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"presuppose" Definitions
  1. presuppose something to accept something as true or existing and act on that basis, before it has been proved to be true synonym presume
  2. presuppose that… | presuppose something to depend on something in order to exist or be true synonym assume

237 Sentences With "presuppose"

How to use presuppose in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "presuppose" and check conjugation/comparative form for "presuppose". Mastering all the usages of "presuppose" from sentence examples published by news publications.

I'd say ... I said I didn't want to presuppose.
We don't presuppose that local standards are the same everywhere.
In short, they presuppose that the politics has not changed.
What Barr's speeches presuppose, basically, is what if it wasn't?
The reality is that all of these functions presuppose political choices.
They also, though, presuppose that MoviePass will be around a year from now.
It seemed to presuppose that consistent philosophical reasoning was in fact going on.
That would presuppose that the plane was being piloted almost to the last.
Those Chinese targets for 2035 and 2050 presuppose one essential thing: regional stability.
"Admit", "learn" and other words like them presuppose the truth of the following clause.
Being broken doesn't presuppose you can put yourself back together just as you were.
Chiang loves to presuppose these novel technologies that prove that our fates are fixed.
But notice, both of those descriptions are ones that presuppose there's a direction of time.
Every time, every sequence led her back to that thought: process and life presuppose each other.
They tend to fall back on old tools such as flood maps, which presuppose a stable environment.
Part of what makes the museum accessible is that it doesn't presuppose any prior knowledge of art history.
Personalities, which means personal criticism and analysis, presuppose a whole world laboratory of human psyches waiting to be vivisected.
Rettig said he will follow the law impartially and that no one should presuppose his stance on any issue.
Government may not officially disapprove of a religious belief, pass moral judgment on a conscience objection, or presuppose its illegitimacy.
Perhaps most important, with Liu's method, researchers don't need to presuppose a model of what the interactions among microbes might be.
That's because they presuppose the existence of prosperous jobs somewhere in the economy from which profits can be skimmed and redistributed.
Statements by many, from all perspectives, that presuppose guilt or inflame public opinion have only served to exacerbate the problems we face.
Along the way, we're discovering how many of the things we do presuppose older, mistaken ideas about how sex and gender work.
To presuppose what any state is going to do is presumptuous and we'll wait and see what happens there or anywhere else.
To presuppose what any state is going to do is presumptuous, and we'll wait and see what happens there or anywhere else.
It's obviously way too early to presuppose what Mueller is up to and whether he could ultimately turn his eyes on the President.
That seems to presuppose that the optimal court is a kind of consensus court that has some kind of equal-ish division in it.
If there is, I'd certainly have that conversation with Donald Trump at the time, but I'm not going to presuppose anything at this point.
A fundamental limitation with these strategies, however, is that they presuppose the existence of super-advanced extraterrestrial intelligences (ETIs)—a completely hypothetical stage of development.
The memoir landscape is rife with addiction stories, often focused heavily on the substances abused, but it would be amiss to presuppose this as yet another.
Such questions presuppose a clean line of demarcation between the real and the fake, and in matters of the spirit that line can never be fixed.
That is, they presuppose that there's a difference between the glass falling and the glass jumping, and there's a difference between the glass shattering and the glass recombining.
The Court's next bit of interpretive jiggery-pokery involves other parts of the Act that purportedly presuppose the availability of tax credits on both federal and state Exchanges.
" By contrast, someone guided by responsibility "takes account of precisely the average deficiencies of people…(H)e does not even have the right to presuppose their goodness and perfection.
This is the kind of thinking that allows people to presuppose that a man like Bloomberg should be able to see, in polls and reporting, what political obsessives see.
As things stand, the cost of using Carbon Engineering's kit to scrub 8bn-10bn tonnes of CO2 per year, as the climate models presuppose, would run to trillions of dollars.
In particular, interest rates to risky borrowers around the world have dropped to levels that presuppose that those borrowers will not face any major political or economic setbacks anytime soon.
Likewise, social changes, if more than accidental occurrences, if constitutive of moral goodness, are products of imaginative constructions and presuppose the will to make the 'is' conform to the 'ought.
Such fears presuppose that Lambda can succeed beyond even Mr Allred's wildest dreams—or those of the venture capitalists who pumped $30m into the firm in January, valuing it at $150m.
"Given that the party in question is a fellow member of the House of Representatives, I do not make this request lightly nor do I presuppose that a violation has occurred," Slaughter wrote.
But the act of escaping one's enslavement is also an act of imagination — to envision what it might be like to not live in fear, to presuppose having one's will have meaning in the world.
All this matters because the models engineers rely on to build resilience into roads, buildings, bridges, dams and levees have tended to presuppose that the climate of the recent past represents the climate of the foreseeable future.
Rawls was able to presuppose a state strong enough and with enough freedom of action to enforce democratic socialism, if that were what its citizens chose, or, if they preferred, to build a non-racist Jeffersonian democracy of smallholders.
As we mentioned, many of these assume that all women are on the hunt for a partner — and many of them presuppose that all women are looking for a male partner — which, of course, is far from the truth.
All three actors are marvelous, which presents some difficulty for awards-giving groups, which typically segment their awards by categories like Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor — categories that presuppose the same actor plays a character for the whole movie.
A strategy of obstructing Clinton on policy — even when it leads to a worse substantive outcome for conservatives than they could have gotten by compromising — plus extensive investigations that simply presuppose Clinton's guilt might turn out to be political gold.
NEDA recommends challenging the thin ideal by discouraging the idea that a particular weight will lead to greater happiness, which many of these negative body comments presuppose, and try not to take media representations of self-esteem and body image at face value.
"We wish to clarify that this action should not presuppose finding of any lapse by the expert group and should not be construed in any way to be anything other than an expression of our continued commitment to providing quality healthcare," Max Healthcare said Sunday.
All of these economic lifelines presuppose confidence on international markets, especially in Europe and the U.S. President Erdogan has done much to undermine that confidence since his first election in 2014, drastically shifting Turkey's political system away from liberal democratic fundamentals toward one-man rule.
"We wish to clarify that this action should not presuppose finding of any lapse by the expert group and should not be construed in any way to be anything other than an expression of our continued commitment to providing quality healthcare," the statement from Max Healthcare said.
Chris MurphyChristopher (Chris) Scott MurphyOvernight Defense: US, Russia tensions grow over nuclear arms | Highlights from Esper's Asia trip | Trump strikes neutral tone on Hong Kong protests | General orders ethics review of special forces White House eyes September action plan for gun proposals Trump phoned Democratic senator to talk gun control MORE (D-Conn.), a member of the Foreign Relations panel, said he wouldn't "presuppose" that supporters have the votes to limit amendments.
Communicative systems presuppose contexts that are structured in terms of particular physical and communicative dimensions, for instance time, location, and communicative role.
One can hold that God's moral goodness involves supereminent possession of the virtues, at least insofar as those virtues do not presuppose weakness and vulnerability.
The poet becomes absorbed in the portrayal of the passion, but for the upbuilding speaker this is only the beginning, and the next is crucial for him-to compel the stubborn person to disarm, to mitigate, to elucidate, in short, to cross over into the upbuilding."Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments Volume I, p. 257 And what did edifying or upbuilding mean to Kierkegaard? He explained this in relation to love in 1847, "To build up is to presuppose love; to be loving is to presuppose love; only love builds up.
Udayana brings forward in this Stabaka a number of proofs to establish the existence of Isvara. The various proofs can be summarized as follows. Isvara's existence is established from: # käryatvät: the fact that the earth etc., being effects, presuppose a cause that produces them.
When the proper sensorial conditions aggregate, i.e., come into contact with each other, sensation occurs. These proper conditions include a properly functioning sense organ and a cognitive-sensory object, which already presuppose a linguistically-complex conscious body (nāma-rūpa).Buddhist Phenomenology, Dan Lusthaus, p.
The practice of unequal or unfair exchange does not presuppose the capitalist mode of production, nor even the existence of money. It only presupposes that goods and services of unequal value are traded, something which has been possible throughout the whole history of human trading practices.
What he does say however is that certain types of 'discourse' which presuppose universals which nominalists must therefore give up as potential discourse or knowledge. Quine's approach is therefore more an epistemological one, i.e. what can be known, rather than a metaphysical one, i.e. what is real.
All these discussions presuppose agreement on the General Principles and such agreement remains remote.” By August 1948, after conflicts such as the Berlin Blockade and 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, and despite efforts at compromise by various people including US Secretary of State Dean Rusk, the MSC was essentially defunct.
Postmodernists reject metanarratives because they reject the concept of truth that metanarratives presuppose. Postmodernist philosophers in general argue that truth is always contingent on historical and social context rather than being absolute and universal and that truth is always partial and "at issue" rather than being complete and certain.
This information may not be quite trustworthy. However, European sources from the late 16th and 17th centuries describe the Gelgel kingdom in terms reminiscent of the chronicles, and seem to presuppose a strong political expansion between the fall of Majapahit (c. 1527) and the first Dutch visit to Bali (1597).
In the thermodynamic stream of thinking, the specified mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction and radiation. These mechanisms presuppose recognition of temperature; empirical temperature is enough for this purpose, though absolute temperature can also serve. In this stream of thinking, quantity of heat is defined primarily through calorimetry.Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Chapter .
Yet another phenomenon that Sachs' theory can accommodate (that standard cosmology might not) is the Huge-LQG large quasar group, since general relativity does not presuppose homogeneity or isotropy, i.e. the cosmological principle. Sachs believed that fundamental incompatibilities between relativity theory and quantum theory preclude there from being a quantum theory of gravity.
In the thermodynamic stream of thinking, the specified mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction and radiation. These mechanisms presuppose recognition of temperature; empirical temperature is enough for this purpose, though absolute temperature can also serve. In this stream of thinking, quantity of heat is defined primarily through calorimetry.Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Chapter III.
For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. […] do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was ().
The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.
Bakhtin argues that dialogic interactions are not reducible to forms that are analyzable by linguistic methods. While dialogic relations presuppose a language, they do not reside within the system of language and are impossible among the elements of a language.Bakhtin, M. M. (1986) Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Trans. by Vern W. McGee.
Even if it were self-refuting, universal skepticism can be stated if the skeptic does not try to justify it. In consequence, explicit conditions (Evidenzvoraussetzungen) are necessary in metaphysics as well as in science. This means that neither can be fundamentally justified but do presuppose a decision. A further focus of Stegmüller's work was phenomenalism.
The distinction between properties and relations can hardly be given in terms that do not ultimately presuppose it. Relations are true of several particulars, or shared amongst them. Thus the relation "... is taller than ..." holds "between" two individuals, who would occupy the two ellipses ('...'). Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1.
A proof is a deduction whose premises are known truths. A proof of the Pythagorean theorem is a deduction that might use several premises – axioms, postulates, and definitions – and contain dozens of intermediate steps. As Alfred Tarski famously emphasized in accord with Aristotle, truths can be known by proof but proofs presuppose truths not known by proof.
He distinguished "free beauty" from "merely dependent beauty", explaining that "the first presupposes no concept of what the object ought to be; the second does presuppose such a concept and the perfection of the object in accordance therewith."Kennick, William Elmer (1979). Art and Philosophy: Readings in Aesthetics; 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 517. .
Macey, David. 1994. "Introduction." Pp. i–xxvii in The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho- Analysis, by J. Lacan. London. Therefore, "Man speaks…but it is because the symbol has made him man" which "superimposes the kingdom of culture on that of a nature."Accepting that "language is the basic social institution in the sense that all others presuppose language,"Searle, John R. 1995.
If one asks the question, "Why are there any contingent beings at all?", it does not help to be told that "There are contingent beings because other contingent beings caused them." That answer would just presuppose additional contingent beings. An adequate explanation of why some contingent beings exist would invoke a different sort of being, a necessary being that is not contingent.
These groups, which are often part of parachurch organizations, focus on peer fellowship and instruction of their members. These modes of ministry segregate members by age, and presuppose a hierarchical ministry in which more experienced, more educated, and generally older members minister didactically to their charges. Inter-generational activities, by contrast, emphasize a mixture of ages, and de-emphasize formal teacher-pupil relationships.
Yet, by making "Dasein" or "Being" his master-word, his function-word, Heidegger, nonetheless, fails to do so. Heidegger's concept of "Dasein" is similar to the Structuralist concept of the 'signified'. To put it simply, in Structuralism, all signifiers are directly connected to an extra- linguistic signified, the invariable ones. To 'mean' anything, a signifier must presuppose a signified already-always outside it.
In classical logic there are theorems that clearly presuppose that there is something in the domain of discourse. Consider the following classically valid theorems. :1. \forall xA \Rightarrow \exists xA :2. \forall x \forall rA(x) \Rightarrow \forall rA(r) :3. \forall rA(r) \Rightarrow \exists xA(x) A valid scheme in the theory of equality which exhibits the same feature is :4.
As opposed to empirical sciences (natural and social), the formal sciences do not involve empirical procedures. They also do not presuppose knowledge of contingent facts, or describe the real world. In this sense, formal sciences are both logically and methodologically a priori, for their content and validity are independent of any empirical procedures. Therefore, straightly speaking, formal science is not a science.
Physics is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. On the other hand, the study of meteorological weather patterns or human behavior is only of interest to humans themselves. The point is that having a perspective on the world is a psychological state. Therefore, the special sciences presuppose the existence of minds which can have these states.
The Trouble with Theory: The Educational Costs of Postmodernism. Penn State University Press. argues that constructivists usually implicitly presuppose a deterministic view of language which severely constrains the minds and use of words by members of societies: they are not just "constructed" by language on this view, but are literally "determined" by it. Kitching notes the contradiction here: somehow the advocate of constructivism is not similarly constrained.
They have a "magnetic" effect, an imperative force, a tendency to influence the interlocutor's decisions. They are strictly bound to moral values leading to value judgments and potentially triggering specific emotions. For this reason, they have an emotive dimension. In the modern psychological terminology, we can say that these terms carry "emotional valence", as they presuppose and generate a value judgment that can lead to an emotion.
For Chandrakirti, a true Mādhyamika only uses reductio ad absurdum arguments and does not put forth positive arguments. Chandrakirti saw in the logico- epistemic tradition a commitment to a foundationalist epistemology and essentialist ontology, while for him a Mādhyamika's job should be to just deconstruct concepts which presuppose an essence.Dreyfus, Georges B. J. 'Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations.' SUNY Press, 1997, page 19.
The fundamental mechanism of capital accompanies the process of deterritorialization and reterritorialization. It conjoins deterritorialized resources and appropriates the surplus from their reterritorialized conjunction. Deterritorialization and reterritorialization presuppose and reinforce the notice of a common essence of desire and labor. This refers to the detachment and reattachment of the energies of production in general of investments of all kinds, whether conventionally considered psychological or economical.
More importantly, as scholar Mitzi Myers argues, "Wollstonecraft is virtually alone among those who answered Burke in eschewing a narrowly political approach for a wide-ranging critique of the foundation of the Reflections."Myers, 119. Wollstonecraft makes a primarily moral argument; her "polemic is not a confutation of Burke's political theories, but an exposure of the cruel inequities which those theories presuppose."Myers, 129.
In fact, it is common in science to presuppose a complex system; while fields such as chemistry, biology, or geology could be verbosely expressed in terms of quantum field theory, it is convenient to use levels of abstraction like molecules, cells, or the mantle. It is often difficult to decompose these levels without heavy analysis and computation. Sober has also advanced philosophical arguments against the notion of irreducibility.
In created beings, the state of potentiality precedes that of actuality; before being realized, a perfection must be capable of realization. But, absolutely speaking, actuality precedes potentiality. For in order to change, a thing must be acted upon, or actualized; change and potentiality presuppose, therefore, a being which is in actu. This actuality, if mixed with potentiality, presupposes another actuality, and so on, until we reach the actus purus.
In Christian faith, theologians and philosophers make a distinction between: (a) preambles of faith and (b) articles of faith. The preambles include alleged truths contained in revelation which are nevertheless demonstrable by reason, e.g., the immortality of the soul, the existence of God. The articles of faith, on the other hand, contain truths that cannot be proven or reached by reason alone and presuppose the truths of the preambles, e.g.
She seeks to recruit help from various strangers but is repeatedly rebuffed. Human kindness and generosity are the norm where she's from and all her actions presuppose that this would be the case anywhere. She continues to be rebuffed until she is mugged by Milton and, at the point of a gun, directed to an ATM. Here she discovers that her implement can decode the ATM and it dispenses money seemingly without limit.
Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL – English Learner. Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab/public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue.
Definite descriptions have also been argued to have split scope. Definites are classically considered to presuppose that their referents are unique. For instance, the definite description "the cat" is infelicitous in a context where there are multiple cats which the speaker could have in mind. However, this generalization seems to be contradicted by Haddock descriptions such as the following: # Context: In front of the speaker are numerous hats, one of which contains a rabbit.
The Cartesian circle is a criticism of the above that takes this form: # Descartes' proof of the reliability of clear and distinct perceptions takes as a premise God's existence as a non-deceiver. # Descartes' proofs of God's existence presuppose the reliability of clear and distinct perceptions. Thus, Descartes' argument is circular. Descartes is accused of circularity regarding the Truth Rule because it appears that the Truth Rule is contingent on God’s existence.
Historian David Christian has summarised issues common to multiple creation myths: > Each beginning seems to presuppose an earlier beginning. ... Instead of > meeting a single starting point, we encounter an infinity of them, each of > which poses the same problem. ... There are no entirely satisfactory > solutions to this dilemma. What we have to find is not a solution but some > way of dealing with the mystery .... And we have to do so using words.
"Third-way" is a term coined by Doris H. Gray and is a humanistic approach to Islamic feminism. It attempts to reunite the two Islamic sects that “presuppose the existence of a basic set of human values that reaches across borders and cultures”.Gray Currently, it is used mainly by Moroccan feminists. Lamrabet and her peers re-interpret the sacred texts in order to show women as independent beings rather than relational to men.
The term "Oral Torah" should not be understood as a monolith. The Jewish Encyclopedia divides the Oral Torah into eight categories, ranked according to the relative level of authoritativeness, which are found within the Talmud, the Tosefta and the halakhic Midrashim. # Explanations of those laws of the written law, which are not fully intelligible without the explanations, and therefore presuppose an oral interpretation. Such explanations are connected in some way with Scripture.
The term theology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study of religions that worship a supposed deity (a theos), i.e. more widely than monotheism; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak and reason about this deity (in logia). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically).
Michael J. McVicar summarized Rushdoony's theology and philosophy as follows: Rushdoony developed his philosophy as an extension of the work of Calvinist philosopher Cornelius Van Til. Van Til critiqued human knowledge in light of the Calvinist doctrine of total depravity. He argued that sin affected a person's ability to reason. In order to be rational, Van Til claimed, one must presuppose the existence of God and the inerrant, divine inspiration of the (Protestant) Bible.
The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe. Some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. Although this may seem obvious, there have been some philosophers who have denied the concept of metamorphosis, such as Plato's predecessor Parmenides and later Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus, and perhaps some Eastern philosophers. George Santayana, in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven.
Radical Atheism is a major intervention in deconstruction, offering a novel account of Jacques Derrida's thinking of time and space, life and death, good and evil, self and other. As Hägglund argues, all our commitments presuppose an investment in and care for finite life. Developing a deconstructive account of time, Hägglund shows how Derrida rethinks the constitution of identity, the violence of ethics, the desire for religion, and political emancipation in accordance with the condition of temporal finitude.
The field focuses on modeling phenomena in cognitive science that have resisted traditional techniques or where traditional models seem to have reached a barrier (e.g., human memory), and modeling preferences in decision theory that seem paradoxical from a traditional rational point of view (e.g., preference reversals). Since the use of a quantum-theoretic framework is for modeling purposes, the identification of quantum structures in cognitive phenomena does not presuppose the existence of microscopic quantum processes in the human brain.
With the > phenomenological method, for example, we can study experiences of morality, > religion, or simply what it is to be human, and draw from them a significant > enrichment of our knowledge. Yet we must not forget that all these analyses > implicitly presuppose the reality of the Absolute Being and also the reality > of being human, that is, being a creature. If we do not set out from such > 'realist' presuppositions, we end up in a vacuum.
Van Lunteren (2002), Secondary sources Criticism: Newton objected to the theory because drag must lead to noticeable deviations of the orbits which were not observed. Another problem was that moons often move in different directions, against the direction of the vortex motion. Also, Huygens' explanation of the inverse square law is circular, because this means that the aether obeys Kepler's third law. But a theory of gravitation has to explain those laws and must not presuppose them.
J. L. Mackie argues that moral assertions are only true if there are moral properties, but because there are none, all such claims are false . Other versions of the theory claim that moral assertions are not true because they are neither true nor false. This form of moral nihilism claims that moral beliefs and assertions presuppose the existence of moral facts that do not exist. Consider, for example, the claim that the present king of France is bald.
Some examples of the genre may be found in Old Testament, such as the Book of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, or apocryphal literature. The riddles of the poem may presuppose a classical Gnostic myth, such as the one found in the Reality of the Rulers, or in the Secret Book of John. The original language of the poem was Greek, though only a Coptic version survives in the Nag Hammadi library; the manuscript resides in the Coptic Museum in Cairo.
The existing copy in the Cairo Coptic Museum was translated from Greek to Coptic sometime before A.D. 352. The hymns themselves presuppose familiarity with the generally accepted Sethian Gnostic mythical structure as presented in Zostrianos and The Apocryphon of John. The Steles contain a total of seven hymns followed by directions for use of the hymns. The first Stele begins with a report of Dositheus explaining how he saw the tablets in a vision he had.
In the post-9/11 era, a number of scholars have been questioning the overly secular character of political realism, especially in the light of postmodern critique. Charles Jones of the University of Cambridge has suggested that international law and normative theory presuppose Christian ethics in the international relations theory. Despite the Christian realist underpinnings of scholars, originally associated with the English school, the revival of the interest towards religion in International Relations is a relatively recent phenomenon.
5:14; Amos 8:5) presuppose its previous existence, and analysis of all the references to it in the canon makes it plain that its observance was neither general nor altogether spontaneous in either pre-exilic or post-exilic Israel. It was probably originally connected in some manner with the cult of the moon, as indeed is suggested by the frequent mention of Sabbath and New-Moon festivals in the same sentence (Isa. 1:13; Amos 8:5; H Kings 6:23).
The result is a world in which human agency and social structure each presuppose the other though neither is reducible to, or completely explicable in terms of, the other. More specifically, Lawson argues that social reality is everywhere constituted through positioning people and things as components of social totalities, whereupon human actions and uses of positioned objects are guided by rights and obligations associated with the positions. Whole communities can also be so positioned, as in the formation of corporations.
As argued by Srbik, Metternich himself pursued legality, cooperation, and dialogue, and therefore helped ensure thirty years of peace, the "Age of Metternich". Authors like Peter Viereck and Ernst B. Haas also give Metternich credit for his more liberal ideals, even if they weighed relatively little in his overall policies. Critical views presuppose Metternich had the ability to shape Europe favorably but chose not to. More modern critiques like that of A. J. P. Taylor have questioned how much influence Metternich actually wielded.
Scientists manipulate experimental conditions to obtain results that cohere with their own expectations—what the scientists presuppose is realistic—and as a result might be tempted to invoke the experimenter's regress in order to reject unexpected results. They would then redo these experiments under what were supposedly better and more conducive conditions. By the 1960s, physicists recognized two, differing roles of physical theory, formalism and interpretation. Formalism involved mathematical equations and axioms that, upon input of physical data, yielded certain predictions.
The original structure of the Castle, its formal layout and extent are still unclear, owing to its destruction and degradation. Many of the typical features of the medieval castle are missing, including towers, doors and complimentary systems of defence. The ovular layout of the streets of Alcantarilha presuppose a Gothic layout to the structure, that may have occurred following the invasions of King Afonso III of Portugal. The castle consists of little more than a limestone wall to a height of .
"Percepts, not sensations, are the given, the self-evident." Rand considered the validity of the senses to be axiomatic, and said that purported arguments to the contrary all commit the fallacy of the "stolen concept" by presupposing the validity of concepts that, in turn, presuppose the validity of the senses. She said that perception, being determined physiologically, is incapable of error. For example, optical illusions are errors in the conceptual identification of what is seen, not errors of sight itself.
Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret St. Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption. In that view, also sexual desire itself as well as other bodily passions were consequence of the original sin, in which pure affections were wounded by vice and became disobedient to human reason and will. As long as they carry a threat to the dominion of reason over the soul they constitute moral evil, but since they do not presuppose consent, one cannot call them sins.
He also argues that it is necessary to presuppose that the epistemic agent possesses empirical knowledge of particular truths in order to make assumptions about the epistemic state of cognitive states that are independent of inference. However, Sellars reasons, because presupposition is inferential, empirical knowledge, regardless of being non-inferentially acquired, is nevertheless epistemically dependent if based on the presupposition that the epistemic agent possesses other pertinent empirical knowledge. Therefore, he concludes that cognitions that are organized propositionally do not qualify as “the given”.
Several replies argue that Searle's argument is irrelevant because his assumptions about the mind and consciousness are faulty. Searle believes that human beings directly experience their consciousness, intentionality and the nature of the mind every day, and that this experience of consciousness is not open to question. He writes that we must "presuppose the reality and knowability of the mental." These replies question whether Searle is justified in using his own experience of consciousness to determine that it is more than mechanical symbol processing.
Probabilists reply to this argument that liberty is always in possession, since law and obligation presuppose liberty in the subject. # In proof of the third proposition Æquiprobabilists put forward various arguments, of which the following are the most forcible: ## A person is bound to endeavour to bring his actions into harmony with objective morality. But a person who follows the less probable opinion in favour of liberty fails to observe this dictate of prudence, and consequently acts unlawfully (cf. Wouters "De Minusprobabilismo", p. 71).
He argues that while the natural sciences, in discovering scientific laws, must presuppose a strict regularity in the occurrence of causes and effects, i.e. determinism, such a presupposition cannot be held in the case of human action. He argues further that the social sciences must take thoughts, ideas, and judgments of value as ultimately given in the analysis of human action. Our ignorance of the origins and causes of these phenomena, Mises argues, forces us – at least for the time being – to adopt a dualistic approach.
The Transcendental Argument for the Existence of God (TAG) is the argument that attempts to prove the existence of God by arguing that logic, morals, and science ultimately presuppose a supreme being and that God must therefore be the source of logic and morals. A version was formulated by Immanuel Kant in his 1763 work The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God, and most contemporary formulations of the transcendental argument have been developed within the framework of Christian presuppositional apologetics.
In the study of knowledge, methodism refers to the epistemological approach where one asks "How do we know?" before "What do we know?" The term appears in Roderick Chisholm's "The Problem of the Criterion", and in the work of his student, Ernest Sosa ("The Raft and the Pyramid: Coherence versus Foundations in the Theory of Knowledge"). Methodism is contrasted with particularism, which answers the latter question before the former. Since the question "How do we know?" does not presuppose that we know, it is receptive to skepticism.
Crane, Diana (1992): The Production of Culture, Newbury Park: Sage, p.ix. #Commercial activities in cultural sector presuppose clear ownership relations as well as the establishment of scarcity: both are due to legal and economic policy interventions. However, in contrast to common traditional cultural economics studies, Cultural Institutions Studies proceed from the assumption that the formation of non economic value is not just an accidental accompaniment of price formation. Monetary and non monetary value formation processes are mutually related to each other, often in a very tense relationship.
The assumption that banks must retain profits even in a non-growing economy would be unfounded. Accordingly, there would be no grow imperative "inherent" to the monetary system, but zero growth would be impossible as long as actors decide to continuously accumulate financial assets. In neoclassical theory and all varieties that presuppose the neutrality of money (classical dichotomy), the money market has no long-term effects on real economic variables such as economic growth. A monetary growth imperative is already excluded here by assumption.
Thus universal statements, like "All men are mortal," or "Everything is a unicorn," do not presuppose that there are men or that there is anything. These would be symbolized, with the appropriate predicates, as \forall x\,(Mx \rightarrow Lx) and \forall x\, Ux, which in Principia Mathematica entail \exists x\,(Mx \land Lx) and \exists x\,Ux, but not in free logic. The truth of these last statements, when used in a free logic, depend on the domain of quantification, which may be the null set.
Feuerbach, who does not enter upon a > criticism of this real essence is hence obliged: :1. To abstract from the > historical process and to define the religious sentiment regarded by itself, > and to presuppose an abstract — isolated - human individual. :2. The essence > therefore can by him only be regarded as ‘species’, as an inner ‘dumb’ > generality which unites many individuals only in a natural way. Thus, Marx appears to say that human nature is no more than what is made by the 'social relations'.
They presuppose a Pythagorean division of the octave taking the Pythagorean comma (about an eighth of the tempered tone, actually closer to 24 cents, defined as the difference between seven octaves and 12 just-intonation fifths) as the basic interval. The Turkish systems have also been adopted by some Arab musicians. Ben Johnston created a system of notation for pieces in just intonation where the unmarked C, F, and G major chords are just major chords (4:5:6) and accidentals create just tuning in other keys.
Schopenhauer states in the preface to the first edition that The World as Will and Representation aims to "convey a single thought." The resulting structure of the work is therefore, in his words, "organic rather than chainlike," with all of the book's earlier parts presupposing the later parts "almost as much as the later ones presuppose the earlier." Each of the work's four main parts function as "four perspectives [Gesichtspunkte], as it were, on the one thought." Thus Schopenhauer counsels reading the book more than once, with considerable patience the first time.
Quine articulates the problem of circularity inherent in formative epistemology when it is treated as a replacement for traditional epistemology. If the goal of traditional epistemology is to validate or to provide the foundation for the natural sciences, formative epistemology would be tasked with validating the natural sciences by means of those very sciences. That is, an empirical investigation into the criteria which are used to scientifically evaluate evidence must presuppose those very same criteria. However, Quine points out that these thoughts of validation are merely a byproduct of traditional epistemology.
This 'Pneumatic' thrust in the Spiritual Homilies is often termed 'mystical' and as such is a spiritual mode of thought which has endeared him to Christian mystics of all ages, although, on the other hand, in his anthropology and soteriology he frequently approximates the standpoint of St. Augustine. Certain passages of his homilies assert the entire depravity of man, while others postulate free will, even after the fall of Adam, and presuppose a tendency toward virtue, or, in semi-Pelagian fashion, ascribe to man the power to attain a degree of readiness to receive salvation.
However, some research suggests Hume excluded personal identity from his opus An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding because he thought his argument was sufficient but not compelling. Descartes himself distinguished active and passive faculties of mind, each contributing to thinking and consciousness in different ways. The passive faculty, Descartes argued, simply receives, whereas the active faculty produces and forms ideas, but does not presuppose thought, and thus cannot be within the thinking thing. The active faculty mustn't be within self because ideas are produced without any awareness of them, and are sometimes produced against one's will.
Event-causal accounts of incompatibilist free will typically rely upon physicalist models of mind (like those of the compatibilist), yet they presuppose physical indeterminism, in which certain indeterministic events are said to be caused by the agent. A number of event-causal accounts of free will have been created, referenced here as deliberative indeterminism, centred accounts, and efforts of will theory. The first two accounts do not require free will to be a fundamental constituent of the universe. Ordinary randomness is appealed to as supplying the "elbow room" that libertarians believe necessary.
For market economies to function efficiently, governments must establish clearly defined and enforceable property rights for assets and capital goods. However, property rights does not specifically mean private property rights and market economies do not logically presuppose the existence of private ownership of the means of production. Market economies can and often do include various types of cooperatives or autonomous state-owned enterprises that acquire capital goods and raw materials in capital markets. These enterprises utilize a market-determined free price system to allocate capital goods and labor.
Such an investigation would demand a breadth of scope involving social, economic, political, structural, and philosophical change (to name but a few aspects) that would not be possible within his work. Moreover, he noted, such a historical investigation might presuppose an idealist form of history in which history is shaped by the evolving ideas and ideologies of different times. Rather, Taylor asks what the conditions were within which the sources of the modern identity arose. These conditions involved the changing cultural, economic, political, religious, social, and scientific practices of society.
Husserl's) senses. He re-interpreted such basic philosophical categories as "subject", "object", "spirit", "body", "consciousness", "reality" and others with a new emphasis on Being (German: Sein), showing their inadequacy for his new philosophical explorations. Moreover, Heidegger went on to separate his pursuit of "ontology" from the kinds of inquiry that previous researches of "essence" had conducted under the same label, which henceforth, according to Heidegger, should be engaged only in particular fields of science. For Heidegger, the ontical forms of research conducted by scientists presuppose the regional-ontological, which in turn presupposes the fundamental-ontological.
For example, the unmarked lion can refer to a male or female, while lioness is marked because it can refer only to females. The default nature allows unmarked lexical forms to be identified even when the opposites are not morphologically related. In the pairs old/young, big/little, happy/sad, clean/dirty, the first term of each pair is taken as unmarked because it occurs generally in questions. For example, English speakers typically ask how old someone is; use of the marked term (how young are you?) would presuppose youth.
Philosophical Investigations () is a work by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. The book was published posthumously in 1953. Wittgenstein discusses numerous problems and puzzles in the fields of semantics, logic, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of psychology, philosophy of action, and philosophy of mind, putting forth the view that conceptual confusions surrounding language use are at the root of most philosophical problems. Wittgenstein alleges that the problems are traceable to a set of related assumptions about the nature of language, which themselves presuppose a particular conception of the essence of language.
Kant thinks that, with the exception of the good will, all goods are qualified. By qualified, Kant means that those goods are good insofar as they presuppose or derive their goodness from something else. For example, wealth can be extremely good if it is used for human welfare, but it can be disastrous if a corrupt mind is behind it. In a similar vein, we often desire intelligence and take it to be good, but we certainly would not take the intelligence of an evil genius to be good.
Chamberlain Letters, 147. Ben Jonson (1572–1637) set a pivotal scene of his play Every Man Out of His Humour (1599) in Paul's walk. As Cavalier Shift enters and begins posting up advertisements, Cordatus introduces the scene with the words: "O, marry, this is one for whose better illustration we must desire you to presuppose the stage the middle aisle in Paul's, and that [pointing to the door on which Shift is posting his bills] the west end of it".Jonson, Every Man Out of His Humour, Act 3, Scene 1, lines 1–5.
This formula is a theorem and considered true in every version of set theory. The only controversy is over how it should be justified: by making it an axiom; by deriving it from a set- existence axiom (or logic) and the axiom of separation; by deriving it from the axiom of infinity; or some other method. In some formulations of ZF, the axiom of empty set is actually repeated in the axiom of infinity. However, there are other formulations of that axiom that do not presuppose the existence of an empty set.
Event-causal accounts of incompatibilist free will typically rely upon physicalist models of mind (like those of the compatibilist), yet they presuppose physical indeterminism, in which certain indeterministic events are said to be caused by the agent. A number of event- causal accounts of free will have been created, referenced here as deliberative indeterminism, centred accounts, and efforts of will theory. The first two accounts do not require free will to be a fundamental constituent of the universe. Ordinary randomness is appealed to as supplying the "elbow room" that libertarians believe necessary.
Attraction presupposes Repulsion: for the Many to be Attracted by the One, they must have at first been Repulsed by it. The One having been restored to unity by Attraction now contains Repulsion and Attraction within it as moments. It is the Ideal One of Infinite Being, which, for Hegel, actually makes it more "real" than the merely Real Many. From the standpoint of this Ideal One, both Repulsion and Attraction now presuppose each other, and, taken one step further, each presupposes itself as mediated by the other.
The choice of which line segment is the initial side is arbitrary, so there are two possibilities for the angle determined by the line segments. Only one of these angles contains the third side of the triangle in its interior, and this angle is called an interior angle of the triangle.This way of defining interior angles does not presuppose that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. In the picture below, the angles ∠ABC, ∠BCA and ∠CAB are the three interior angles of the triangle.
Quine articulates the problem of circularity inherent in naturalized epistemology when it is treated as a replacement for traditional epistemology. If the goal of traditional epistemology is to validate or to provide the foundation for the natural sciences, naturalized epistemology would be tasked with validating the natural sciences by means of those very sciences. That is, an empirical investigation into the criteria which are used to scientifically evaluate evidence must presuppose those very same criteria. However, Quine points out that these thoughts of validation are merely a byproduct of traditional epistemology.
Archaeological remnants dating back to the Roman era presuppose a minor community within the territory of Sangalhos. The pre-Roman peoples of the region of the Vouga was already a mixture of races and cultures from the northern Europe and Mediterranean, but principally of Celtic or Turduli. The origin of its name sangalhos, which refers to a unit of measure, as hypothesized by Joaquim de Silveira, came from the cult of São Galo (Sanctus Gallus). The author placed the origin of its parish in the 7th century, during the Visigothic period.
One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology, and calendars are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods. Hellenistic astronomy profoundly influenced Indian astronomy.Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages.
In almost all the cases, the cause of conflict is in the rejection of equality and the principles of liberty established in the legal system of the host societies. Principles that presuppose that all political or normative power derives from each person's self-sovereignty, i.e., over your own body and ownership of property regulated on this assumption. There exists the possibility that the disagreements will increase as these communities consolidate within democratic societies whose legal systems are, in some way, incompatible with that identity which tries to be asserted without adapting.
" Operating on the interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that the state is prohibited from establishing a single religion or denomination as the official religion, but is free to support all religions in general (as long as it shows none of them preference above the others), Justice Bookstein listed several examples felt to support that interpretation. These included Supreme Court rulings such as the 1892 Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States which stated "this is a religious nation", and the 1952 ruling Zorach v. Clauson which stated "We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being.
The key element of the Olin Report was that the Common Market did not presuppose a harmonised level of labour standards. The report explained that exchange rates between countries reflect economic productivity and, thereby, offset the advantages of lower wages in other States. As a consequence, States with a higher levels of social protection and higher wages should not fear competition from low cost countries. This explains the fact that the Articles 117 and 118 of the European Economic Community treaty are soft in nature, while in contrast the hard Articles 119 and 120 of the EEC treaty have a limited scope.
"Publicized executions and homicide, 1950–1980." American Sociological Review, 532–540. In other words, current conceptualizations of the deterrence argument presuppose that most people are made aware of executions through the media's coverage of said executions, which means that the media's selection of executions to cover, as well as the media's coverage of said executions are necessary for the deterrence effect to transpire. In this regard, in contemporary society, the deterrence argument relies upon the implicit understanding that people's understandings and actions – including actions that may deprive an individual of life – are influenced by the media.
These forms were applied by, among others, A. J. Greimas (1917–1992) in his structural semantics, following the generalizing intention of Brøndal. Brøndal also developed the principle of continuity to include the two interdependent concepts of compensation and variation. They are logically inferior to the forms of relation and the categories, and they presuppose the existence of elements already defined qualitatively by the categories and quantitatively by the forms of relation. On this basis, they create a link between the qualitative and the formal characteristics of the grammatical units: if, in a given language, a grammatical element (e.g.
The proof of the theorem consists of 4 steps. We assume Green's theorem, so what is of concern is how to boil down the three-dimensional complicated problem (Kelvin–Stokes theorem) to a two-dimensional rudimentary problem (Green's theorem). When proving this theorem, mathematicians normally deduce it as a special case of a more general result, which is stated in terms of differential forms, and proved using more sophisticated machinery. While powerful, these techniques require substantial background, so the proof below avoids them, and does not presuppose any knowledge beyond a familiarity with basic vector calculus.
Oxford: Clarendon, 2000. In Peter Craigie's view, "MT’s כָּאֲרִי ('like a lion') presents numerous problems and can scarcely be correct." Reading the consonantal text כארו or כרו, he says that the Septuagint “they pierced my hands and feet” (ὤρυξαν) "may perhaps presuppose a verb כרה, 'to dig,' or כור, 'to pierce, bore'." Craigie notes alternative possibilities for the verb אָרָה (“to pluck, pick clean”), or כרה, “to be shrunken, shriveled”, but follows E. J. Kissane's proposal of an original text כלו, “consumed”, changed to כרו (noting the occasional interchange of ל and ר), with the nuance "my hands and my feet were exhausted".
The web site address is displayed as part of all of the adverts for products made by members of the group. The Century Council, financially supported by a group of alcoholic beverage distillers in the United States, promotes responsible decision-making regarding drinking or non-drinking and works to reduce all forms of irresponsible consumption. Since its founding in 1991, it has invested over 175 million dollars in its programs. Many campaigns by the alcoholic beverage industry that advocate responsible drinking presuppose that drinking for recreational purposes is a positive activity and reinforce this idea as an example of sensible consumption.
In one of his major works, On the Nature of Human Consciousness, Trubetskoy wrote, "Good will, which is the basis of morality, is called love. Any morals, based on principles other than love, are not true morals…. Natural love is inherent to all living beings. Descending from its supreme manifestations in the family love of man, from animal herd instincts to elementary propagation processes, everywhere we find that basic, organic altruism, owing to which creatures inwardly presuppose each other, are drawn towards other creatures and establish not only themselves, but other creatures as well, and live for others".
The human interest in freedom of religion, Cochrane claims, will usually not require the violation of animal interests, but cites Santeria as a possible exception to this. Cochrane argues against the possibility that freedom of religion is a special interest and should always merit priority, and the idea that equal opportunity should entail religious freedom to harm animals. Finally, Cochrane considers hypocrisy; given that animals are harmed in many practices, there may be a problem in disallowing certain religious practices. However, this does not make the religious practices more permissible, and seems to presuppose that these other practices will not themselves face censure.
The ten–eleven bodhisattva precepts presuppose the five precepts, and are partly based on them. The five precepts are also partly found in the teaching called the ten good courses of action, referred to in Theravāda () and Tibetan Buddhism (; ). Finally, the first four of the five precepts are very similar to the most fundamental rules of monastic discipline (), and may have influenced their development. In conclusion, the five precepts lie at the foundation of all Buddhist practice, and in that respect, can be compared with the ten commandments in Christianity and Judaism or the ethical codes of Confucianism.
We never actually perceive that one event causes another, but only experience the "constant conjunction" of events. This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past, a presupposition which cannot itself be grounded in prior experience. An opponent of philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions". Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle.
The notation is a finite string of symbols that intuitively stands for an ordinal number. By representing the ordinal in a finite way, Gentzen's proof does not presuppose strong axioms regarding ordinal numbers. He then proves by transfinite induction on these ordinals that no proof can conclude in a contradiction. The method used in this proof can also be used to prove a cut elimination result for Peano arithmetic in a stronger logic than first-order logic, but the consistency proof itself can be carried out in ordinary first-order logic using the axioms of primitive recursive arithmetic and a transfinite induction principle.
Same-sex sexual intercourse was "alternatively viewed as a remnant of bourgeois decadence, a sign of moral weakness, and a threat to the social and political health of the nation." In 1954, the same court decided that Paragraph 175a in contrast to Paragraph 175 did not presuppose acts tantamount to sexual intercourse. Lewdness (') was defined as any act that is performed to arouse sexual excitement and "violates the moral sentiment of our workers." A revision of the criminal code in 1957 made it possible to put aside prosecution of an illegal action that represented no danger to socialist society because of lack of consequence.
At a first step, in many markets sustainability innovations presuppose so called soft innovations in social practices, finance and business relationships. The innovation is not necessarily a new product or a product advancement, but also entails brand new ways to communicate products, new ways to operate focus groups or using internet tools to have idea generating systems in order to learn from the consumers. In the last years, sustainability performance of products and services has experienced continuous improvements. The above-mentioned examples of sustainable products became produced at lower cost, in a more resource efficient way and satisfied the increasing consumer concerns about sustainability issues.
Plutarch identified this Amphidamas with the hero of the Lelantine War between Chalcis and Eretria and he concluded that the passage must be an interpolation into Hesiod's original work, assuming that the Lelantine War was too late for Hesiod. Modern scholars have accepted his identification of Amphidamas but disagreed with his conclusion. The date of the war is not known precisely but estimates placing it around 730–705 BC fit the estimated chronology for Hesiod. In that case, the tripod that Hesiod won might have been awarded for his rendition of Theogony, a poem that seems to presuppose the kind of aristocratic audience he would have met at Chalcis.
These war clubs may have been inspired by flintlock musket and rifle stocks; the Plains gunstock war club has a characteristic elbow in the stock in both the long (horseback) or short (ground) versions. Tomahawk, short and long lance and Plains dagger are also part of basic Okichitaw training. Hand-to-hand techniques often assume the use of tomahawk and knife, but do not always rely upon the use of weapons. In Okichitaw, the hand positions are held as though there are weapons – in the same way that Aikido's kamae position assumes the use of a sword – but, as in Aikido, the techniques do not presuppose use of weapons.
They presuppose a relationship to some other body through which they are determined. For a wider view, it would be useful to consider motion relative to the fixed stars, which would be considered as being at rest, instead of to absolute space. Just as we cannot know absolute space, we cannot know whether the whole universe is at rest or is moving uniformly in a direction. To determine the true nature of motion, we must follow three rules: (1) distinguish mathematical hypotheses from the nature of things; (2) beware of abstractions; (3) consider motion as sensible or imaginable and be content with relative measures.
Anacker (2005: p. 34), in introducing his English rendering of the "Method for Argumentation (Vāda-vidhi)" of Vasubandhu (fl. 4th century)—a text composed in Sanskrit which is now only extant in a reconstructed composite extracted from Tibetan works, collated by Frauwallner (1957)—holds that: > Vasubandhu's criteria for a valid inference-schema are concise and precise, > and there is nothing essential omitted. Dignāga's 'wheel of justifications' > (hetu-cakra), sometimes held to be the first complete Indian formulation of > what constitutes the validity and invalidity of an argument, is in fact > nothing of the kind: it is a pedagogic device mapping out in detail what > Vasubandhu's criteria already presuppose.
Brian Barry has questioned the nature of the divisions that exist in the countries that Lijphart considers to be "classic cases" of consociational democracies. For example, he makes the case that in the Swiss example, "political parties cross-cut cleavages in the society and provide a picture of remarkable consensus rather than highly structured conflict of goals". In the case of the Netherlands, he argues that "the whole cause of the disagreement was the feeling of some Dutchman ... that it mattered what all the inhabitants of the country believed. Demands for policies aimed at producing religious or secular uniformity presuppose a concern ... for the state of grace of one's fellow citizens".
Further, Kulick takes issue with frequently circular definitions of queer speech. He argues that speech patterns cannot be labeled LGBTQ language simply because they are used by LGBTQ people. Studies of a speech community that presuppose the existence of that community may reproduce stereotypes that fail to accurately depict the social reality of variance among subgroups within a community and overlapping identities for individuals. Furthermore, studies of gay male language use often look at middle class European Americans who are out as gay to the exclusion of other subgroups of the LGBTQ community, and hence may draw misleading conclusions about the community as a whole.
Boltzmann's kinetic theory of gases seemed to presuppose the reality of atoms and molecules, but almost all German philosophers and many scientists like Ernst Mach and the physical chemist Wilhelm Ostwald disbelieved their existence. During the 1890s, Boltzmann attempted to formulate a compromise position which would allow both atomists and anti-atomists to do physics without arguing over atoms. His solution was to use Hertz's theory that atoms were Bilder, that is, models or pictures. Atomists could think the pictures were the real atoms while the anti-atomists could think of the pictures as representing a useful but unreal model, but this did not fully satisfy either group.
From the early 1940s he and an informal group of fellow scientists in diverse fields collaborated on an extensive project called A Frame of Reference for Social Change. They developed new concepts and vocabulary on grounds that the existing ones of economics and sociology presuppose and thereby covertly perpetuate capitalist constructs, and that it is necessary to 'unfool' oneself before proceeding. This was submitted to Victor Gollancz, a notoriously interventionist editor, who demanded a complete rewrite in more familiar terms. A manuscript among Harris's papers at his death titled Directing social change was brought to publication in 1997 by Seymour Melman, Murray Eden, and Bill Evan.
In his influential works, Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin provided an extralinguistic methodology for analysing the nature and meaning of dialogue:Maranhão 1990, p.51 > Dialogic relations have a specific nature: they can be reduced neither to > the purely logical (even if dialectical) nor to the purely linguistic > (compositional-syntactic) They are possible only between complete utterances > of various speaking subjects... Where there is no word and no language, > there can be no dialogic relations; they cannot exist among objects or > logical quantities (concepts, judgments, and so forth). Dialogic relations > presuppose a language, but they do not reside within the system of language. > They are impossible among elements of a language.
His recent interests have included the anarchist implications of dispute resolution institutions in stateless primitive societies (arguing that mediation, arbitration, etc., cannot feasibly be annexed to the U.S. criminal justice system, because they presuppose anarchism and a relative social equality not found in state/class societies). At the 2011 annual B.A.S.T.A.R.D. anarchist conference in Berkeley, California, Black presented a workshop where he argued that, in society as it is, crime can be an anarchist method of social control, especially for people systematically neglected by the legal system. An article based on this presentation appeared in Anarchy magazine and in his 2013 book, Defacing the Currency: Selected Writings, 1992–2012.
Serbs and the Army of the Serb Republic (VRS) was outnumbered, outgunned, and isolated, faced against regular Croatian Army (HV), Croatian Defense Council (HVO), mainly Muslim Army of Bosnia & Herzegovina (ABiH), forces of Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia and NATO airstrikes. Furthermore, Serbs faced weapons embargo, and sanctions from the Western countries, Russia, and even Serbia and FR Yugoslavia under Slobodan Milosevic, who instituted sanctions against the Serb Republic in 1993. Milosevic supported every single peace plan the International Community proposed, even those which did not presuppose the existence of the Serb Republic. Throughout most of the war the Bosnian Serbs fought against both the Bosniaks (Muslims) and the Bosnian Croats.
He maintains personal contact with senior members of the party, including former Prime Minister David Cameron. ICAP and Spencer have made £4.6m in donations to the party although Spencer was critical of the May government's business policies; he has not donated to the party since the 2017 UK general election. Spencer was nominated for a peerage in Cameron's resignation honours list for charity fundraising and service to the Conservative Party while its treasurer, but reportedly, his nomination was blocked by the Cabinet Office. Spencer has been reported to favour positive discrimination employment policies for women but is against gender-based employment quotas since he believes that they wrongly presuppose prejudice by all male employers.
Habermas understands presupposition (5) to be responsible for generating the self-understanding and continuation of theoretical and practical discourses. Presupposition (5) points out that the validity of an understanding reached in theoretical or practical discourse, concerning some factual knowledge or normative principle, is always expanded beyond the immediate context in which it is achieved. The idea is that participants in discourses such as these presuppose that any understanding reached could attain universal agreement concerning its universal validity if these discourses could be relieved of the constraints of time and space. This idealized presupposition directs discourses concerning truth and normative certainty beyond the contingencies of specific communicative situations and towards the idealized achievements of universal consensus and universal validity.
In this view, the need for atonement between God and humanity (an act of reparation that leads to or effects reconciliation) arises solely due to human sin. Goetz argued that the findings of modern science as well recent breakthroughs in theological and biblical scholarship discredit such ideas as well as any atonement theories that presuppose them. Instead, Goetz proposed that God created the world as it is, imperfect, impermanent and incomplete, with all its suffering and violence, as an integral component in the realization of God's eschatological purpose for creation. Goetz's atonement theory therefore emphasized not just human responsibility, but ultimate divine responsibility for the present shape of the world, including its sin, death, suffering and evil.
Doyle himself was of Irish Catholic descent, educated at Stonyhurst College, although he abandoned his family's religious tradition, neither marrying nor raising his children in the Catholic faith, nor cleaving to any politics that his ethnic background might presuppose. Doyle is known to have used his experiences at Stonyhurst as inspiration for details of the Holmes series; among his contemporaries at the school were two boys surnamed Moriarty. At the age of twenty-one, Moriarty gained recognition for writing "a treatise upon the Binomial Theorem", which led to him being awarded the Mathematical Chair at one of England's smaller universities. Moriarty was also the author of a much respected work titled The Dynamics of an Asteroid.
Oakeshott distinguished the academic perspective on the past from the practical, in which the past is seen in terms of its relevance to our present and future. His insistence on the autonomy of history places him close to Collingwood, who also argued for the autonomy of historical knowledge. The practical world view (the world sub specie voluntatis) presupposes the ideas of will and of value in terms of which practical action in the arenas of politics, economics, and ethics makes sense. Because all action is conditioned by presuppositions, Oakeshott was inclined to see any attempt to change the world as reliant upon a scale of values, which themselves presuppose a context of experience.
According to David Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolomaic Greek astronomy. Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods.
But scholars supporting the three-stage Q development hypothesis, such as Burton L. Mack, argue that Q's unity comes not only from its being shared by Matthew and Luke, but also because, in the layers of Q as reconstructed, the later layers build upon and presuppose the earlier ones, whereas the reverse is not the case. So evidence that Q has been revised is not evidence for disunity in Q, since the hypothesised revisions depend upon asymmetric logical connections between what are posited to be the later and earlier layers.The Lost Gospel: The Book Q and Christian Origins, Macmillan Co. (1993, paperback 1994). Some biblical scholars believe that an unknown redactor composed a Greek-language proto-Gospel.
It is also impressive, not merely as an act of impersonation but perhaps above all for the fiendish diligence with which it is carried out ... presuppose(s) formidable research on the part of the author, who is American, educated in France and writing fluent, idiomatic and purposeful French. This tour de force, which not everyone will welcome, outclasses all other fictions and will continue to do so for some time to come. No summary can do it justice." The Observer 's Paris correspondent, Jason Burke, praised the book as an "extraordinary Holocaust novel asks what it is that turns normal people into mass killers," adding that "notwithstanding the controversial subject matter, this is an extraordinarily powerful novel.
The Fairtrade criteria presuppose a set of political values as to what economic, environmental, and social problems exist and how they are to be solved. Some critics state that it is unethical to bribe developing world producers to act according to political viewpoints that they may not agree with, and the consumers providing the money may not agree with. These critics also state that the unorthodox marketing system imposed, aiming to replace capitalism, may not tie in with the objectives of producers, consumers, importers or retailers.Boersma, F. (2009). The urgency and necessity of a different type of market: the perspective of producers organized within the Fair Trade market Journal of Business Ethics 86:51-61; –Boersma, F. V. (2002).
In epistemology, a presupposition relates to a belief system, or Weltanschauung, that is required for the argument to make sense. A variety of Christian apologetics, called presuppositional apologetics, argues that the existence or non-existence of God is the basic presupposition of all human thought, and that all people arrive at a worldview which is ultimately determined by the theology they presuppose. Evidence and arguments are only developed after the fact in an attempt to justify the theological assumptions already made. According to this view, it is impossible to demonstrate the existence of God unless one presupposes that God exists, with the stance that modern science relies on methodological naturalism, and thus is incapable of discovering the supernatural.
Former FBI director Louis Freeh and his firm, including a team of former federal prosecutors and FBI agents, were hired by the Penn State Board of Trustees to conduct an independent investigation into the scandal.Former FBI director Freeh to conduct independent investigation Penn State Live, November 21, 2011. In the opinion of writer Michael Sokolove, the mission Freeh was given seemed to presuppose that Sandusky's crimes were not his alone and that people who had reason to suspect him had looked away. After interviewing over 400 people and reviewing over 3.5 million documents, the investigation team reported that Paterno, Spanier, Curley, and Schultz concealed Sandusky's actions in order to protect the publicity surrounding Penn State's celebrated football program.
Gabâ is not synonymous with the Hindu-Buddhist law of karma: gabâ is only in the negative (a punishment), unlike karma which may be good or bad. Both concepts are known to the Visayan peoples, although gabâ is considered purely indigenous, while karma was historically imported. ; Gabâ and divine retribution Gabâ is not, strictly speaking, the same as punishment from a godhead, such as the monotheisms' God or the Greek goddess Nemesis: gabâ does not presuppose an Ultimate Being. Ill-doings to one's fellowmen does not alone cause Gaba but actions like wasting food, disrespecting elders, abusing animals, desacrating holy places or objects, cursing God, and destroying Nuno sa Punso cause Gaba as well.
Elliott added that Freud should be credited with showing that "reality is not pre-given or natural", but rather structured by the social and technical frameworks fashioned by human beings, and that "individual subjectivity and society presuppose one another". Dominique Bourdin wrote that in Totem and Taboo Freud "develops an idea that clearly embarrasses the current psychoanalysts, but that is essential to the logic of Freudian thought: that of Phylogenetics". The philosopher Mikkel Borch- Jacobsen and the psychologist Sonu Shamdasani argued that in Totem and Taboo Freud applied to history "the same method of interpretation that he used in the privacy of his office to 'reconstruct' his patients' forgotten and repressed memories".
It may at first seem counterintuitive or "backward" to send rays away from the camera, rather than into it (as actual light does in reality), but doing so is many orders of magnitude more efficient. Since the overwhelming majority of light rays from a given light source do not make it directly into the viewer's eye, a "forward" simulation could potentially waste a tremendous amount of computation on light paths that are never recorded. Therefore, the shortcut taken in ray tracing is to presuppose that a given ray intersects the view frame. After either a maximum number of reflections or a ray traveling a certain distance without intersection, the ray ceases to travel and the pixel's value is updated.
While mathematically elegant, such a technique is not appropriate for analyzing a signal with indeterminate future behavior. For instance, one must presuppose some degree of indeterminate future behavior in any telecommunications systems to achieve non-zero entropy (if one already knows what the other person will say one cannot learn anything). To harness the power of a frequency representation without the need of a complete characterization in the time domain, one first obtains a time–frequency distribution of the signal, which represents the signal in both the time and frequency domains simultaneously. In such a representation the frequency domain will only reflect the behavior of a temporally localized version of the signal.
Krista Hunt argues that appeals to women's liberation have been embedded in political projects for centuries to mobilize feminists and their discourses. A large body of feminist literature has analyzed the gender- related dimensions of (post-) colonial projects where feminists from the Global North were convinced to get involved in order to "save" other oppressed women. Such rescue narratives generally presuppose a homogeneity of women as an oppressed group, as showed in the work of Chandra Mohanty, and put into play the orientalized nature of the seemingly dangerous "brown man". Thus, feminism which was incorporated in the modernization and civilization projects of imperial countries is argued to have helped strengthening colonialism and patriarchy instead of promoting women's rights.
In the last third of the book Evans turns to problems with reference to objects that actively depend on the use of language. Here he treats the use of proper names, which do not seem to presuppose as much knowledge on the part of the speaker as demonstrative or recognition-based identification. One can refer to an object one has never encountered using a name if the name was received in the right sort of linguistic (social) practice—even, apparently, if one has no true beliefs about the object. He also considers problems of reference to objects in fictions and hallucinations, and to the meaning of saying that something exists which does not (here he draws explicitly on Kripke's John Locke Lectures titled Reference and Existence).
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term "backlash" can also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash." A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant.
Distribution of divine graces by means of the Catholic Church and the sacraments (Johannes Hopffe, Wrisberg epitaph, Hildesheim, before 1615) The Catholic Church teaches that the sacraments are "efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us." The Church teaches that the effect of a sacrament comes ex opere operato, by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it.New Catholic Dictionary However, a recipient's own lack of proper disposition to receive the grace conveyed can block the effectiveness of the sacrament in that person. The sacraments presuppose faith and through their words and ritual elements, are meant to nourish, strengthen and give expression to faith.
A more general defense of (1) could also be constructed from James' behaviorist theory of belief. James takes believing a proposition to consist in acting as if it were true, so if James considers testing a proposition as acting as if it were true to see if it leads to successful action, then James would be committed to seeing an act of hypothesis adoption as necessarily an act of belief adoption as well. Objection (2) seems to presuppose the ability to will a belief. James believed that when evidence was insufficient to determine the truth or falsehood of a proposition, this uncertainty allowed a person to be able to will a belief by acting as if that belief were true.
In making assessments of mood and affect the clinician is cautioned that "it is important to keep in mind that demonstrative expression can be influenced by cultural differences, medication, or situational factors"; while the layperson is warned to beware of applying the criterion lightly to "friends, otherwise [he or she] is likely to make false judgments, in view of the prevalence of schizoid and cyclothymic personalities in our 'normal' population, and our [US] tendency to psychological hypochondriasis". R. D. Laing in particular stressed that "such 'clinical' categories as schizoid, autistic, 'impoverished' affect ... all presuppose that there are reliable, valid impersonal criteria for making attributions about the other person's relation to [his or her] actions. There are no such reliable or valid criteria".
Non-Christian thought, in Frame's view, also is characterized by irrationalism because inevitably the finite and fallen human mind cannot fully capture all of reality into a man-made system. On this position, at the point in which the non-Christian rationalist realizes that they cannot account for everything, they engage in what Francis Schaeffer called an "upper story leap." As a brief example, Frame uses the epistemology of Kant, who taught that the categories of thought that are necessary for our understanding the world around us, such as causality, logic, time, space, and order, are structured by our minds and imposed upon the things we experience. In order to be rational and make sense out of life we must assume, or presuppose, these notions.
Reid's answer to Hume's sceptical and naturalist arguments was to enumerate a set of principles of common sense (sensus communis) which constitute the foundations of rational thought. Anyone who undertakes a philosophical argument, for example, must implicitly presuppose certain beliefs like, "I am talking to a real person," and "There is an external world whose laws do not change," among many other positive, substantive claims. For Reid, the belief in the truth of these principles is not rational; rather, reason itself demands these principles as prerequisites, as does the innate "constitution" of the human mind. It is for this reason (and possibly a mocking attitude toward Hume and Berkeley) that Reid sees belief in the principles of common sense as a litmus test for sanity.
The importance of the theorem lies in the fact that it has a different proof that does not presuppose the parallel postulate and is therefore valid in non-Euclidean geometry as well. By its help, the mapping that maps every point P of the plane to the midpoint of the segment P´P´´, where P´and P´´ are the images of P under a rotation (in either sense) by a given acute angle about a given center, is seen to be a collineation mapping the whole hyperbolic plane in a 1-1 way onto the inside of a disk, thus providing a good intuitive notion of the linear structure of the hyperbolic plane. In fact, this is called the Hjelmslev transformation.
However, The World as Will and Representation contains an appendix entitled "Critique of the Kantian philosophy," in which Schopenhauer rejects most of Kant's ethics and significant parts of his epistemology and aesthetics. As Schopenhauer explains: "However much I take the achievements of the great Kant as my point of departure, a serious study of his works has nonetheless enabled me to discover significant errors, and I have had to separate these errors out and show them to be unsound so that I could then presuppose and apply what is true and excellent in his theories in a pure form, freed from these errors." Schopenhauer saw the human will as our one window to the reality behind the world as representation, i.e. the external world as we experience it through our mental faculties.
Differences between Chidley and Goodwin initially centred on the domestic problems of the Goodsones: the husband, William Goodsone, an officer in the navy, attended Chidley's Separation, while his wife worshipped at St Stephen's, as Chidley outlined in a letter to Goodwin.Brown (1650), p. 9. It seems likely the two churches were close and to some extent competitors for local support. According to Brown's report, which was bundled with his notes on the earlier conference with Burton, the discussion began with Goodwin making the eirenic gambit: :Suppose it be granted that all our matter be so corrupt, as you presuppose it is, yet it is lawfull for your Members to communicate with ours; for saith he, it is lawfull for a man to communicate with one whom he doubts whether he be a Believer or not.
In addition to his work on Kant, Hill has done work (mostly collected in his collection Autonomy and Self-Respect (Cambridge University Press, 1991) searching for and articulating the values we presuppose in our moral judgments on particular cases by focusing on realistic examples. He often suggests why familiar moral theories such as utilitarianism do not fully explain our grounds for these judgments and attempts to explain and partially defend the non-standard values we work from in everyday life. In his "Servility and Self-Respect" (1973) Hill explores the kinds of servile attitudes of those who have lost their self-respect. He makes a case for affirmative action in his "The Message of Affirmative Action" (1991) that is not exclusively focused on providing future benefits or righting past wrongs.
The presence of Greeks and Phoenicians presuppose the Roman occupation in the territory, but it was in 1166 that the first reference Angeja appeared, in the form of ANSEGIA. Angeja obtained a foral from King D. Manuel I on 15 August 1514, that included the lands of Assequins, Bemposta, Branca, Canelas, Casais de Grijó, Casais do Ribeiro, Contumil, Devesa, Fermelã, Figueiredo, Fonte Chã, Pinheiro, Salreu and Santiães. Initially, this territory was part of the Terras de Santa Maria (Lands of Santa Maria), commonly known as Terras da Feira (Lands of the Fair), which were incorporated into coat-of-arms. By 1853 Angeja was the municipal seat, but this lasted until the end of the year, when the municipality became extinct and integrated into the much larger municipality of Albergaria-a- Velha.
An inscription by Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (western consul in 486, Praetorian prefect of Italy 486–493) titles Theoderic as dominus noster gloriosissimus adque inclytus rex Theodericus victor ac triumfator semper Augustus, but Theoderic himself appears to have preferred to title himself simply as "king".' Theoderic's unwillingness to assume the imperial title may have been mainly due to being careful not to insult the emperors in Constantinople.' Roman law continued to be in use and be important in Western Europe through the early Middle Ages. Both the Visigoths and the Franks issued law collections which either explicitly mention, or presuppose, the existence of a large population of Romans within their territories as Barbarian laws distinguish between the Barbarians who live by their own laws and the Romans, who live by Roman law.
Internet mock drafts typically rank many dozens of players per position, often with immense detail for each prospect, and some forecast drafts for several years into the future. NFL teams, by contrast, each year often view even likely first round picks as little more than faceless statistics during the Combine in February, do not evaluate so many players (only about one dozen quarterbacks are selected in each draft, for example), and do not complete their detailed evaluations until just before the draft in late April. Draft analysts often claim that a player has "climbed" or "fallen" into another draft round due to various factors, but such statements presuppose—often inaccurately—that teams have already made detailed evaluations of the player and that a consensus exists across the entire league.
Tax protesters in the United States advance a number of constitutional arguments asserting that the imposition, assessment and collection of the federal income tax violates the United States Constitution. These kinds of arguments, though related to, are distinguished from statutory and administrative arguments, which presuppose the constitutionality of the income tax, as well as from general conspiracy arguments, which are based upon the proposition that the three branches of the federal government are involved together in a deliberate, on-going campaign of deception for the purpose of defrauding individuals or entities of their wealth or profits. Although constitutional challenges to U.S. tax laws are frequently directed towards the validity and effect of the Sixteenth Amendment, assertions that the income tax violates various other provisions of the Constitution have been made as well.
Others interpret the permission given to Noah and his family in Genesis 9:3–4, not as a free pass to kill animals for food because "no matter what you do you can never remove all the blood from the flesh of a slaughtered animal", but as an invitation to scavenge for and eat dead animals if any are found. These approaches are put under pressure, however, with the sheer number of passages which appear to presuppose the legitimacy of eating animals, and the normalcy with which meat eating is treated. Another approach to these texts is to suggest that God reluctantly permitted the eating of animals due to human sinfulness. In other words, God permitted humans to eat non-human animals as a concession to the Fallen state of humanity.
Jean- François Lyotard defined philosophical postmodernism in The Postmodern Condition, writing "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards meta narratives...." where what he means by metanarrative is something like a unified, complete, universal, and epistemically certain story about everything that is. Postmodernists reject metanarratives because they reject the concept of truth that metanarratives presuppose. Postmodernist philosophers in general argue that truth is always contingent on historical and social context rather than being absolute and universal and that truth is always partial and "at issue" rather than being complete and certain. Postmodern philosophy is often particularly skeptical about simple binary oppositions characteristic of structuralism, emphasizing the problem of the philosopher cleanly distinguishing knowledge from ignorance, social progress from reversion, dominance from submission, good from bad, and presence from absence.
According to Bertrand Russell's Theory of Descriptions, the negation operator in a singular sentence can take either wide or narrow scope: we distinguish between "some S is not P" (where negation takes "narrow scope") and "it is not the case that 'some S is P'" (where negation takes "wide scope"). The problem with this view is that there appears to be no such scope distinction in the case of proper names. The sentences "Socrates is not bald" and "it is not the case that Socrates is bald" both appear to have the same meaning, and they both appear to assert or presuppose the existence of someone (Socrates) who is not bald, so that negation takes a narrow scope. However, Russell's theory analyses proper names into a logical structure which makes sense of this problem.
In 1941, the Yale group clarified their original statement which was "that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presuppose the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always lead to some form of aggression". As it was, the second part of this hypothesis lead readers to think that frustration could only have aggression as a consequence, and it did not allow the possibility that other responses could arise and override the aggression response. The Yale group thus reformulated the hypothesis as following: "frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is aggression". With this new formulation, the researchers left more place for the idea that aggressive impulses are not the only kinds that can emerge when an individual feels frustration.
Kant also makes a distinction between positive and negative noumena:Mattey, G. J.Lecture notes by G. J. Mattey > If by 'noumenon' we mean a thing so far as it is not an object of our > sensible intuition, and so abstract from our mode of intuiting it, this is a > noumenon in the negative sense of the term. > But if we understand by it an object of a non-sensible intuition, we thereby > presuppose a special mode of intuition, namely, the intellectual, which is > not that which we possess, and of which we cannot comprehend even the > possibility. This would be 'noumenon' in the positive sense of the term. The positive noumena, if they existed, would be immaterial entities that can only be apprehended by a special, non-sensory faculty: "intellectual intuition" (nicht sinnliche Anschauung).
Karl Rahner accepted the notion that without Christ it was impossible to achieve salvation, but he could not accept the notion that people who have never heard of Jesus would be condemned. > "Anonymous Christianity" means that a person lives in the grace of God and > attains salvation outside of explicitly constituted Christianity. A > Protestant Christian is, of course, "no anonymous Christian"; that is > perfectly clear. But, let us say, a Buddhist monk (or anyone else I might > suppose) who, because he follows his conscience, attains salvation and lives > in the grace of God; of him I must say that he is an anonymous Christian; if > not, I would have to presuppose that there is a genuine path to salvation > that really attains that goal, but that simply has nothing to do with Jesus > Christ.
The constitutionality of the phrase "In God We Trust" has been upheld according to the judicial interpretation of accommodationism, whose adherents state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious denomination over another. In Zorach v. Clauson (1952), the Supreme Court also wrote that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and that government recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church as the Constitution's authors intended to prohibit. On the other hand, advocates of separation of church and state have questioned the legality of this motto asserting their opinion that it is a violation of the United States Constitution, prohibiting the government from passing any law respecting an establishment of religion.
In the course of the controversy over the raised saints in the Gospel of Matthew, Evangelicals such as Norman Geisler, Albert Mohler and F. David Farnell have questioned whether Licona is moving away from his evangelical views and is headed in a similar path traveled by the agnostic New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman. While asserting his belief in the divine authority of the Bible and its inerrancy, he maintains he cannot presuppose these beliefs while engaged in historical research. He also claims the doctrine of biblical inerrancy is not a doctrine fundamental to the Christian faith. In a radio exchange with Ehrman, Licona said that if Jesus actually rose from the dead, Christianity is true even if it were also true that some things in the Bible were not.
All argumentation, according to Perelman and Olbrechts- Tyteca, must proceed from a point of agreement; contentious matters in particular cannot be introduced until sufficient agreement on prior or related issues has already been established. The bases of agreement are divided into two categories: the first deals with facts, truths, and presumptions; the second with values, hierarchies, and loci of the preferable. Both facts and truths are normally established prior to argument; these are aspects of reality that would be agreed to, for instance, by the universal audience as conceived by the orator. Neither facts nor truths provide opportunity for dispute; as Perelman explains, "if we presuppose the coherence of reality and of our truths taken as a whole, there cannot be any conflict between facts and truths on which we would be called to make a decision" (2001, p. 1394).
The bulk of the text considers three kinds of reference to objects, and argues for a number of conditions that must obtain for reference to occur. He considers first demonstrative reference, where one speaks or thinks about an object visible in one's vicinity. He argues that these presuppose, among other things: having a correct conception of the kind of object that it is; the ability to conceive of it and oneself as located in an objective space, and to orient oneself within that space; that one must move smoothly through time and space and be able to track the object's movements continuously in perception. He next considers reference to oneself and then reference by way of a capacity for recognition: one's ability to (re-)identify an object when presented with it, even if it is not available at present.
There seemed to be a preference for ecstatic prayer at the expense of works of charity, with a number of members all "speaking in tongues" at the same time. It was apparently reported to him that women were appearing at the assembly without the head covering customary in contemporary Greek society, and may have been arguing over their right to address the assembly. The fledgling community appeared to be in disorder."1 Corinthians", Introduction, NAB, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2003 1 Corinthians 14:33-35(NIV) states: Barbara Leonhard and others"1 Corinthians 14", note 10, NAB, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2003 find this contradicts a statement in 1 Corinthians 11:5 that seems to presuppose that women are, in fact, praying and prophesying in the assembly of believers (but prefers they do it with the appropriate head covering).
For the "forward rate agreement" market, which was often conducted by U.S. banks through "offshore" branches because of concern such agreements looked too much like "futures" traded on U.S. exchanges, see Philip McBride Johnson, Michael S. Sackheim and Thomas A. Hale "Future Rate Agreements: Implications under the Commodity Exchange Act", Commodities Law Letter, March 1987, at 3-6. See also notes 37, 79 (Summers response to Harkin question at Senate Agriculture PWG Report hearing), and 81 below for the issue of "offshore" booking of OTC derivative transactions. CFTC Chair Brooksley Born replied that the CFTC had exclusive authority over "futures" under the CEA and could not allow the other PWG members to dictate the CFTC's authority under that statute. She pointed out the "concept release" did not propose, nor presuppose the need for, any change in the regulatory treatment of OTC derivatives.
The abandoned ruins of the Convent of Tomina, in a secluded valley Much of the history of Santo Aleixo da Restauração has been lost over time, but its origins have been fixed to a period around 4000-3000 B.C., from the existence of prehistoric dolmens and menhirs scattered in the region. Further, remnants from the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods encountered within the territory of Moura presuppose a human occupation to a primordial period of settlement. In 1252, the region was actually called Campo de Gamos, and occupied by farmers and resident serfs from the areas of Moura and Noudar. It was only on 3 May 1957 that the parish began to be called Santo Aleixo da Restauração, a toponymy derived from the fact it was considered a historical place during the patriotic Restoration War between Portugal and Spain.
Raphaël, The Transfiguration, 1520, Vatican Drews asserted that everything about the story of Jesus had a mythical character, and that it was therefore not necessary to presuppose that a historical Jesus had ever existed. In fact, Christianity could have developed without Jesus, but not without Paul, and certainly not without Isaiah.Walter P. Weaver, The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1950, Ch. 2, "The Nonhistorical Jesus", Section on "Arthur Drews", p. 49-54 (Trinity Press, 1999) Drews concludes in the last chapter, "The Religious Problem of the Present": > The Christ-faith arose quite independently of any historical personality > known to us ;... Jesus was in this sense a product of the religious social > soul and was made by Paul, with the required amount of reinterpretation and > reconstruction, the chief interest of those communities founded by him.
Mythological stories could be seen on the plaques, depicting "complex animals" – mixed bears and fur-bearing animals, on figured pendants in the form of waterfowl, horses, in the images of birds of prey on the pommels. According to the sphere of usage, cult metalwork objects can be divided into groups: for instance, the ones protecting against diseases (they were as a norm kept at home), the others – "spirits of the happiness" – bringing luck as a response to the sacrifices (they were inside community temples).The diversity of cult artifacts and mythological stories on the plaques presuppose the existence of developed mythology of the creators of the animal style. Perm Animal Style appeared on the territory of Scytho-Sarmatian world at the beginning of the first millennium CE and disappeared at the beginning of the second millennium, on the eve of the Mongolian invasions.
Tax protesters in the United States have advanced a number of arguments asserting that the assessment and collection of the federal income tax violates statutes enacted by the United States Congress and signed into law by the President. Such arguments generally claim that certain statutes fail to create a duty to pay taxes, that such statutes do not impose the income tax on wages or other types of income claimed by the tax protesters, or that provisions within a given statute exempt the tax protesters from a duty to pay. These statutory arguments are distinguished from, although related to, constitutional, administrative and general conspiracy arguments. Statutory arguments presuppose that Congress has the constitutional power to assess a tax on incomes, but that the Congress has simply failed to levy the tax by enacting a specific statute.
As there would have been twelve of these arches it is likely these portraits represent the Apostles, although there is no direct connection between the Canon Tables or the letter of Eusebius and the twelve Apostles. The numbers of corresponding Gospel sections, as listed in the London Canon Tables, differ strikingly from any other surviving manuscript of the Eusebian canons. Eberhard Nestle, who was among the first biblical scholars to call attention to the value of the Eusebian canons for the New Testament textual criticism, dismissed the London Canon Tables as an example of de luxe manuscripts whose "text-critical value stands in reverse proportion to their artistic". The art historian Carl Nordenfalk, however, suggested that the London Canon Tables, "instead of being an example of careless copying, presuppose another section division than that of Eusebius himself".
If I had no other proof for my belief in the existence and sovereignty of an Intelligent Final Cause, I would derive it from my recognition of the fact that supreme order, uninterrupted harmony, eternal and immutable law, control all nature, heaven and earth, all inorganic and organic, in but one way, and in no other." He argues that evolution is simply part of the law of nature and that "this natural law shape matter with design and direct force with a purpose, and design and purpose presuppose intelligence." Krauskopf argued that evolution was the same as "Supreme Governing Power, Supreme Will, Supreme Natural Law" and that "by theologians it is called 'God.'" With "this conception of the nature of God" he argued that "every difference between science and religion disappears" and "with this conception of God, as manifested in nature, I am prepared to accept even Darwinism.
Cross states that the Samaritan and the Septuagint share a nearer common ancestor than either does with the Masoretic, which he suggested developed from local texts used by the Babylonian Jewish community. His explanation accounts for the Samaritan and the Septuagint sharing variants not found in the Masoretic and their differences reflecting the period of their independent development as distinct Egyptian and Palestinian local text traditions. On the basis of archaizing and pseudo-archaic forms, Cross dates the emergence of the Samaritan Pentateuch as a uniquely Samaritan textual tradition to the post-Maccabaean age.Frank Moore Cross Harvard Theological Review July 1966 "The language of the Samaritan Pentateuch also includes archaizing forms and pseudo-archaic forms which surely point to the post- Maccabaean age for its date" Scholars have tended to presuppose that the Samaritan Pentateuch consists of two "layers", one composed of the sectarian variants introduced by Samaritan scribes and a second layer reflecting the text's earlier transmission history as a "pre-Samaritan" Palestinian local text.
A few of the pieces presuppose an instrument arranged with a short octave in the bass, since they contain large intervals for the left hand that cannot be reached on the modern keyboard. The short octave was widely employed in all four instruments mentioned in the main text. Many of the pieces in the book are short, and many of them are character pieces with droll and memorable titles, including "Put Up Thy Dagger, Jemy", "The New Sa-Hoo", and "Quodlings Delight" by Giles Farnaby; "Nobody's Gigge", by Richard Farnaby; "Pakington's Pownde" and "The Irishe Dumpe" (anonymous); "The Ghost" and "The Earle of Oxford's Marche" by William Byrd; "Worster Braules" by Thomas Tomkins; and the famous "Lachrymae Pavan" by John Dowland, as arranged by Giles Farnaby and by William Byrd. In 1899, Breitkopf & Härtel published an edition in two volumes (the Maitland Squire edition, see the Sources below) with only a basic critical commentary, which has been reprinted by Dover Publications and is available inexpensively.
A genderless language is a natural or constructed language that has no distinctions of grammatical gender—that is, no categories requiring morphological agreement between nouns and associated pronouns, adjectives, articles, or verbs.Yasir Suleiman (ed.) (1999) "Language and Society in the Middle East and North Africa", , Chapter 10: "Gender in a genderless language: The case of Turkish", by Friederike Braun The notion of a genderless language is distinct from that of gender neutrality or gender-neutral language, which is wording that does not presuppose a particular natural gender. A discourse in a grammatically genderless language is not necessarily gender-neutral, although genderless languages exclude many possibilities for reinforcement of gender-related stereotypes, such as using masculine pronouns when referring to persons by their occupations (although some languages that may be identified as genderless, including English, do have distinct male and female pronouns). A lack of gendered pronouns is also distinct from a lack of gender in the grammatical sense.
Medieval primary sources are unanimous in stating that Saint Sigfrid came from England (Latin: Anglia), "Anglia" being a geographical term which, for Adam of Bremen, meant the whole of the large island known to the Romans as Britannia, distinct from Ireland (Hibernia) 'to the left of it'.Adam 4.10 No information is given in any extant pre-modern text as to Sigfrid's exact place of birth within England, or about any attachment he may have had to a monastic community, English or continental. The hagiographical traditions about Saint Sigfrid's first arrival in the Swedish Kingdom presuppose a political background in which a king called Olavus, desirous of his country's adoption of Catholic Christianity, was ruling in a kingdom which included both Svealand and Götaland. At the same time, England and Denmark were being ruled by two separate kings, not by one, as was the case during the ascendency of Cnut, who ultimately gained control of Norway as well as England and Denmark.
Linguistic relativity studies have experienced a resurgence since the 1990s, and a series of favorable experimental results have brought Whorfianism back into favor, especially in cultural psychology and linguistic anthropology.; ;; ; ; ; The first study directing positive attention towards Whorf's relativist position was George Lakoff's "Women, Fire and Dangerous Things", in which he argued that Whorf had been on the right track in his focus on differences in grammatical and lexical categories as a source of differences in conceptualization. In 1992 psychologist John A. Lucy published two books on the topic, one analyzing the intellectual genealogy of the hypothesis, arguing that previous studies had failed to appreciate the subtleties of Whorf's thinking; they had been unable to formulate a research agenda that would actually test Whorf's claims. Lucy proposed a new research design so that the hypothesis of linguistic relativity could be tested empirically, and to avoid the pitfalls of earlier studies which Lucy claimed had tended to presuppose the universality of the categories they were studying.
Scholars and contributors at the center believe that freedom is the fountainhead of economic and political progress, and religious tolerance. The Center for Vision & Values at Grove City College works on the presupposition that God is sovereign, that man is made in the image of God and is therefore of inestimable and eternal value, and that the God of the Bible is the indispensable starting point for understanding truth. Hence, the center aims to share the results of their scholarship that helps the public to understand that the pursuit of truth is inextricably linked to personal freedom, political and economic freedom, religious freedom, and orderly progress. The center's purpose is to convince people to comprehend that God's truth pertains to all areas of life and reality while providing answers for today's difficult issues using scholarly methodologies that presuppose truth and human value – as opposed to relativism and chance – as the proper foundation for addressing society's challenges.
Although Letters of Marque and Reprisal were sometimes issued before a formal declaration of war, as happened during the American Revolution when the rebelling colonies of Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania all granted Letters of Marque months before the Continental Congress's official Declaration of Independence of July 1776,Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court, Introduction at 2–7(detailing confusion of early state prize courts competing with, and denying the appellate authority of, the Continental Congress's prize court) by the turn of the 19th century it was generally accepted that a sovereign government first had to declare war. The "existence of war between nations terminates all legal commercial intercourse between their citizens or subjects," wrote Francis Upton in Maritime Warfare and Prize, since "[t]rade and commerce presuppose the existence of civil contracts … and recourse to judicial tribunals; and this is necessarily incompatible with a state of war." Upton, Maritime Warfare and Prize, p. 16–17 (discussing cessation of business when war declared).
The great variety of forms in the song supports this theory: while the language of one part is smooth and clear, another part is obscure. The determination of the correctness of this theory involves an investigation of the age of each verse; and in several instances this can not be ascertained, since the verses indicate nothing concerning the time of their origin (see verses on Zebulun, Gad, Asher, and Naphtali). The verses on Issachar refer to the period after the struggles of Deborah (Judges 5); the verses on Dan, describing his battles in the north, where in his conflicts with the surrounding nations he maintained the old Israelitish custom of making an insidious rear attack instead of offering a bold challenge, refer to the time after Judges chapters 17 and following; and the verses on Judah (8, 11) presuppose the kingdom of Judah. The comparison of Judah to a lion's whelp seems to characterize him as a rising power.
In order to answer criticisms of the Critique of Pure Reason that Transcendental Idealism denied the reality of external objects, Kant added a section to the second edition (1787) titled "The Refutation of Idealism" that turns the "game" of idealism against itself by arguing that self-consciousness presupposes external objects. Defining self-consciousness as a determination of the self in time, Kant argues that all determinations of time presuppose something permanent in perception and that this permanence cannot be in the self, since it is only through the permanence that one's existence in time can itself be determined. This argument inverted the supposed priority of inner over outer experience that had dominated philosophies of mind and knowledge since René Descartes. In Book II, chapter II, section III of the Transcendental Analytic, right under "The Postulates of Empirical Thought", Kant adds his well-known "Widerlegung des Idealismus" (Refutation of Idealism) where he refutes both Descartes' problematic idealism and Berkeley's dogmatic idealism.
Other Nutcracker passages occur when Hanna is at the theatre with the director of the orphanage and are intercut with scenes of Charlotte and her lover; and after an argument with Charlotte, Hanna goes to an opera in the style of Richard Strauss, where an older woman sings an aria, "Drop of Hemlock, Sweet and Deadly," expressing Hanna's fear of elimination, but it is a younger woman who is poisoned on stage. Finally, the closing scene is at a performance of Handel's oratorio Judas Maccabaeus, and the camera moves from the newly united family to the triumphant angels on the ceiling of the concert hall. Sabine Hake points out that in addition to expressing the deepest feelings of the characters, the use of music in the film establishes the "social, psychological, and cultural terms" in which it defines community, and that the use of classical music quotations as well as the film's visual symbolism presuppose a shared middle-class cultural frame of reference.
The context of the purple economy is that of the growing importance of culture in contemporary society. The factors involved in this include in particular:Diversum, Gilles Andrier, Loïc Armand, Francesco Bandarin, Jérôme Bédier, Françoise Benhamou, Fouad Benseddik, Gilles Boëtsch, Dominique Bourg, Jérôme Gouadain, Maria Gravari-Barbas, Marc-Antoine Jamet, François Jullien, Pascal Lamy, Jacques Lévy, Gilles Lipovetsky, Françoise Montenay, Jean Musitelli, Patrick O’Quin, Philippe d’Ornano, Dominique Perrault, Marie-Hélène Plainfossé, Nicole Rouvet, “The Cultural Footprint of the Cosmetic Sector” (accessed 22 February 2018). a global economic and political readjustment in favour of emerging countries, a return to local environments (once again perceived as centres for stability), new forms of claims (following on from the collapse of the great ideologies), growing social demand for quality based on cultural consumption patterns (which go hand in hand with the logic of popularization, individualization and longer life expectancies), innovative approaches (that presuppose a cultural state of mind and interdisciplinarity conducive to serendipity), and so on.
If the fur trader married, the Ojibwe would trade with him as he became part of the community and if he refused to marry, then the Ojibwe would not trade with him as Ojibwe only traded with a man who "took one of their women for his wife". Virtually all Indian communities encouraged fur traders to take an Indian wife in order to build a long-term relationship that would ensure the continual supply of European goods to their communities and discourage fur traders from dealing with other Indian tribes. The fur trade did not involve barter in the way that most people presuppose, but were a credit/debit relationship when a fur trader would arrive in a community in the summer or fall, hand out various goods to the Indians who would pay him back in the spring with the furs from the animals they had killed over the winter; in the interim, there much further exchanges, which often involved both Indian men and women.
Composers of microtonal music have developed a number of notations for indicating the various pitches outside of standard notation. One such system for notating quarter tones, used by the Czech Alois Hába and other composers, is shown on the right. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, when Turkish musicians switched from their traditional notation systems—which were not staff-based—to the European staff-based system, they refined the European accidental system so they could notate Turkish scales that use intervals smaller than a tempered semitone. There are several such systems, which vary as to how they divide the octave they presuppose or the graphical shape of the accidentals. The most widely used system (created by Rauf Yekta Bey) uses a system of four sharps (roughly +25 cents, +75 cents, +125 cents and +175 cents) and four flats (roughly −25 cents, −75 cents, −125 cents and −175 cents), none of which correspond to the tempered sharp and flat.
" Conrad's alienation from partisan politics went together with an abiding sense of the thinking man's burden imposed by his personality, as described in an 1894 letter of Conrad's to a relative-by-marriage and fellow author, Marguerite Poradowska (née Gachet, and cousin of Vincent van Gogh's physician, Paul Gachet) of Brussels: Conrad wrote H.G. Wells that the latter's 1901 book, Anticipations, "seems to presuppose... a sort of select circle to which you address yourself, leaving the rest of the world outside the pale. [In addition,] you do not take sufficient account of human imbecility which is cunning and perfidious."Norman and Jeanne MacKenzie, H.G. Wells: a Biography, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1973, p. 167.In a second edition of Anticipations (1902), Wells included a note at the end of chapter 1 acknowledging a suggestion regarding "the possibility (which my friend Mr. Joseph Conrad has suggested to me) of sliding cars along practically frictionless rails.
The economist Tyler Cowen has expressed admiration for Parfit's style ("Reading him is an unforgettable and illuminating experience") in On What Matters, but argues: :I see the biggest and most central part of the book as a failure, possibly wrong but more worryingly "not even wrong" and simply missing the questions defined by where the frontier – choice theory and not just philosophic ethics – has been for some time. Peter Singer was far more positive, saying that Parfit's arguments "put those who reject objectivism in ethics on the defensive". Constantine Sandis raises an objection to Parfit's project: the various "theories may well converge on their recommendations, but to think that the actions that follow from them are all that matters is to already presuppose the truth of consequentialism". Sandis jokes that the significance of Parfit's work, despite his scant publication record, should cause us to question the "publish or perish" demands of the Research Excellence Framework, but "whether it will change the way we think about morality remains to be seen".
Distinction, Bourdieu 1984 p 184 Each fraction of the dominant class develops its own aesthetic criteria. A multitude of consumer interests based on differing social positions necessitates that each fraction “has its own artists and philosophers, newspapers and critics, just as it has its hairdresser, interior decorator, or tailor.” However, Bourdieu does not disregard the importance of social capital and economic capital in the formation of cultural capital. For example, the production of art and the ability to play an instrument “presuppose not only dispositions associated with long establishment in the world of art and culture but also economic means...and spare time.” However, regardless of one's ability to act upon one's preferences, Bourdieu specifies that “respondents are only required to express a status-induced familiarity with legitimate…culture.” > [Taste] functions as a sort of social orientation, a ‘sense of one’s place,’ > guiding the occupants of a given...social space towards the social positions > adjusted to their properties, and towards the practices or goods which befit > the occupants of that position.
The play adopts a number of textual strategies that presuppose a relationship to performance, though it is performance conceived in a distinctly modernist way: as spatial meaning (like Artaud's mise en scène or Brecht's Gestus), self-referential (as Beckett's work increasingly became or as in Brechtian quotation), and unconstrained by any adherence to the conventions associated with traditional dramatic literature (from which each of these practitioners have displayed varying degrees of independence). Like Beckett, Stein is interested in an aesthetic of surfaces - of formal elements interacting in space - which do not serve the traditional purpose of the imitation of action. The aesthetic assumptions about performance embodied in Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights and the ambiguity in its textual composition produce elements unanchored from a referential process towards any reality other than its own occasion; it suggests a fully self-referential performance. The piece opens with Faustus (his precise name shifts and alters throughout the piece) looking out from the doorway to his study, which streams with intense white light from beyond, when Mephisto appears: :Faustus growls out.
Tax protesters in the United States advance a number of administrative arguments asserting that the assessment and collection of the federal income tax violates regulations enacted by responsible agencies -primarily the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)- tasked with carrying out the statutes enacted by the United States Congress and signed into law by the President. Such arguments generally include claims that the administrative agency fails to create a duty to pay taxes, or that its operation conflicts with some other law, or that the agency is not authorized by statute to assess or collect income taxes, to seize assets to satisfy tax claims, or to penalize persons who fail to file a return or pay the tax. Administrative arguments, though related to, are distinct from constitutional, statutory, and general conspiracy arguments. Administrative arguments presuppose that Congress has the constitutional power to impose a tax on incomes and that statutes have been enacted to effect this imposition, but that the administrative agencies tasked with carrying out the directives of the statute have failed to enact regulations enabling them to do so.
Whitehead's philosophy is very complex, subtle and nuanced and in order to comprehend his thinking regarding what is commonly referred to by many religions as "God", it is recommended that one read from Process and Reality Corrected Edition, wherein regarding "God" the authors elaborate Whitehead's conception. > "He is the unconditioned actuality of conceptual feeling at the base of > things; so that by reason of this primordial actuality, there is an order in > the relevance of eternal objects to the process of creation (343 of 413) > (Location 7624 of 9706 Kindle ed.) Whitehead continues later with, "The > particularities of the actual world presuppose it ; while it merely > presupposes the general metaphysical character of creative advance, of which > it is the primordial exemplification (344 of 413) (Location 7634 of 9706 > Kindle Edition)." Process philosophy, might be considered according to some theistic forms of religion to give God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. Regarding Whitehead's use of the term "occasions" in reference to "God", it is explained in Process and Reality Corrected Edition that > "'Actual entities'-also termed 'actual occasions'-are the final real things > of which the world is made up.
Cornelius Van Til Apologists who follow Van Til earned the label "presuppositional" because of their central tenet that the Christian must at all times presuppose the supernatural revelation of the Bible as the ultimate arbiter of truth and error in order to know anything. Christians, they say, can assume nothing less because all human thought presupposes the existence of the God of the Bible. They claim that by accepting the assumptions of non- Christians, which fundamentally deny the Trinitarian God of the Bible, one could not even formulate an intelligible argument. Though Van Tillians do, at one point, "put themselves in the shoes" of the opponent, "for the sake of argument", to demonstrate where that position would lead, they claim that they can only do so because this is actually God's world, and man is actually God's creature, made in God's own image, and as such can never completely shut God out (in living or thinking)—hence there is always a common basis for dialogue, even though it is, in the presuppositionalist's view, a basis which the opponent is not usually willing to acknowledge and which is decidedly biased rather than neutral.
Nietzsche suggests that the universe is recurring over infinite time and space and that different versions of events that have occurred in the past may take place again, hence "all configurations that have previously existed on this earth must yet meet". With each repeat of events is the hope that some knowledge or awareness is gained to better the individual, hence "And thus it will happen one day that a man will be born again, just like me and a woman will be born, just like Mary—only that it is hoped to be that the head of this man may contain a little less foolishness...." Alexander Nehamas writes in Nietzsche: Life as Literature of three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence: # "My life will recur in exactly identical fashion:" this expresses a totally fatalistic approach to the idea; # "My life may recur in exactly identical fashion:" This second view conditionally asserts cosmology, but fails to capture what Nietzsche refers to in The Gay Science, p. 341; and finally, # "If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion." Nehamas shows that this interpretation exists totally independently of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology.

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