibio-tarsus, holotype GIN 100/119, were found in 1994 in layers of the Nemegt Svita, dating to the Maastrichtian. They were named and described as the type species Nomingia gobiensis by Barsbold, Halszka Osmólska, Mahito Watabe, Philip Currie and Khishigjaw Tsogtbaatar in 2000. The etymology of the binomial refers to the location where the fossils were found, with the generic name mentioning the Nomingiin Gobi, a nearby part of the Gobi Desert, which is itself mentioned in the specific descriptor.

Bergamo murdered five women between 1985 and 1992, including a 15-year-old student and four prostitutes, the eldest of whom was 41 years old.Marco Bergamo died - the serial killer of Bolzano on ladige.it On January 3, 1985, the first victim, Marcella Casagrande, a 15-year-old first year student of the nearby Magistral Institute, was found dead in her home. Casagrande had been murdered using a knife with which the killer had good knowledge of using, as well as equally good knowledge of human anatomy, as the girl had suffered several stabs of which one reached the tenth vertebra of the vertebral column.

Reconstruction of E. regalis The shoulder blades were long flat blade-like bones, held roughly parallel to the vertebral column. The hips were composed of three elements each: an elongate ilium above the articulation with the leg, an ischium below and behind with a long thin rod, and a pubis in front that flared into a plate-like structure. The structure of the hip hindered the animal from standing with its back erect, because in such a position the thigh bone would have pushed against the joint of the ilium and pubis, instead of pushing only against the solid ilium. The nine fused hip vertebrae provided support for the hip.

This species is distinguished from its cogenerates by having a robust and bufoniform body, with an average adult length of between ; a rough dorsum; its overall light- brown colouration, turning a yellow colour on its ventral region of its legs, arms, the head's dorsum and as a stripe along its vertebral column. The skin on its dorsum shows no dermal co-ossification. Being a representative of the pernix group, its appearance is highly similar to B. pernix's, but is distinct from the latter by its rugose dorsum. Its rugose body dorsum is similar to that of B. verrucosus, as opposed to B. leopardus' smooth dorsum.

Digital reconstruction of Metoposaurus under water. Examination of the vertebral column and limb articulations of Metoposaurus suggests that they used their limbs as flippers and swam by making simultaneous and symmetrical limb movements similar to plesiosaurs. A recent study conducted in Poland suggests that the broad, flat head and arm bones, wide hands, and large tail of Metoposaurus diagnosticus are significant characteristics which led the researchers to conclude that they swam in ephemeral lakes during the wet season and used their heads and forearms to burrow under the ground when the dry season began. The study found that the medullary region is filled with well-developed trabecular bone.

Babakotia radofilai skull Weighing between , Babakotia radofilai was a medium-sized lemur and noticeably smaller than the large sloth lemurs (Archaeoindris and Palaeopropithecus), but larger than the small sloth lemurs (Mesopropithecus). In many ways, it had an intermediate level of adaptations for suspensory behavior between the large sloth lemurs and the small sloth lemurs. This includes its highly mobile hip and ankle joints, as well as other specializations in the vertebral column, pelvis, and limbs. Its forelimbs were 20% longer than its hind limbs, giving it a higher intermembral index (~119) than Mesopropithecus (~97 to 113), suggesting that it was convergently similar to arboreal sloths.

The somites (outdated term: primitive segments) are a set of bilaterally paired blocks of paraxial mesoderm that form in the embryonic stage of somitogenesis, along the head-to-tail axis in segmented animals. In vertebrates, somites subdivide into the sclerotomes, myotomes, syndetomes and dermatomes that give rise to the vertebrae of the vertebral column, rib cage and part of the occipital bone; skeletal muscle, cartilage, tendons, and skin (of the back). The word somite is sometimes also used in place of the word metamere. In this definition, the somite is a homologously-paired structure in an animal body plan, such as is visible in annelids and arthropods.

This is even more true of the short-necked "pliosauromophs", which had as few as eleven cervicals. With early forms, the amphicoelous or amphiplat neck vertebrae bore double-headed neck ribs; later forms had single-headed ribs. In the remainder of the vertebral column, the number of dorsal vertebrae varied between about nineteen and thirty-two, of the sacral vertebrae between two and six, and of the tail vertebrae between about twenty-one and thirty-two. These vertebrae still possessed the original processes inherited from the land-dwelling ancestors of the Sauropterygia and had not been reduced to fish-like simple discs, as happened with the vertebrae of ichthyosaurs.

This surgery is performed on dogs and cats and a meticulous preparation is needed to prevent any damage on the region of the involved part of the neck and vertebral column. The ventral slot procedure is divided into eight main steps. Because the surgeon isn't allowed not to mobilize or shift the spinal cord - otherwise the affected animal is paralyzed afterwards - for any midline pathology an approach from the ventral direction is mandatory. A vertical skin incision is made from the ventral side in the midline, the ventral musculature is split in the midline, vascular structures are retracted laterally, trachea, and esophagus are mobilized across the midline to the opposite side.

Mouse skull All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics; a stiffening rod, the notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube; pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm, connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut.

On 15 July 1940 he consecrated his diocese to the Sacred Heart of Jesus due to the outbreak of World War I and the announcement that Benito Mussolini had pledged the Italian kingdom's involvement in the war on the side of the Axis powers. In late August 1951 he was en route home to his diocese from a pilgrimage in Lourdes when a sudden illness overcame him. In Bari he was later diagnosed with pulmonary neoplasia with metastasis to the vertebral column. His condition grew so grave that on 15 December he received the last sacraments in anticipation of his death even though he struggled on for a little while longer.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two components that make up the nervous system of bilateral animals, with the other part being the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the vertebral column and skull, or by the blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries.

Skull at the University of Michigan An artist's rendering of Rodhocetus The holotype of R. kasrani, GSP-UM 3012 found in 1992, was described by : a cranium with two dentaries, most of the vertebral column as far as the anterior tail (C2–C7; T1–13; L1–6, S1–4, Ca1–4), most ribs, parts of the sternum, both hip bones, and a left femur. Gingerich et al. 1994 referred a specimen collected in 1981, GSP-UM 1852 two dentaries with teeth, to R. kasrani. Derived traits in R. kasrani, relative to older archaeocetes such as Pakicetus, includes high-crowned cheek teeth, larger auditory bullae, larger mandibular foramen, and mandibular canals.

A laminectomy can treat severe spinal stenosis by relieving pressure on the spinal cord or nerve roots, provide access to a tumor or other mass lying in or around the spinal cord, or help in tailoring the contour of the vertebral column to correct a spinal deformity such as kyphosis. A common type of laminectomy is performed to permit the removal or reshaping of a spinal disc as part of a lumbar discectomy. This is a treatment for a herniated, bulging, or degenerated disc. The recovery period after a laminectomy depends on the specific operative technique, with minimally invasive procedures having significantly shorter recovery periods than open surgery.

The vertebral column, neck, and hips deteriorated during burial, and much of the damage to the skeleton is thought to have been caused by the activity of invertebrates. Borings in the bones, burrows, and reworked sediments (perhaps caused by the construction of pupal chambers) in the specimen indicate it was scavenged upon by colonies of skin beetles (Dermestidae) and perhaps other scavenging insects. There are many feeding traces in the joints of the skeleton, and almost all the surfaces where the bones articulated have been obliterated. There are also tunnels in the nest under the neck and skull, and no egg remains have been found in parts with such traces.

Medially, the posterior layer attaches to the tips of the lumbar and sacral spines and the interspinous ligaments. To the sides it blends with the middle layer at the lateral border of the erector spinae muscle group that extends the vertebral column (bending the spine so the head moves back relative to the chest), also known as sacrospinalis in older texts and more recently as extensor spinae,[3] though this term is not in widespread use. Superiorly it continues on to the back of the thorax where it attaches to the vertebral spines and the ribs, inferiorly to the posterior quarter of the outer lip of the Iliac crest.

Skeletal problems associated with weak muscles in SMA include tight joints with limited range of movement, hip dislocations, spinal deformity, osteopenia, an increase risk of fractures and pain. Weak muscles that normally stabilize joints such as the vertebral column lead to development of kyphosis and/or scoliosis and joint contracture. Spine fusion is sometimes performed in people with SMA I/II once they reach the age of 8–10 to relieve the pressure of a deformed spine on the lungs. Furthermore, immobile individuals, posture and position on mobility devices as well as range of motion exercises, and bone strengthening can be important to prevent complications.

Their body structure did not vary as much as other dinosaurs, perhaps due to size constraints, but they displayed ample variety. Some, like the diplodocids, possessed tremendously long tails, which they may have been able to crack like a whip as a signal or to deter or injure predators, or to make sonic booms. Supersaurus, at long, was the longest sauropod known from reasonably complete remains, but others, like the old record holder, Diplodocus, were also extremely long. The holotype (and now lost) vertebra of Amphicoelias fragillimus (now Maraapunisaurus) may have come from an animal long; its vertebral column would have been substantially longer than that of the blue whale.

Japan was the top importer of US beef, buying 240,000 tons valued at $1.4 billion in 2003. After the discovery of the first case of BSE in the US on 23 December 2003, Japan halted US beef imports. In December 2005, Japan once again allowed imports of US beef, but reinstated its ban in January 2006 after a violation of the US-Japan beef import agreement: a vertebral column, which should have been removed prior to shipment, was included in a shipment of veal. Tokyo yielded to US pressure to resume imports, ignoring consumer worries about the safety of US beef, said Japanese consumer groups.

390 Formerly distinct from vertebrates by excluding hagfish, molecular and anatomical research in the 21st century has led to the reinclusion of hagfish, making living craniates synonymous with living vertebrates. The clade was conceived largely on the basis of the Hyperoartia (lampreys and kin) being more closely related to the Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) than the Myxini (hagfishes). This, combined with an apparent lack of vertebral elements within the Myxini, suggested that the Myxini were descended from a more ancient lineage than the vertebrates, and that the skull developed before the vertebral column. The clade was thus composed of the Myxini and the vertebrates, and any extinct chordates with skulls.

Characteristic radiograph from child with Jarcho-Levin syndrome, spondylocostal dysostosis subtype In contrast to STD, the subtype spondylocostal dysostosis, or SCD features intrinsic rib anomalies, in addition to vertebral anomalies. Intrinsic rib anomalies include defects such as bifurcation, broadening and fusion that are not directly related to the vertebral anomalies (such as in STD, where extensive posterior rib fusion occurs due to segmentation defects and extreme shortening of the thoracic vertebral column). In both subtypes, the pulmonary restriction may result in pulmonary hypertension, and have other potential cardiac implications.Turnpenny, Peter, D., BSc, MB, ChB, FRCP, FRCPCH, FRCPath, Elizabeth Young, BSc, PhD; ICVS (International Consortium for Vertebral Anomalies and Scoliosis).

A combination may be used in more severe cases, though the modern pedicle screw system has largely negated the need for this. In recent years all-screw systems have become the gold-standard technique for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Pedicle screws achieve better fixation of the vertebral column and have better biomechanical properties than previous techniques, so enabling greater correction of the curve in all planes. Pedicle screw-only posterior spinal fusion may improve major curve correction at two years among patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) as compared to hybrid instrumentation (proximal hooks with distal pedicle screws) (65% versus 46%) according to a retrospective, matched-cohort study.

The holotype specimen of Forfexopterus was discovered by a local farmer, who had partially damaged this specimen while attempting to remove the encasing rock; the specimen was later restored. The specimen, which has the number HM V20, represents a single individual, and consists of a mostly complete skeleton including the skull but missing most of the vertebral column. It was discovered in rocks belonging to the Jiufotang Formation, dating to approximately 120 million years ago (Aptian), and it was described in 2016. The generic name Forfexopterus is derived from Latin forfex ("scissors") and Greek pterus ("wings"); the specific name jeholensis refers to the Jehol region.

The issue was whether the hagfish was a degenerate type of vertebrate-fish that through evolution had lost its vertebrae (the original scheme) and was most closely related to lampreys, or whether hagfish represent a stage that precedes the evolution of the vertebral column (the alternative scheme) as is the case with lancelets. Recent DNA evidence has supported the original scheme. The original scheme groups hagfish and lampreys together as cyclostomes (or historically, Agnatha), as the oldest surviving class of vertebrates alongside gnathostomes (the now-ubiquitous jawed vertebrates). The alternative scheme proposed that jawed vertebrates are more closely related to lampreys than to hagfish (i.e.

In the more formal taxonomy of Animalia other attributes that logically should precede the presence or absence of the vertebral column in constructing a cladogram, for example, the presence of a notochord. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata. However, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. Despite this, the concept of invertebrates as a taxon of animals has persisted for over a century among the laity, and within the zoological community and in its literature it remains in use as a term of convenience for animals that are not members of the Vertebrata.

Reconstructed skull and neck, NHM The head of Gallimimus was very small and light compared to the vertebral column. Due to the length of its snout, the skull was long compared to other ornithomimids, and the snout had a gently convex sloping upper profile. The side profile of the snout differed from other ornithomimids in not narrowing towards its front half, and the lower front margin of the premaxilla at the front of the upper jaw rose upwards, instead of being horizontal. Seen from above, the snout was almost spatulate (spoon-shaped), broad and rounded at the tip (or U-shaped), whereas it was acute (or V-shaped) in North American ornithomimids.

Reconstructed megalodon skeleton on display at the alt=A skeletal reconstruction of megalodon. Visible are the jaws with two rows of teeth, eye sockets, a pointed snout, several long, straight spines protruding outwards in the gill area behind the head, and a long horizontal item representing the vertebral column Megalodon is represented in the fossil record by teeth, vertebral centra, and coprolites. As with all sharks, the skeleton of megalodon was formed of cartilage rather than bone; consequently most fossil specimens are poorly preserved. To support its large dentition, the jaws of megalodon would have been more massive, stouter, and more strongly developed than those of the great white, which possesses a comparatively gracile dentition.

Sarahsaurus was a basal (or "primitive") member of the sauropodomorph lineage, which also included the more derived (or "advanced") sauropods – giant four-legged herbivores (plant- eaters) with long necks and tails. Basal sauropodomorphs such as Sarahsaurus already resemble sauropods in a number of aspects, including the elongated neck and robust build, but are reminiscent of the ancestral dinosaurs in others: Sarahsaurus was bipedal (two-legged), with forelimbs that were much shorter than the hind limbs and equipped with powerful grasping hands. Sarahsaurus was mid-sized for a basal sauropodomorph, with its vertebral column measuring more than in length. Paleontologist Gregory Paul, in a 2016 popular book, estimated its length at and its body weight at .

Hans Thewissen with the holotype Ambulocetus skeleton The first remains were unearthed by an expedition jointly funded by Howard University and the Geological Survey of Pakistan, in the upper Kuldana Formation in the Kala Chitta Hills of Punjab, Pakistan, dating to the middle Eocene. The formation is constrained to sometime during the Lutetian stage. The holotype specimen, HGSP 18507, is a partial skeleton initially discovered preserving a partial skull excluding the snout, some elements of the vertebral column and ribs, as well as portions of the fore- and hind-limb. Other specimens initially found were HGSP 18473 (a second premolar), HGSP 18497 (a third premolar), HGSP 18472 (a tail vertebra), and HGSP 18476 (lower portion of a femur).

In a study that focused solely on the mechanism of neck retraction in Chelodina (Pleurodire) versus that of Apalone (Cryptodire), an absence of the longissimus system, the Iliocostalis system and minimization of the epaxial musculature was found. Absence of longissimus musculature, which primarily functions in moving the neck via ipsilateral flexion and contralateral rotation, contributes to the backwards retraction of the neck into the shell. Lack of this muscular system also results in poorly developed transverse processes (the lateral processes of a vertebra), forcing them to be developed in a more cranial direction. The iliocostalis system, used for lateral flexion and extension of the vertebral column, is commonly absent in all turtles.

It differs from its cogenerate species by having a robust and bufoniform body, an adult averaging a size of between ; its smooth dorsum; and its orange coloration along its vertebral column, varying to yellow along its body's flanks, which in turn become increasingly verrucose. The skin on its dorsum shows no dermal co-ossification. The smooth dorsum of this species is similar to that of B. ferruginus, as opposed to the rugose dorsum of B. olivaceus, for instance. The species is unique among all Brachycephalus species in the presence of tiny dark spots on the dorsal portion of its head, thorax, legs, and arms, while at the same time possessing larger dark spots on the sides of its body.

This species is distinguished from its cogenerates by having a robust and bufoniform body, the adult body measuring on average between ; its very rough dorsum; and its general coloration of the dorsum being light-green with a thin orange stripe along the majority of its vertebral column. The skin on its dorsum shows no dermal co-ossification. Being a representative of the pernix group, it is most similar to B. olivaceus due to their green coloration, yet the orange coloration of this species' belly differs from the yellow and green coloration found in the belly of B. olivaceus. The species dorsal coloration is a lighter colour overall due to the alternation of small yellow and green spots throughout.

This species is distinguished from its cogenerates by possessing a robust and bufoniform body, the adult average length between ; its rough dorsum; and general coloration being predominantly yellow, with a stripe along its vertebral column varying from a dark brownish colour to black. The skin on its dorsum shows no dermal co-ossification. Being a representative of the pernix group, its rugose body dorsum is similar to B. mariaeterezae's, as opposed to the smooth dorsum found in B. izecksohni and B. brunneus, for example. The stripe along this species dorsum is similar to B. ferruginus', although the simultaneous orange coloration on the sides and belly of Brachycephalus fuscolineatus differs from the former's yellow coloration.

Also, Cope initially thought it consisted of two specimens of different animalsin an 1868 letter to LeConte, Cope had referred to the supposed "smaller specimen" as Discosaurus carinatus. Cope was only in his late twenties and not formally trained in paleontology, and may have been influenced by Leidy's mistake of reversing the vertebral column of Cimoliasaurus. In 2002 the American art historian Jane P. Davidson noted that the fact that other scientists early on had pointed out Leidy's error argues against this explanation, adding that Cope was not convinced he had made a mistake. Plesiosaur anatomy was sufficiently well known at the time that Cope should not have made the mistake, according to Davidson.

These three genera all appeared around 530 Ma. Pikaia had a primitive notochord, a structure that could have developed into a vertebral column later. Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail. All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed. These were followed by indisputable fossil vertebrates in the form of heavily armoured fishes discovered in rocks from the Ordovician Period 500–430 Ma. The first jawed vertebrates appeared in the late Ordovician and became common in the Devonian, often known as the "Age of Fishes".

The vertebral column consisted of nine cervical vertebrae, fifteen or sixteen dorsal vertebrae, six of five sacral vertebrae and about forty-eight vertebrae of the tail. Much of the back and the tail was stiffened by long ossified tendons connecting the spines on top of the vertebrae. The processes on the underside of the tail vertebrae, the chevrons, were also connected by ossified tendons, which however were of a different form: they were shorter and split and frayed at one end, with the point of the sharp other end laying within the diverging end of the subsequent tendon. Furthermore, there were several counterdirectional rows of these, resulting in a herring-bone pattern completely immobilising the tail end.

Sixth tail vertebra of the holotype in A) side, B) front and C) top views, with arrows indicating the highly modified caudal ribs The vertebral column consisted of ten cervical (neck), twelve dorsal, six fused sacral and an unknown number of caudal (tail) vertebrae. The neck was nearly straight, rather than having the S-curve seen in other theropods, and also unusually wide, especially towards its base. The top of the neck's spinal column featured a double row of enlarged, upwardly directed bony processes called epipophyses, creating a smooth trough on the top of the neck vertebrae. These processes were the highest points of the spine, towering above the unusually low spinous processes.

In the "jump", the ray pulls back its head and then thrusts its disc upwards, reaching about two or three times as high as the prey fish is from the bottom. Simultaneously, it makes a single tail stroke and produces a high-frequency (230–430 Hz, increasing with temperature) burst of electricity. The initial electric burst is very short, containing only 10–64 pulses, but is still strong enough to cause tetanic contraction in the body of the prey fish, often breaking its vertebral column. As the ray glides forward, the motion of the jump sweeps the now-paralyzed prey beneath it, whereupon it is enveloped by the disc and maneuvered to the mouth.

The tectorial membrane of atlanto-axial joint (occipitoaxial ligaments) is situated within the vertebral canal. D: Tectorial membrane of atlanto-axial joint It is a broad, strong band which covers the dens of the axis, and its ligaments, and appears to be a prolongation upward of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the vertebral column. It is fixed, below, to the posterior surface of the body of the axis, and, expanding as it ascends, is attached to the basilar groove of the occipital bone, in front of the foramen magnum, where it blends with the cranial dura mater. Its anterior surface is in relation with the transverse ligament of the atlas, and its posterior surface with the dura mater.

The hindlimb structure of Ambulocetids shows that their ability to engage in terrestrial locomotion was significantly limited compared to that of contemporary terrestrial mammals, and likely did not come to land at all. The skeletal structures of the knee and ankle indicates that the motion of the hindlimbs was restricted into one plane. This suggests that, on land, propulsion of the hindlimbs was powered by the extension of dorsal muscles. They probably swam by pelvic paddling (a way of swimming which mainly utilizes their hind limbs to generate propulsion in water) and caudal undulation (a way of swimming which uses the undulations of the vertebral column to generate force for movements), as otters, seals and modern cetaceans do.

The somites that give rise to the vertebral column begin to develop from head to tail along the length of the notochord. At day 20 of embryogenesis the first four pairs of somites appear in the future occipital bone region. Developing at the rate of three or four a day, the next eight pairs form in the cervical region to develop into the cervical vertebrae; the next twelve pairs will form the thoracic vertebrae; the next five pairs the lumbar vertebrae and by about day 29 the sacral somites will appear to develop into the sacral vertebrae; finally on day 30 the last three pairs will form the coccyx.Larsen, W.J. Human Embryology.2001.

Basilosaurids and dorudontids are the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans for which the entire skeleton is known. They display a number of aquatic adaptations not present in earlier archaeocetes: In the vertebral column, the neck vertebrae are short, the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are of similar length, the sacral vertebrae are unfused, the sacroiliac joints are absent, and the short tail has a ball vertebra (indicating the presence of a fluke). The scapulae are broad and fan-shaped with anterior acromions and small supraspinous fossae. The ulnae are large and have transversely flat olecranons, the wrists and distal forearms are flattened in the plane of the hands, and the hind limbs are tiny.

Tetrapod forelimbs are characterised by a high degree of mobility in the shoulder- thorax connection. Lacking a solid skeletal connection between the shoulder girdle and the vertebral column, the forelimb's attachment to the trunk is instead mainly controlled by serratus lateralis and levator scapulae. Depending on locomotor style, a bone connects the shoulder girdle to the trunk in some animals; the coracoid bone in reptiles and birds, and the clavicle in primates and bats; but cursorial mammals lack this bone. In primates, the shoulder shows characteristics that differ from other mammals, including a well developed clavicle, a dorsally shifted scapula with prominent acromion and spine, and a humerus featuring a straight shaft and a spherical head.

The fragmentary nature of Argentinosaurus remains makes their interpretation difficult. Arguments revolve around the position of the recovered vertebrae within the vertebral column and the presence of accessory articulations between the vertebrae that would have strengthened the spine. A computer model of the skeleton and muscles estimated this dinosaur had a maximum speed of 7 km/h (5 mph) with a pace, a gait where the fore and hind limb of the same side of the body move simultaneously. The fossils of Argentinosaurus were recovered from the Huincul Formation, which was deposited in the middle Cenomanian to early Turonian ages (around 96 to 92 million years ago) and contains a diverse dinosaur fauna including the giant theropod Mapusaurus.

All the known post-cranial information for the skeleton of Azendohsaurus comes from A. madagaskarensis. Much of the vertebral column is known in Azendohsaurus, and although incomplete, it is estimated to have 24 presacral vertebrae (including the atlas and axis). The sacrum of the hips has only two vertebrae, and the full number of caudal vertebrae in the tail is unknown, but it is estimated to be only around 45–55 (low for an archosaur). The cervical vertebrae change shape down the neck, beginning as characteristically elongated with long and low neural spines, and getting progressively shorter in length towards the base of the neck, but with increasingly taller and narrower neural spines.

Given the demands of fetal loading during pregnancy and the importance of producing offspring to the fitness of human beings, one can imagine that natural selection has had a role in selecting a unique anatomy for the lumbar region in females. It turns out that there are sex differences in the lumbar vertebral column of human males and females, which ultimately helps mitigate some of the discomfort due to the fetal load in females. There are 5 vertebrae in the lumbar region for both males and females. However, the 3 lower vertebrae of a female's lumbar region are dorsally wedged while for males, only the lower 2 of the lumbar region are dorsally wedged.

The skeleton of the pelvis is a basin-shaped ring of bones connecting the vertebral column to the femora. Its primary functions are to bear the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing, transferring that weight from the axial skeleton to the lower appendicular skeleton when standing and walking, and providing attachments for and withstanding the forces of the powerful muscles of locomotion and posture. Compared to the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle is thus strong and rigid. Its secondary functions are to contain and protect the pelvic and abdominopelvic viscera (inferior parts of the urinary tracts, internal reproductive organs), providing attachment for external reproductive organs and associated muscles and membranes.

Shields, W. M. 1982. Philopatry, Inbreeding, and the Evolution of Sex. Print. 50–69. Malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a high homozygosity rate, and this will cause a population to become fixed for certain traits, like having too many bones in an area, like the vertebral column of wolves on Isle Royale or having cranial abnormalities, such as in Northern elephant seals, where their cranial bone length in the lower mandibular tooth row has changed. Having a high homozygosity rate is problematic for a population because it will unmask recessive deleterious alleles generated by mutations, reduce heterozygote advantage, and it is detrimental to the survival of small, endangered animal populations.

The vertebral column in dinosaurs consists of the cervical (neck), dorsal (back), sacral (hips), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. Saurischian dinosaur vertebrae sometimes possess features known as pleurocoels, which are hollow depressions on the lateral portions of the vertebrae, perforated to create an entrance into the air chambers within the vertebrae, which served to decrease the weight of these bones without sacrificing strength. These pleurocoels were filled with air sacs, which would have further decreased weight. In sauropod dinosaurs, the largest known land vertebrates, pleurocoels and air sacs may have reduced the animal's weight by over a ton in some instances, a handy evolutionary adaption in animals that grew to over 30 metres in length.

The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.

In the case of Cacops, Dilkes's interpretation on the 20 degree angle of inclination of the zygapophyses indicate that coupling between lateral flexion and axial rotation is highly limited. In addition, there is extensive overlap between internal series and external series contributes to limitation of lateral flexion.In the case of Dissorophus, Dilkes gives more detail that there is larger angle of inclinations of zygapophyses indicating that there is greater coupling between the axial rotation and lateral flexion despite of insertion of the flanges in the neural spine. In conclusion, both DeMar and Dilkes clarify that the osteoderm growth covers the first sections of the anterior vertebral column and grows posteriorly with fusion of the next posterior vertebral sections.

The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, in which the notochord (a stiff rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of stiffer elements (vertebrae) separated by mobile joints (intervertebral discs, derived embryonically and evolutionarily from the notochord). However, a few vertebrates have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon and coelacanth. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages (fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost), but this trait is not required in order for an animal to be a vertebrate. Fossilized skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii, showing an extreme example of the backbone that characterizes the vertebrates.

Like other stargazers, it is an ambush predator which lies buried under sand with only its eyes showing. It has a large mouth, with a small strip of skin protruding from its lower jaw, which it moves in and out rapidly to act as a lure for prey. When a prey item comes near, the fish lunges toward the prey using a specially adapted vertebral column to generate the force by bending 60°, which takes less than 30 milliseconds to engulf the prey. It feeds primarily on fish larvae and smaller fishes, such as gobies, picarels, and small crustaceans, but has also been known to eat molluscs, echinoderms, annelids, algae and plant material.

Silhouette reconstruction of the skeleton of L. marayensis Skull of L. marayensis in dorsal view Leyesaurus is known from the holotype PVSJ 706, a nearly complete skull with articulated mandible and some postcranial remains (vertebral column, scapular and pelvic girdles and hindlimb). The skull has a length of 18 centimeters, and Leyesaurus has been estimated to have been about in length. It was collected from the uppermost part of the Quebrada del Barro Formation of the Marayes-El Carrizal Basin, dating to the Lower Jurassic (based on the presence of a massospondylid like Leyesaurus within the formation). Leyesaurus was found near the locality Balde de Leyes, in the Caucete Department of San Juan Province.

However, the position of the dorsal plates are high above the center of gravity, and this seemingly would have made the bodies of hupehsuchians unstable. Hupehsuchians were among the largest marine animals of their time, so dorsal plates as a protective measure would be unneeded. The tendency for the dorsal plates to be more developed anteriorly may have allowed the anterior portion of the vertebral column to remain relatively rigid, while the posterior portion could freely undulate. Whether hupehsuchians acquired plates subsequent to an adaptation to the marine environment is unclear, or inherited them from a terrestrial ancestor, in which case they would have given rigidity to the spine and protection from predators.

CT image of specimen in burrow Thrinaxodon has been identified as a burrowing cynodont by numerous discoveries in preserved burrow hollows. There is evidence that the burrows are in fact built by the Thrinaxodon to live in them, and they do not simply inhabit leftover burrows by other creatures. Pitted foramina on the snout of Thrinaxodon indicate the likely presence of the sensory organ, whiskers, an adaptation likely used to assist navigation and sensation within burrows. Due to the evolution of a segmented vertebral column into thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae, Thrinaxodon was able to achieve flexibilities that permitted it to comfortably rest within smaller burrows, which may have led to habits such as aestivation or torpor.

Cutleria is known only from the holotype specimen USNM 22099, a fractured but three-dimensionally preserved, a nearly complete skull and articulated partial postcranial skeleton (including vertebral column, ribs and several girdle and limb elements). It was collected at locality 3, near Placerville of San Miguel County, Colorado, from the Cutler Formation, dating to the Sakmarian stage of the Cisuralian series. MCZ 2987, a tip of the rostrum and some teeth collected 2.5 km from the type locality (from localities 11-13), was originally referred to C. wilmarthi by Lewis and Vaughn (1965). A redescription of sphenacodonts by Michel Laurin (1993 and 1994), revealed that it can't be assigned to any named sphenacodont genus.

The holotype specimen consists of the remains of a small individual. Because most of the vertebral column is absent, its body length cannot be directly determined, but a comparison can be made with the previously smallest known ornithomimosaur, the 1.6 metres long Shenzhousaurus, which has a thighbone length of 191 millimetres, while the femur length of Hexing is 135 millimetres. Such a small body size was among ornithomimosaurs up till now only known from juveniles but the holotype is not a young animal as is shown by the complete fusion of the skull bones, the neck ribs, the scapulocoracoid and the ankle bones. The describers determined some autapomorphies of Hexing, its unique derived traits.

Thuringothyris is known from the holotype MNG 7729, articulated well-preserved skull and partial postcranial skeleton, and from the referred specimens MNG 10652, poorly preserved skull and partial vertebral column, MNG 10647, disarticulated cranial and postcranial remains of at least four individuals, MNG 10183, slightly crushed skull and partial postcranial skeleton and MNG 11191, poorly preserved skull and partial limbs. All specimens were collected from the Tambach-Sandstein Member, the uppermost part of the Tambach Formation, dating to the Artinskian stage of the Late Cisuralian Series (or alternatively upper Rotliegend), about 284–279.5 million years ago. They were found in the Bromacker Quarry, the middle part of the Thuringian Forest, near the small town of Tambach-Dietharz. Thuringothyris was originally thought to be protorothyridid.

A horse's back The back describes the area of horse anatomy where the saddle goes, and in popular usage extends to include the loin or lumbar region behind the thoracic vertebrae that also is crucial to a horse's weight-carrying ability. These two sections of the vertebral column beginning at the withers, the start of the thoracic vertebrae, and extend to the last lumbar vertebra. Because horses are ridden by humans, the strength and structure of the horse's back is critical to the animal's usefulness. The thoracic vertebrae are the true "back" vertebral structures of the skeleton, providing the underlying support of the saddle, and the lumbar vertebrae of the loin provide the coupling that joins the back to the hindquarters.

He possesses some degree of superhuman strength and endurance, primarily concentrated in his lower torso and legs, which grants him his superior leaping abilities. His vertebral column and skeletal structure are unusually flexible, enabling him to remain in a constant crouching position and contort his body into unusual position without injury or strain. In his first appearances, Toad had very little knowledge of hand-to-hand combat, fighting mainly by kicking wildly and by leaping about and attempting to land on his opponents (as Toad once weighed over 250 lbs this could be potentially harmful). Recently, he has demonstrated a better sense of combat and a leaner physique, using both his leaping ability and his elongated prehensile tongue to his advantage.

In these early forms, the connection with the vertebral column is not complete, with a small pair of ribs connecting the two structures; nonetheless the pelvis already forms the complete ring found in most subsequent forms. In practice, modern amphibians and reptiles have substantially modified this ancestral structure, based on their varied forms and lifestyles. The obturator foramen is generally very small in such animals, although most reptiles do possess a large gap between the pubis and ischium, referred to as the thyroid fenestra, which presents a similar appearance to the obturator foramen in mammals. In birds, the pubic symphysis is present only in the ostrich, and the two hip bones are usually widely separated, making it easier to lay large eggs.

Dermamyotome, which retains the epithelial properties of its origin, forms the dermis and skeletal muscle, while sclerotome gives rise to the vertebral column and ribs. The selective outgrowth of motor and sensory axons through the anterior sclerotome of the somites forms the fundamental reason behind the observed nervous system segmentation in the spinal nerves. As a matter of fact, the molecular differences within each somite has a profound influence on the movement of the neural crest cell, motor axon, and sensory axon as there are attractive and inhibitory cues involved in the development of these structures. Molecules such as butyrlcholinesterase, tenascin and the M7412 antigen that have restricted expression in the anterior sclerotome of somite have been shown to have minimal effect on segmentation.

It comprises 150 vertebral centra, with the centra ranging from to in diameter. The shark's vertebrae may have gotten much bigger, and scrutiny of the specimen revealed that it had a higher vertebral count than specimens of any known shark, possibly over 200 centra; only the great white approached it. Another partially preserved vertebral column of a megalodon was excavated from the Gram Formation in Denmark in 1983, which comprises 20 vertebral centra, with the centra ranging from to in diameter. alt=Smmothly rounded dark brown rock-like coprolite The coprolite remains of megalodon are spiral-shaped, indicating that the shark may have had a spiral valve, a corkscrew-shaped portion of the lower intestines, similar to extant lamniform sharks.

Cope attempted to reconstruct the animal on the assumption that the longer extremity of the vertebral column was the tail, the shorter one the neck. He soon noticed that the skeleton taking shape under his hands had some very special qualities: the neck vertebrae had chevrons and with the tail vertebrae the joint surfaces were orientated back to front. Excited, Cope concluded to have discovered an entirely new group of reptiles: the Streptosauria or "Turned Saurians", which would be distinguished by reversed vertebrae and a lack of hindlimbs, the tail providing the main propulsion. After having published a description of this animal, followed by an illustration in a textbook about reptiles and amphibians, Cope invited Marsh and Joseph Leidy to admire his new Elasmosaurus platyurus.

Pseudopetalichthys problematica is a lightly armored pseudopetalichthyid placoderm from the Hunsrückschiefer Lagerstätte of Early Devonian Germany. The holotype and only known specimen is an articulated, but incomplete individual consisting of a large, mostly intact, plate-covered head, the bases of the pectoral fins, and most of the vertebral column, with a total length of . The specimen superficially resembles Stensioella, though the structures of the mouth, and orbits (the orbits being unknown in Stensioella), and placement of the gill rakers all differ. Some experts suggest that P. problematica and the related Paraplesiobatis are the same species, suggesting that the differences between them are merely due to different circumstances of taphonomy, but this hypothesis can not be tested until more specimens are found.

Outside the vertebral column, the nerve divides into branches. The dorsal ramus contains nerves that serve the posterior portions of the trunk carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and somatic sensory information to and from the skin and muscles of the back (epaxial muscles). The ventral ramus contains nerves that serve the remaining anterior parts of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs (hypaxial muscles) carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the ventrolateral body surface, structures in the body wall, and the limbs. The meningeal branches (recurrent meningeal or sinuvertebral nerves) branch from the spinal nerve and re-enter the intervertebral foramen to serve the ligaments, dura, blood vessels, intervertebral discs, facet joints, and periosteum of the vertebrae.

The pelvic girdle of the dinosaur Falcarius utahensis The pelvic girdle was present in early vertebrates, and can be tracked back to the paired fins of fish that were some of the earliest chordates. The shape of the pelvis, most notably the orientation of the iliac crests and shape and depth of the acetabula, reflects the style of locomotion and body mass of an animal. In bipedal mammals, the iliac crests are parallel to the vertically oriented sacroiliac joints, where in quadrupedal mammals they are parallel to the horizontally oriented sacroiliac joints. In heavy mammals, especially in quadrupeds, the pelvis tend to be more vertically oriented because this allows the pelvis to support greater weight without dislocating the sacroiliac joints or adding torsion to the vertebral column.

The rib cage is the arrangement of ribs attached to the vertebral column and sternum in the thorax of most vertebrates, that encloses and protects the heart and lungs. In humans, the rib cage, also known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure which surrounds the thoracic cavity and supports the shoulder girdle to form the core part of the human skeleton. A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs in 12 pairs, the sternum and xiphoid process, the costal cartilages, and the 12 thoracic vertebrae. Together with the skin and associated fascia and muscles, the rib cage makes up the thoracic wall and provides attachments for the muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen, and back.

Focusing his researches on the biomechanics of human spinal column, Pal elucidated the roles played by vertebral arches and their zygapophyseal joints in weight transmission along the vertebral column. These studies have assisted in the understanding the spinal disorder called idiopathic scoliosis. His researches have been documented by way of several articles and the online repository of scientific articles of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed a number of them. Besides, he has published several books which include Illustrated Textbook of Neuroanatomy, Text Book of Histology, Basics Of Medical Genetics, Human Embryyology, General Anatomy (basic Concepts In Human Gross Anatomy), Human Osteology: Text and Colour Atlas and Medical Genetics and his work has been cited in many text books on anatomy.

The New Zealand hagfish has a skull but no jaw or true vertebral column, it instead has a skeleton made up of cartilage.(Encyclopedia of Britannica, 2011) The rounded mouth of the hagfish is surrounded by 6 barbels, above that is their singular nasal passage and just inside the mouth is a dental plate with a row of posterior and anterior keratinous grasping teeth on each side. It has seven pairs of gill pouches and forming a line down both the lower sides of its body are pores which often many of them are ringed with a white colour and are used for secreting a snot-like slime which expands out once it has contact with the sea water.(Bray, n.

Drawing published in the Transactions of the Geological Society of the nearly complete Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus skeleton found by Anning in 1823 In the same 1821 paper he co-authored with Henry De la Beche on ichthyosaur anatomy, William Conybeare named and described the genus Plesiosaurus (near lizard), called so because he thought it more like modern reptiles than the ichthyosaur had been. The description was based on a number of fossils, the most complete of them specimen OUMNH J.50146, a paddle and vertebral column that had been obtained by Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch.Evans, M., 2010, "The roles played by museums, collections, and collectors in the early history of reptile palaeontology", pp. 5-31 in: Richard Moody, E. Buffetaut, D. Naish, D.M. Martill (eds).

Although most of them are incomplete, if restored, they would measure about long, which make them the largest hand claws of any known terrestrial animal. The tubercles are not as strongly developed as in other therizinosaurids though, in addition, Therizinosaurus had some of the longest forelimbs known for any bipedal dinosaurs: the preserved right arm in specimen IGM 100/15 has a total length of . The vertebral column was highly pneumatized (air-spaced) and is relatively well documented from several badly to well-preserved elements among genera but specimens of Nanshiungosaurus and Nothronychus preserve the most complete series of vertebrae. Therizinosaurids had large and robust cervical vertebrae with relatively short neural spines and platycoelous (concave at both ends) to opisthocoelus (concave posterior ends) centra that were elongated and had some degree of pneumacity.

Xihaina is an extinct genus of iguanian lizard from the Late Cretaceous of Inner Mongolia, China. The type species Xihaina aquilonia was named in 1995 from the Djadochta Formation and is known from a partial skeleton that preserves parts of the skull, most of the vertebral column, the pelvis, and the right hind limb. The incomplete nature of this specimen makes the classification of Xihaina difficult; it has never been incorporated into a phylogenetic analysis, but it shares similarities with a group of Late Cretaceous Mongolian lizards called Gobiguania, particularly the gobiguanian genera Anchaurosaurus and Polrussia. The fact that many skeletal elements are missing yet the rest of the skeleton is articulated suggests the individual may have been partially eaten by a predator or scavenger and then rapidly buried soon after.

Even after the evolution of the vertebral column in chondrichthyes and osteichthyes, these taxa remained common and are well represented in the fossils record. Several species (see list below) have reverted to the primitive state, retaining the notochord into adulthood, though the reasons for this are not well understood. Scenarios for the evolutionary origin of the notochord were comprehensively reviewed by Annona, Holland, and D'Aniello (2015). They point out that, although many of these ideas have not been well supported by advances in molecular phylogenetics and developmental genetics, two of them have actually been revived under the stimulus of modern molecular approaches (the first proposes that the notochord evolved de novo in chordates, and the second derives it from a homologous structure, the axochord, that was present in annelid-like ancestors of the chordates).

In June, Turner gave three fossil vertebrae to the American scientist John LeConte, a member of the railway survey, to take back east to be identified. In December, LeConte delivered some of the vertebrae to the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP, known since 2011 as the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University). Recognizing them as the remains of a plesiosaur, larger than any he had seen in Europe, Cope wrote to Turner asking him to deliver the rest of the specimen, at the ANSP's expense. In December 1867 Turner and others from Fort Wallace returned to the site and recovered much of the vertebral column, as well as concretions that contained other bones; the material had a combined weight of .

78 On 13 September, Dr George Bagster Phillips described the body as he observed it at 6:30 a.m. in the back yard of the house at 29 Hanbury Street:Bell, Capturing Jack the Ripper: In the Boots of a Bobby in Victorian England, p. 106 Illustrated Police News sketch of Dr George Bagster Phillips examining the body of Annie Chapman at 29 Hanbury Street Chapman's throat had been cut from left to right so deeply the bones of her vertebral column bore striations,Cook, Jack the Ripper, p. 158 and she had been disembowelled, with a section of the flesh from her stomach being placed upon her left shoulder and another section of skin and flesh—plus her small intestines—being removed and placed above her right shoulder.

The left and the right gluteus maximus muscles (the butt cheeks) are vertically divided by the intergluteal cleft (the butt-crack) which contains the anus. The gluteus maximus muscle is a large and very thick muscle (6–7 cm) located on the sacrum, which is the large, triangular bone located at the base of the vertebral column, and at the upper- and back-part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted (like a wedge) between the two hip bones. The upper part of the sacrum is connected to the final lumbar vertebra (L5), and to the bottom of the coccyx (tailbone). At its origin, the gluteus maximus muscle extends to include parts of the iliac bone, the sacrum, the coccyx, the sacrosciatic ligament, and the tuberosity of the ischium.

In humans, the spinal cord stops growing in infancy and the end of the spinal cord is about the level of the third lumbar vertebra, or L3, at birth. Because the bones of the vertebral column continue to grow, by about 12 months of age, the end of the cord reaches its permanent position at the level of L1 or L2 (closer to the head). However, due to normal anatomical variations, the final cord end position may occur anywhere from T12 twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) to L3. Individual spinal nerve roots arise from the cord as they get closer to the head, but as the differential growth occurs, the top end of the nerve stays attached to the spinal cord while the lower end of the nerve exits the spinal column at its proper level.

When compared, the skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles (such as the turtle, right), being made up almost entirely of an extended ribcage. The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, though henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs. The skull of the snake consists of a solid and complete neurocranium, to which many of the other bones are only loosely attached, particularly the highly mobile jaw bones, which facilitate manipulation and ingestion of large prey items. The left and right sides of the lower jaw are joined only by a flexible ligament at the anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely, while the posterior end of the lower jaw bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility.

In hupehsuchians, the surfaces of the vertebral centra that articulate with one another are distinctively flat, or acelous, while in ichthyosaurs they are noticeably heterocelous (it is also important to note that the surfaces of centra in the possible early diapsid ancestors of hupehsuchians were amphicelous). However, there are some early ichthyosaurs and ichthyosaur relatives such as Chaohusaurus and Utatsusaurus that possess vertebrae that are not deeply heterocoelus and more closely resemble those of hupehsuchians. Unlike more derived ichthyosaurs, the centra of these two genera are about as long as they are high. In hupehsuchians, where the neural arches dominate the vertebral column, the height of the centra is reduced and the height to length ratio of the centra is smaller, meaning that they are also about as long as they are high.

While the capacity to walk upright is not unique to humans, other primates can only achieve this for short periods and at a great expenditure of energy. The human adaption to bipedalism is not limited to the leg, however, but has also affected the location of the body's center of gravity, the reorganisation of internal organs, and the form and biomechanism of the trunk. In humans, the double S-shaped vertebral column acts as a great shock-absorber which shifts the weight from the trunk over the load-bearing surface of the feet. The human legs are exceptionally long and powerful as a result of their exclusive specialization for support and locomotion—in orangutans the leg length is 111% of the trunk; in chimpanzees 128%, and in humans 171%.

The lack of a preserved vertebral column has made it difficult to estimate the exact length of Leedsichthys. Arthur Smith Woodward, who described the type specimen in 1889,Woodward Smith, 1889 estimated specimen BMNH P.10000 to be of an around nine metre long individual,Woodward Smith, 1905Woodward, A.S., 1917, "Alfred Nicholson Leeds, F.G.S.", Geological Magazine, 6(4): 478-480 by comparing this tail of Leedsichthys, having a preserved height of 274 centimetres (108 inches), with another pachycormid, Hypsocormus. The length of Leedsichthys was not historically the subject of much attention, the only reference to it being made by Woodward himself when he in 1937 indicated it again as 9 metres (29.5 feet) on the museum label of BMNH P.10000. However, in 1986, David Martill compared the bones of Leedsichthys to a pachycormid that he had recently discovered, Asthenocormus.

The erector spinae is not just one muscle, but a group of muscles and tendons which run more or less the length of the spine on the left and the right, from the sacrum or sacral region (the bony structure beneath the lower back [lumbar] vertebrae and between your hips/glutes) and hips to the base of the skull. They are also known as the sacrospinalis group of muscles. These muscles lie on either side of the vertebral column spinous processes (the bony points up and down the middle of the back) and extend throughout the lumbar, thoracic, and cervical regions (lower, middle, and upper back and the neck). The erector spinae is covered in the lumbar and thoracic regions (lower back and lower middle back) by the thoracolumbar fascia, and in the cervical region (neck) by the nuchal ligament.

SAM 5882, the holotype for Mesosuchus, consists of a partial rostrum, palate, braincase, lower jaws, sections of articulated presacral vertebral column, nine articulated caudal vertebrae, portions of scapula and pelvic girdle, and partial forelimb and hindlimbs. SAM 6046, one of the paratypes of Mesosuchus, consists of an incomplete right maxilla, an articulated series of the last ten presacrals, both sacrals, and first six caudals, partial forelimbs, left and right pelvic girdles, right hind limb, as well as element of left tarsus. SAM 6536, another paratype, consists of a virtually complete skull with lower jaws, articulated cervical vertebrae and ribs, dorsal vertebrae and ribs, complete left scapulocoracoid and partial right scapula, interclavicle, clavicles, distal end of left humerus, and gastralia. 50px This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

The vertebral centra in the trunk region were large and circular, creating an overall spindle-shaped body with a stocky trunk. An analysis of a partially complete tail fin fossil shows that Cretoxyrhina had a lunate (crescent-shaped) tail most similar with modern lamnid sharks, whale sharks, and basking sharks. The transition to tail vertebrae is estimated to be between the 140th and 160th vertebrae out of the total 230, resulting in a total tail vertebral count of 70–90 and making up approximately 30–39% of the vertebral column. The transition from precaudal (the set of vertebrae before the tail vertebrae) to tail vertebrae is also marked by a vertebral bend of about 45°, which is the highest possible angle known in extant sharks and is mostly found in fast-swimming sharks, such as lamnids.

Distinguishing vertebral features; proportionally large neural spine in a dorsal of SNHM1284-R (A), square shape of caudals in same specimen (B), curved lamellae in dorsals of the holotype (C), and cross-section of a rib of NHMUK R11185 (D), showing robusticity and a small groove As is typical for ichthyosaurs, the vertebral centra are disc-shaped and deeply concave on both ends. Processes (bony projections for muscle and rib attachment) are greatly reduced as an adaptation for the fully aquatic lifestyle. In Acamptonectes, the frontmost cervical centra (of the neck) were high and short, while the following cervical and dorsal (of the trunk) centra become progressively longer. At the rear section of the dorsal vertebral column, the centra become shorter and higher, a trend that reaches its peak at the first caudal (tail vertebrae), which is 3.12 times as high as long.

At an ANSP meeting a year and a half later, in March 1870, the American paleontologist Joseph Leidy (Cope's mentor) noted that Cope's reconstruction of Elasmosaurus showed the skull at the wrong end of the vertebral column, at the end of the tail instead of the neck. Cope had apparently concluded that the tail vertebrae belonged to the neck, since the jaws had been found at that end of the skeleton, even though the opposite end terminated in the axis and atlas bones that are found in the neck. Leidy also concluded that Elasmosaurus was identical to Discosaurus, a plesiosaur he had named in 1851. To hide his mistake, Cope attempted to recall all copies of the preprint article, and printed a corrected version with a new skeletal reconstruction that placed the head on the neck (though it reversed the orientation of the individual vertebrae) and different wording in 1870.

Estimates of skull length are approximately for the holotype and for PMO 214.136, suggesting a total body length of for the species, making P. funkei one of the largest pliosaurs described so far, but this estimate has since been questioned. Due to its large size and relative completeness, the species, nicknamed "Predator X" before its formal description, gained extensive media coverage, which claimed that it was "most fearsome animal ever to swim in the oceans". Morphological and histological characters, such as the presence of a tuberosity on the humerus and a well developed anterior process on the coracoid, and abnormal hardening and increase in density of bone, indicate that both specimens were adult individuals. Even though none of the neural arches are fused to their centra in the vertebral column of both individuals (a possible juvenile trait), this feature is present in all large pliosaurids, and thus possibly paedomorphic within Pliosauridae.

Removal of these structures with an open technique requires disconnecting the many muscles of the back attached to them. A laminectomy performed as a minimal spinal surgery procedure is a tissue-preserving surgery that leaves more of the muscle intact and spares the spinal process. Another procedure, called the laminotomy, is the removal of a mid-portion of one lamina and may be done either with a conventional open technique or in a minimalistic fashion with the use of tubular retractors and endoscopes. The reason for lamina removal is rarely, if ever, because the lamina itself is diseased; rather, it is done to break the continuity of the rigid ring of the spinal canal to allow the soft tissues within the canal to: 1) expand (decompress); 2) change the contour of the vertebral column; or 3) permit access to deeper tissue inside the spinal canal.

Skull in multiple views Pseudochampsa is known solely from the holotype PVSJ 567, a nearly complete and articulated individual housed at the División de Paleontologia de Vertebrados del Museo de Ciencias Naturales y Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Argentina. The holotype consists of a skull with fully occluded lower jaws, a complete vertebral column lacking the outer half of the tail, several neck and back ribs, some haemal arches, some gastralia, the pectoral girdle, both partially preserved humeri, a partial pelvic girdle, and both nearly complete hind-limbs including both femora, tibiae, fibulae, tarsals and feet. PVSJ 567 was found at Valle Pintado, Hoyada de Ischigualasto of the Ischigualasto Provincial Park, San Juan Province. It was collected from the Cancha de Bochas Member of the Ischigualasto Formation, of Ischigualasto-Villa Union Basin, dating to the late Carnian to earliest Norian stages of the middle Late Triassic.

Surface projections of major organs of the torso, using the vertebral column and rib cage as main reference sources. Most critical organs are housed within the torso. In the upper chest, the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage, and the abdomen contains most of the organs responsible for digestion: the stomach, which breaks down partially digested food via gastric acid; the liver, which respectively produces bile necessary for digestion; the large and small intestines, which extract nutrients from food; the anus, from which fecal wastes are egested; the rectum, which stores feces; the gallbladder, which stores and concentrates bile; the kidneys, which produce urine, the ureters, which pass it to the bladder for storage; and the urethra, which excretes urine and in a male passes sperm through the seminal vesicles. Finally, the pelvic region houses both the male and female reproductive organs.

Reconstructed skeletons of the North American therizinosaurs Nothronychus (large) and Falcarius, in modern, bipedal postures, Natural History Museum of Utah In 1979 and 1981, Barsbold and Perle said the short, massive metatarsus and unusually large, splayed toes indicated that Segnosaurus and its relatives were not adapted for rapid locomotion, perhaps because it was not required by their lifestyle; Barsbold and Perle suggested they could have been amphibious. Barsbold and Maryańska agreed in 1990 the short, broad feet and bulky trunks of the group indicated they were slow- moving animals. Paul depicted a prosauropod-like "segnosaur" skeleton (a composite of various genera) in a quadrupedal posture in 1988. Based on the more complete remains of Alxasaurus and the articulation of its vertebral column, Russell concluded in 1993 that Paul's skeletal restoration was inaccurate and that the arms of therizinosaurs were held clear off the ground.

The redescription of 2012 established two autapomorphies, unique derived traits: the presence of chevrons at the tail base that were four times as long as the vertebral centra; and the possession at the tail base vertebrae of front joint processes, prezygapophyses, the inner bases of which formed a bowl-shaped depression that extended upwards into a deep trough on the front surface of the spine. A life restoration of Magnapaulia laticaudus On the vertebral column, from at least the middle of the back to over the middle of the tail, a tall crest of almost continuous height was present formed by spines that were about four times as high as the vertebral centra. Magnapaulia is among the many hadrosaurids that have preserved skin impressions; the tail of specimen LACM 17712 had some up to four centimetres wide scales, or perhaps bony osteoderms, embedded within up to one centimetre long hexagonal and smaller rounded scales.

The Upanishad gives details about how the conception takes place in the womb and how it develops over a period of nine months. After the union takes place in a particular (Ritu) season, the growth of the body in the embryo on the first day is a "nodule". It becomes a "bubble" by the seventh night; in 15 nights it becomes a "lump"; in a month's time the embryo is hard; by the end of two months, head is formed; parts of the feet appear by three months; stomach, the hips and ankle appear by the fourth month; the vertebral column shapes up by the fifth month; the face, nose and ears appear by the sixth month; the seventh month is when fetus is imbibed with Jiva or soul (Atman), in the eighth month has all body parts, and fully developed in the ninth month. The fetus grows and is nourished by what the mother eats and drinks, through a vein, states the text.

This specimen was collected and taken to the MNHN by the fifth expedition in 1972. Following a subsequent Italian-French expedition led by Taquet and Italian palaeontologist Giancarlo Ligabue that turned up a potential additional iguanodontian specimen, Ligabue offered to donate the nearly complete specimen and a skull of Sarcosuchus to the Municipality of Venice, which accepted the offer and subsequently mounted the skeleton in 1975 at the Museo di Storia Naturale di Venezia. Taquet formally described the two mostly-complete specimens MNHN GDF 300 and MNHN GDF 381 from the first and fourth expeditions as Ouranosaurus nigeriensis in 1976, along with a referred coracoid and femur that bore the numbers MNHN GDF 301 and MNHN GDF 302 respectively. MNHN GDF 300 was made the holotype, and was the primary specimen described, including a semi-articulated skull lacking the left , right and the , almost the entire vertebral column, forelimbs lacking a few hand bones, and most of the right hindlimb and a few bones of the left.

67 As is typical of theropods, the feet were tridactyl (with three clawed weight-bearing toes).Osborn (1903), p. 463 John H. Ostrom (1969) noted that the claw of digit II (the innermost toe) was larger than those of digits III and IV, and suggested that this digit may have borne a modified sickle claw similar to that of Deinonychus.Ostrom (1969), p. 161 However, as both Ostrom (1969) and Paul (1988) noted, the poor preservation of digit II makes this hypothesis difficult to confirm.Ostrom (1969), p. 161; Paul (1988b), p. 6 Size comparison of Ornitholestes In his 1903 description, Osborn wrote that the length of Ornitholestes along "the skull and vertebral column as restored" was .Osborn (1903), p. 459 However, this reconstruction was inaccurate, being based in part on Othniel Charles Marsh's restoration of the basal sauropodomorph Anchisaurus, and the neck and trunk were both too elongated.Osborn (1917), p. 735; Paul (1988b), p.

Schoch & Milner (2014) listed seven features in the diagnosis of Ecolsonia: (1) tabular and squamosal frame otic fenestra; (2) prefrontal and postfrontal separated (shared with most other trematopids); (3) preorbital region of equal length to posterior skull table; (4) vomer with a posteromedial process meeting the pterygoid (shared with other trematopids); (5) a supratemporal that is twice as long as it is wide; (6) triangular patch of denticles on the parasphenoid (shared with other trematopids); and (7) basipterygoid region unsutured (shared with some other trematopids). Trematopid synapomorphies include the posterior process of the vomer, the denticles on the parasphenoid, and the supinator process of the humerus. A large number of small scales were also found with some specimens of Ecolsonia that probably covered the entire body, a feature similar to that seen in the trematopid Anconastes; these are distinct from the osteoderms of dissorophids that are only associated with the vertebral column.

The holotype of Ruthenosaurus was discovered in the summer 1970 by the paleontologists Denise Sigogneau-Russell and Donald Eugene Russell, during a prospecting survey carried out in Permian red sandstones outcropping in badlands on the western flank of the Cayla Hill near the commune of Valady, northwest of Rodez. An eroded vertebra picked up on the western slope of the hill led the scientists to explore the surrounding canyons where they discovered a large articulated skeleton still in place in the sediments but damaged by erosion. The skull, neck, most of the limbs, and the tail was missing, probably destroyed by erosion. The known material includes ribs and vertebrae of 18 presacrals, three sacrals, and 12 anterior caudals; incomplete scapulocoracoids and interclavicule; right humerus badly crushed and damaged; left humerus in two pieces, shaft damaged, but proximal and distal heads well preserved; complete left ulna and nearly complete radius; complete right femur, complete right tibia, and proximal portion of right fibula; and the complete right pelvis overlain by vertebral column.

Thus, he concluded that the specimen did not bear close resemblances to any known synapsid, including the ones collected at the same locality, and suggested possible close affinities with archosaurs due to the vertebral morphology and the presence of hollow limb bones and an ectepicondylar groove on the humerus. Hughes (1963) subsequently noted similar vertebral morphology in some "pelycosaurian" synapsids and concluded that, as the combination of a derived vertebral column and a primitive limb structure occurs in proterosuchian archosauromorphs, UMZC T836 might possibly be a proterosuchian ancestor. Subsequent studies came to a similar conclusion, listing the specimen as a possible member of Proterosuchidae, however Gower and Sennikov (2000) noted that it still could possibly be archosaurian. Ezcurra, Butler and Gower (2013) indicated that UMZC T836 is an archosauromorph likely not referable to Archosauriformes, and thus not proterosuchian. Aenigmastropheus was first erected for UMZC T836 by Martín D. Ezcurra, Torsten M. Scheyer and Richard J. Butler in 2014 and the type species is Aenigmastropheus parringtoni, following a re-description of this "problematic reptile".

In the ancestral anatomy of theropod dinosaurs, the shoulder socket faced downward and slightly backward, making it impossible for the animals to raise their arms vertically, a prerequisite for the flapping flight stroke in birds. Studies of maniraptoran anatomy have suggested that the shoulder socket did not shift into the bird-like position of a high, upward orientation close to the vertebral column until relatively advanced avialans like the enantiornithes appeared. However, other scientists have argued that the shoulder girdle in some paravian theropods, including Microraptor, is curved in such a way that the shoulder joint could only have been positioned high on the back, allowing for a nearly vertical upstroke of the wing. This possibly advanced shoulder anatomy, combined with the presence of a propatagium linking the wrist to the shoulder (which fills the space in front of the flexed wing and may support the wing against drag in modern birds) and an alula, much like a "thumb-like" form of leading edge slot, may indicate that Microraptor was capable of true, powered flight.

Manea, p.202-203 He had a malformation of the vertebral column and was already walking with a limp; in old age, his limbs were affected by ankylosis, which greatly reduced his mobility, and he developed a tendency for obesity.Manea, p.202-203, 209-210, 214-215 According to his friend Manea, "the assault of diseases and age", coupled with resentment from Ceauşescu's "functionaries of the Dogma", had physically isolated Georgescu from his peers. The acclaimed novels Vara baroc and Solstiţiu tulburat ("Troubled Solstice") saw print in 1980 and 1982 respectively. The former earned him the Writers' Union Prize for Prose in 1981, a ceremony which, due to his declining health, he could not attend in person.Manea, p.201-202 Vîrstele raţiunii ("The Ages of Reason"), a book of interviews Paul Georgescu granted to poet Florin Mugur, was also published in 1982.Manea, p.204 At that time, Georgescu was cultivating some apolitical or anti-communist authors of modernist or avant-garde literature, preferring them over the revival of nationalist and traditionalist literature in Ceauşescu's Romania.

" From the earliest to the latest of Oken's writings on the subject, "the head is a repetition of the whole trunk with all its systems: the brain is the spinal cord; the cranium is the vertebral column; the mouth is intestine and abdomen; the nose is the lungs and thorax; the jaws are the limbs; and the teeth the claws or nails." Johann von Spix (1781–1826) in his folio Cephalogenesis (1818), richly illustrated comparative craniology, but presented the facts under the same transcendental guise; and Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) availed himself of the extravagances of these disciples of Schelling to cast ridicule on the whole inquiry into those higher relations of parts to the archetype which Sir Richard Owen (1804–1892) called "general homologies." The vertebral theory of the skull had practically disappeared from anatomical science when the labours of Cuvier drew to their close. In Owen's Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton the idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: "The head is not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but is only a portion, i.e.

The vertebral column consists of an atlas (composed of two vertebrae) without ribs; numerous precaudal vertebrae, all of which, except the first or first three, bear long, movable, curved ribs with a small posterior tubercle at the base, the last of these ribs sometimes forked; two to ten so-called lumbar vertebrae without ribs, but with bifurcate transverse processes (lymphapophyses) enclosing the lymphatic vessels; and a number of ribless caudal vertebrae with simple transverse processes. When bifid, the ribs or transverse processes have the branches regularly superposed. The centra have the usual ball and socket joint, with the nearly hemispherical or transversely elliptic condyle at the back (procoelous vertebrae), while the neural arch is provided with additional articular surfaces in the form of pre- and post- zygapophyses, broad, flattened, and overlapping, and of a pair of anterior wedge-shaped processes called zygosphene, fitting into a pair of corresponding concavities, zygantrum, just below the base of the neural spine. Thus the vertebrae of snakes articulate with each other by eight joints in addition to the cup-and-ball on the centrum, and interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, like the mortise and tenon jointery.