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"lexical" Definitions
  1. connected with the words of a language
"lexical" Antonyms

1000 Sentences With "lexical"

How to use lexical in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "lexical" and check conjugation/comparative form for "lexical". Mastering all the usages of "lexical" from sentence examples published by news publications.

A superabundant art naturally produces superfluity—lexical runoff, weak in nutrients.
It's a slim memoir that examines her long sense of lexical displacement.
Puns are accidental echoes, random likenesses thrown out by our lexical cosmos.
"Flourishes around monsoon events," for example, is an odd but lexical phrase.
There are other ways to wage a social struggle on the lexical front.
You want to explore the lexical field surrounding your topic until something clicks.
But they are hindered by their "lexical limitations" and the words at their disposal.
Linguistic experts call these "lexical bundles" — strings of words that commonly appear in everyday speech.
And even though I realize that all lexical knowledge may be useless, you'll have this record.
I could've easily made this RIGHTFUL, but I thought the former was an interesting, lexical phrase.
This lexical sleight of hand reinvigorates the san-seriffed text, showing enthusiasm, without sounding like a psycho.
Unlike previous studies, the researchers characterized the languages based on lexical (vocabulary) and phonemic (sound) systems separately.
This lexical distinction is interesting, because it reveals how Rome sought to mark the practices of other nation.
Some languages were particularly prolific in their lexical dexterity, especially Greek, which contributed the most words by far.
The posts were analyzed for their readability and lexical diversity, a measure of how many different words someone uses while writing.
No one wants to see English submit to boring homogenisation; using a few of these lexical rarities might offer some respair.
Many of the greatest applications of speech analysis will come at the nexus of qualitative behavioral analysis and quantitative lexical analysis.
But once you step beyond that, there's this whole other world of lexical expression that differs language by language and culture by culture.
Word of the Year voting recognizes any lexical item — something that could serve as an entry in a dictionary, or, indeed, a crossword.
These lexical mixups shed some light on how LSD affects semantic networks and the way the brain draws connections between different words or concepts.
And while a case's outcome doesn't rest on a sole definition, Urban Dictionary has ultimately been a lexical resource that's aided in legal decisions.
Lexical-gustatory synesthesia, for instance, is experienced by less than 0.2 percent of the world's population, and refers to when people can taste sounds.
"Lexical cues alone are insufficient to discern ironic intent," reads the introduction of the paper, written by Silvio Amir at the University of Lisbon.
Hence the coatdress, a lexical mash-up with plenty of fashion credit — and a lifesaver for those of us who shiver in bare arms.
Lexical-gustatory synesthesia, for instance, is experienced by less than 0.2 percent of the world's population, and refers to when people can taste sounds.
According to lead researcher, Menghan Zhang, there is a correlation between lexical patterns and the Y chromosome, which is passed on by the father.
The modern translations, taken on by committees with philological expertise, often focus on getting the lexical meanings of the text right, but lack literary sensitivity.
An Old Babylonian school text from Nippur has a cuneiform lexical text, but also has teeth marks from a young student, age 22009 to 13.
Anything considered a "lexical item" can be nominated, meaning multi-word phrases like "dumpster fire" — named word of the year in 2016 — are fair game.
OUTSTANDING BALANCE came to mind, and I liked that I could interpret the phrase as a completely different lexical chunk: an asset for a gymnast.
It's hard to come up with a fresh clue based on an entirely lexical phrase as opposed to repurposing the meaning of a single word.
Sharif's lexical bent manifests a somewhat similar sensibility, but she remains less sanguine, more suspicious, about naming due to its more insidious uses in unpoetic contexts.
OED tries to avoid including short-lived items—flashes in the lexical pan—by requiring evidence of continued use before considering the word or phrase for inclusion.
The big picture: It's the latest lexical stretch for an adjective that's widely used in reports of cybersecurity incidents — and widely loathed by researchers as a result.
In a 21st-century landscape in which lexical slippage is the norm, this piece (also called "Neon") looks even more like a lightning strike on the English language.
It was a word I only heard used in hushed voices, a lexical object that rolled under tables and between coats in the cloak room at primary school.
Editor's note: Earlier today we accidentally broke the embargo on a new study, "Neural mechanisms for lexical processing in dogs," led by A. Andics and published in Science.
While the vagueness of the shillelagh's precise lexical roots may make it seem that any stick could be referred to as a shillelagh, that was certainly not the case.
Each month he totes his literary butterfly net out to the wild verges of science, culture, technology—anywhere new frontiers are opening—to collect and catalogue delightful new lexical specimens.
Command Z WASHINGTON — What happens when 334 linguists, lexicographers, grammarians and etymologists gather in a stuffy lecture hall on a Friday night to debate the lexical trends of the year?
Finding out that your lexical fingerprint is found in pronouns and prepositions may feel a bit like discovering that your genetic blueprint is just a series of four chemical bases.
Does the idea that undocumented migrants' children are not "subject to the jurisdiction of the United States" since they are "subject to some foreign power" make lexical or historical sense?
Approximately 2,500 tests subjects recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk were asked to judge words, along with "moist," based on a variety of dimensions, including lexical categories, phonological properties, and semantic relation.
This can help spot linguistic features which humans may miss, calculating the percentage prevalence of words and classes of words, lexical diversity, average sentence length, grammatical patterns and many other metrics.
I wondered if such unforced lexical errors were for literary effect, but chiefly they made me feel as if I were reading a Dutchman's account of racing processed through Google Translate.
The researchers were able to conclude that there were strong links between paternal genes and lexical characteristics and similarly, that there was a firm correlation between maternal genes and phonemic characteristics.
It also exemplifies the exceptionally advanced and sometimes stymying lexical breadth of Oliver Sacks's writing — never more challenging than in this last, posthumous book, a collection of previously uncollected and/or unpublished essays.
"The text analysis elaborates the tweet word by word using a dictionary of over 5,000 lexical items, each of which has a score for each emotion on the basis of its meaning," fuse* says.
Now, in December, we learned that senior officials at a Department of Energy-funded laboratory ordered scientists to censor the phrases "global warming" and "climate change" to accommodate the President's budget and its lexical contortions.
In the same way that some people are naturally better at arithmetic than others, some are naturally better spellers than others (and some people have lexical disabilities, like dyslexia, that make spelling even more difficult).
We are both exhaustively lexical people; we can dispute the ideal method to cook scrambled eggs for a startling length of time, the subject spiraling outward to encompass other extraneous flaws, neither of us willing to give way.
The tingle in my fingers as I ripple the pages of the OED, my teeth grinding furiously over subjunctive verbs, my pupils wide as dustbin lids as I cram every imaginable lexical disambiguation under the hot, summer sun mate.
The Germans had no patience for charlatans, creating a clear lexical distinction between actual Masters and those who performed fighting as part of theater, the leichmeistrere (a snide reference to a dance-master) and the klopffechter, which translates to clown fighter.
Alas, there is no such help in this volume; the fairly sparse notes at the back do little more than point to well-known landmarks, and the reader keen to resolve lexical puzzles has to go elsewhere, to commentary by other scholars.
A sweeping retrospective at the Centre Pompidou, built around an archival treasure trove recently acquired by the museum, presents an opulent and conceptually challenging body of Isou's paintings, films, objects, sounds, drawings, and writings, which encompass all means of lexical and phonetic notation.
I am sitting across from the first printed edition of Homer's Opera, which was published by Greek printers in Florence in 1488-89, and the "Etymologicum Magnum," which was the first printed lexical encyclopedia in Greek, produced by Cretan printers in Venice in 1499.
The editors liked the basic idea of the theme, but thought some of the theme entries weren't lively enough (and, what's more, objected to 'paper tape' as a lexical phrase; having done some house painting recently, I have quite a supply of the item).
Synesthetes—the name for people with the condition—most commonly experience grapheme-color synesthesia, where letters and numbers are strongly associated with specific colors; other forms include chromethesia (the association of sounds with colors) and lexical-gustatory synesthesia (the association of words with tastes).
When I spoke with Peter Sokolowski, a lexicographer for the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, he told me that data's transition between its historical roots and contemporary use is related to a lexical phenomenon called "semantic bleaching," where a word's original meaning is lost or diminished over time.
This Old Babylonian school text from Nippur not only preserves part of a cuneiform lexical text known today as "Proto-Ea", but also bears the teeth marks of a student, aged 12 to 13, who may have bitten into the tablet to break it #Iraq pic.twitter.
Watch More From VICE: Munchies: Anthony Bourdain Those who drank more also performed worse on lexical fluency tests, with a 14 percent reduction in performance over 30 years in those who drank between 7 and 14 units each week, compared to those who drank the least.
And while they note there have been prior attempts to do "dependency-tracking", they claim theirs is a more "fine grained" mapping of these relationships, whereas they say other methods have focused on comparing lexical relationships via HTML tags and have thus failed to capture "more subtle dependencies".
The lexical history of shillelagh remains a bit of an epistemological mystery, as clear roots of the word cannot be definitively traced, although numerous theories, from the name of the Shillelagh forest to a combination of words that, over time, became degraded to the singular name of the weapon.
Lexical items contain information about category (lexical and syntactic), form and meaning. The semantics related to these categories then relate to each lexical item in the lexicon. Lexical items can also be semantically classified based on whether their meanings are derived from single lexical units or from their surrounding environment. Lexical items participate in regular patterns of association with each other.
Witsuwitʼen lexical categories include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and postpositions. Directional terms are considered to be a lexical group in Witsuwitʼen found throughout lexical categories.
A lexical database is a lexical resource which has an associated software environment database which permits access to its contents. The database may be custom-designed for the lexical information or a general-purpose database into which lexical information has been entered. Information typically stored in a lexical database includes lexical category and synonyms of words, as well as semantic and phonological relations between different words or sets of words.
Secondly, accessing variables under dynamic scoping is generally slower than under lexical scoping. Also, the `lexical-let` macro in the "cl" package does provide effective lexical scope to Emacs Lisp programmers, but while "cl" is widely used, `lexical-let` is rarely used.
Lexical density measurements may vary for the same composition depending on how a "lexical item" is defined and which items are classified as lexical or as a grammatical item. Any adopted methodology when consistently applied across various compositions provides the lexical density of those compositions. Typically, the lexical density of a written composition is higher than a spoken composition. According to Ure, written forms of human communication in the English language typically have lexical densities above 40%, while spoken forms tend to have lexical densities below 40%.
In this last sense, it is sometimes said that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, and not lexicalized grammar. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis. Lexical items composed of more than one word are also sometimes called lexical chunks, gambits, lexical phrases, lexical units, lexicalized stems, or speech formulae. The term polyword listemes is also sometimes used.
The two most prominent theories on lexical access for bilinguals, Language Selective Access and Language Non-Selective Access, attempt to explain the process and stages of lexical activation and selection. These hypotheses focus on determining whether lexical candidates from different languages that share similar lexical features are activated when a word is presented.Dijksta, T. (2005). Bilingual visual word recognition and lexical access.
The purpose of lexical gestures is still widely contested in the literature with some linguists arguing that lexical gestures serve to amplify or modulate the semantic content of lexical speech, or that it serves a cognitive purpose in aiding in lexical access and retrieval or verbal working memory. Most recent research suggests that lexical gestures serve a primarily socio-pragmatic role.
Lexical diversity and lexical density in speech and writing: A developmental perspective - V Johansson - Working Papers in Linguistics, 2009 Newer measures of lexical diversity attempt to account for sensitivity to text length.
Lexical Variant Generation (lvg) is a suite of CLI tools that are used to perform lexical transformations to text. The goal is to generate lexical variants in Natural language processing of patient clinical documents.
Lexical density is a concept in computational linguistics that measures the structure and complexity of human communication in a language. Lexical density estimates the linguistic complexity in a written or spoken composition from the functional words (grammatical units) and content words (lexical units, lexemes). One method to calculate the lexical density is to compute the ratio of lexical items to the total number of words. Another method is to compute the ratio of lexical items to the number of higher structural items in a composition, such as the total number of clauses in the sentences.
Different standards for the machine-readable edition of lexical resources exist, e.g., Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) an ISO standard for encoding lexical resources, comprising an abstract data model and an XML serialization, and OntoLex-Lemon, an RDF vocabulary for publishing lexical resources as knowledge graphs on the web, e.g., as Linguistic Linked Open Data. Depending on the type of languages that are addressed, a lexical resource may be qualified as monolingual, bilingual or multilingual.
The definition which reports the meaning of a word or a phrase as it is actually used by people is called a lexical definition. Meanings of words given in a dictionary are lexical definitions. As a word may have more than one meaning, it may also have more than one lexical definition. Lexical definitions are either true or false.
Lexical simplification is a sub-task of text simplification. It can be defined as any lexical substitution task that reduces text complexity.
The language of Kove has three word classes: open lexical classes, closed lexical classes, and grammatical classes. Lexical class is also known as the part of speech and "grammatical words or morphemes are elements shared in the grammatical structure of clauses," claimed Hiroko. Which includes the nouns and the verbs. On the other hand, closed lexical classes includes adjectives, adverbs, and cardinal numerals.
Neither lexical tone nor pitch accent has been demonstrated for Hadza. There are no known lexical minimal pairs or grammatical use of stress/tone.
The specification of a programming language often includes a set of rules, the lexical grammar, which defines the lexical syntax. The lexical syntax is usually a regular language, with the grammar rules consisting of regular expressions; they define the set of possible character sequences (lexemes) of a token. A lexer recognizes strings, and for each kind of string found the lexical program takes an action, most simply producing a token. Two important common lexical categories are white space and comments.
Suffixes can carry grammatical information (inflectional suffixes) or lexical information (derivational/lexical suffixes). An inflectional suffix is sometimes called a desinence or a grammatical suffix.
In the following example, the lexical entry is associated with a lemma clergyman and two inflected forms clergyman and clergymen. The language coding is set for the whole lexical resource. The language value is set for the whole lexicon as shown in the following UML instance diagram. Image:LMFMorphoClergymanInflected.svg The elements Lexical Resource, Global Information, Lexicon, Lexical Entry, Lemma, and Word Form define the structure of the lexicon.
Reduplication is a major morphological process in Wandala, with different forms and functions that may be limited to one lexical category or shared across lexical categories. Partial reduplication gives the plural form of verbs and adjectives, while complete reduplication gives aspectual and modal forms of verbs, or derives adverbs from other lexical categories. Phrases can also be reduplicated. All lexical categories can have suffixes.
Once bilinguals acquire the lexical information from both languages, bilingual lexical access activates in language comprehension. "Lexical access incomprehension" is the process of how people make contact with lexical representation in their mental lexicon that contains the information, which enables them to understand the words or sentences. Word recognition is the most essential process of bilingual lexical access in language comprehension, in which researchers investigate the selective or non-selective recognition of isolated words. At the same time, sentence processing also plays an important role in language comprehension, where researchers can investigate if the presence of words in a sentence context restricts lexical access only to the target language.
In the research of bilingual lexical access, word recognition uses single, out-of- context words from both languages to investigate all the aspects of bilingual lexical access.
Because children with reading disorders (RD) have both slow reading speeds and impaired lexical routes, there are suggestions that the same processes are involved in lexical route and fast naming of words. Other studies have also confirmed this idea that rapid naming of words is more strongly correlated with orthographical knowledge (lexical route) than with phonological representations (sub-lexical route). Similar results were observed for patients with ADHD. Research concludes that reading disorders and ADHD have common properties: lexical route processing, rapid reading and sublexical route processing deficits as well.
In lexicography, a lexical item (or lexical unit / LU, lexical entry) is a single word, a part of a word, or a chain of words (catena) that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (≈ vocabulary). Examples are cat, traffic light, take care of, by the way, and it's raining cats and dogs. Lexical items can be generally understood to convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but are not limited to single words. Lexical items are like semes in that they are "natural units" translating between languages, or in learning a new language.
In linguistics, an etymological calque is a lexical item calqued from another language by replicating the etymology of the borrowed lexical item although this etymology is irrelevant for the meaning being borrowed.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / Most calques are not etymological.
The etymology of the English lexical item cocktail is maintained and visible within the Chinese etymological calque 鸡尾酒 jīwěijiǔ "cocktail". The Chinese lexical item 鸡尾酒 jīwěijiǔ "cocktail" means literally "chicken tail alcohol", and is thus an etymological calque of the English lexical item cocktail.
The Department of Lexical Studies deals with lexicological, lexicographical, and corpus-based research in which specific lexical fields are studied, enabling comprehensive documentation of the German vocabulary. Research is conducted in the following three areas: Lexicography and Documentation of Language, Lexical Syntagmatics and Empirical and Digital Lexical Studies. The Department of Pragmatics researches language use and language variation, that is, the form and development of linguistic diversity. In particular, spoken language usage is considered.
Oakland CA (Vol. 7).Ostler, N., & Atkins, B. T. S. (1992). Predictable meaning shift: some linguistic properties of lexical implication rules. In Lexical Semantics and knowledge representation (pp. 87–100).
A lexical conception of polysemy was developed by B. T. S. Atkins, in the form of lexical implication rules.Nicholas Ostler, B.T.S. Atkins "Predictable Meaning Shift: Some Linguistic Properties of Lexical Implication Rules" (1991) Proceedings of the First SIGLEX Workshop on Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Representation, Springer-Verlag. These are rules that describe how words, in one lexical context, can then be used, in a different form, in a related context. A crude example of such a rule is the pastoral idea of "verbizing one's nouns": that certain nouns, used in certain contexts, can be converted into a verb, conveying a related meaning.
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. The lexical item פעימות peimót, which literally means "beatings (of the heart)" is thus a euphemism for "withdrawal".
In linguistics a lexical verb or main verb is a member of an open class of verbs that includes all verbs except auxiliary verbs. Lexical verbs typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning. In contrast, auxiliary verbs express grammatical meaning. The verb phrase of a sentence is generally headed by a lexical verb.
An example of a lexical rule in spoken English is the deletion of /n/. This rule applies in damn and autumn, but not in hymnal. Because the rule of n-deletion apparently needs information about the grammatical status of the word, it can only be lexical. Lexical rules are the inverse of postlexical rules.
It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch.
It is a common source of neologisms and lexical replacement.
The dual route theory of reading proposes that skilled readers utilize two mechanisms when converting written language to spoken language: the direct, lexical pathway and the indirect, non-lexical pathway. According to the dual route theory of reading, in individuals with surface dyslexia, the indirect (non-lexical) pathway is preserved. However, the direct (lexical) pathway of reading is not. The indirect pathway of reading allows individuals with surface dyslexia to read regular words that follow a letter-sound or grapheme-to-phoneme conversion.
According to the lexical access model two different stages of cognition are employed; thus, this concept is known as the two-stage theory of lexical access. The first stage, lexical selection provides information about lexical items required to construct the functional level representation. These items are retrieved according to their specific semantic and syntactic properties, but phonological forms are not yet made available at this stage. The second stage, retrieval of wordforms, provides information required for building the positional level representation.
" The most commonly discussed subtypes are probably two versions of weak negative utilitarianism called 'lexical' and 'lexical threshold' negative utilitarianism. According to 'lexical' negative utilitarianism, positive utility gets weight only when outcomes are equal with respect to disutility. That is, positive utility functions as a tiebreaker in that it determines which outcome is better (or less bad) when the outcomes considered have equal disutility.: "The claim that disutility has greater weight can now be expressed by letting the disutilities have greater lexical weight.
Lexical diversity is one aspect of 'lexical richness' and refers to the ratio of different unique word stems (types) to the total number of words (tokens). The term is used in applied linguistics and is quantitatively calculated using numerous different measures including Text-Type Ratio (TTR), vocd, and the measure of textual lexical diversity (MTLD). A common problem with lexical diversity measures, especially TTR, is that text samples containing large number of tokens give lower values for TTR since it is often necessary for the writer or speaker to re-use several function words. One consequence of this is that lexical diversity is better used for comparing texts of equal length.
In contrast to the limited effects of lexical borrowing, phonetic, syntactic, or morphological convergence can have greater consequences, as converging patterns can influence an entire system rather than only a handful of lexical items.
It is called Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia. Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia is when people can “taste” words. They have reported having flavor sensations they aren’t actually eating. When they read words, hear words, or even imagine words.
The compiler generated by Yacc requires a lexical analyzer. Lexical analyzer generators, such as lex or flex are widely available. The IEEE POSIX P1003.2 standard defines the functionality and requirements for both Lex and Yacc.
Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Paez.
Instead it relies more heavily on lexical and syntactic grammatical processes.
Similar calques are the way of women (דרך נשים) "menstruation" and flowing with milk and honey (זבת חלב ודבש) "abundance". Sometimes Hebraisms can be coined using non-Hebrew structure. For example, the Yiddish lexical item ישיבה בחור yeshive bokher, meaning "Yeshivah student", uses a Germanic structure but two Hebrew lexical items.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew.
The use of lexical chains in natural language processing tasks (e.g., text similarity, word sense disambiguation, document clustering) has been widely studied in the literature. Barzilay et al use lexical chains to produce summaries from texts. They propose a technique based on four steps: segmentation of original text, construction of lexical chains, identification of reliable chains, and extraction of significant sentences.
While a large portion of its lexicon obviously cannot be derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, it remains unclear whether this represents a non-Austronesian substratum from an unknown source language, or the result of internally-driven lexical replacement.. He notes that Enggano possesses many aberrant phonological features (such as a small phonological inventory) and a low lexical retention rate, which is more typical of Austronesian languages spoken in eastern Indonesia and Melanesia than rather than those of western Indonesia. Enggano's lexical retention rate (i.e., percentage of lexical items that are cognate with reconstructed Proto- Austronesian forms) is only 21% (46 out of 217 words), while the lexical retention rate for Malay is 59% (132.5 out of 223 words). Some non- Austronesian languages in Southeast Asia, such as Nancowry, Semelai, and Abui also have low lexical retention rates.
In contrast, state Stubbs and Biber, instructions, law enforcement orders, news read from screen prompts within the allotted time, and literature that authors expect will be available to the reader for re-reading tend to maximize lexical density. In surveys of lexical density of spoken and written materials across different European countries and age groups, Johansson and Strömqvist report that the lexical density of population groups were similar and depended on the morphological structure of the native language and within a country, the age groups sampled. The lexical density was highest for adults, while the variations estimated as lexical diversity, states Johansson, were higher for teenagers for the same age group (13-year olds, 17-year olds).
In order to evaluate automatic systems on lexical substitution, a task was organized at the Semeval-2007 evaluation competition held in Prague in 2007. A Semeval-2010 task on cross-lingual lexical substitution has also taken place.
Almost all lexical items in Beary Bashe can be related to corresponding lexical items in Malayalam, Tulu or Perso-Arabic origin., p.79 However, some equivalents can only be found in Mappila dialects of Malayalam in Kerala.
The former is the set of all lexemes (hence, the source of the Lexeme Ordering), and the latter is the set of all lexical words (hence, the source of the Lexical Word Ordering), of the idiolect system.
The lexical route can be thought of as a dictionary lookup procedure.
The Acquisition of Word Meaning through Global Lexical Co-occurrences. Young Children.
Wandala has the lexical categories of noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and predicator.
Many grammars draw a distinction between lexical categories and functional categories.For examples of grammars that draw a distinction between lexical and functional categories, see for instance Fowler (1971:36, 40), Emonds (1976:13), Cowper (1992:173ff.), Culicover (1997:142), Haegeman and Guéron (1999:58), Falk (2001:34ff.), Carnie (2007:45f.). This distinction is orthogonal to the distinction between lexical categories and phrasal categories. In this context, the term lexical category applies only to those parts of speech and their phrasal counterparts that form open classes and have full semantic content.
Field Linguist's Toolbox (usually called Toolbox) is a precursor of FLEx and has been one of the most widely used language documentation packages for some decades. Previously known as Shoebox, Toolbox's primary functions are construction of a lexical database, and interlinearization of texts through interaction with the lexical database. Both lexical database and texts can be exported to a word processing environment, in the case of the lexical database using the Multi-Dictionary Formatter (MDF) conversion tool. It is also possible to use Toolbox as a transcription environment.
Engineering Summer Conferences, 1967 while the term "lexical scoping" dates at least to 1970, where it was used in Project MAC to describe the scope rules of the Lisp dialect MDL (then known as "Muddle"). "lexical scoping", , 1970.
DATR is a language for lexical knowledge representation. The lexical knowledge is encoded in a network of nodes. Each node has a set of attributes encoded with it. A node can represent a word or a word form.
Common types of lexical items/chunks include:Concerning types of lexical chunks, see M. Lewis (1997). #Words, e.g. cat, tree #Parts of words, e.g. -s in trees, -er in worker, non- in nondescript, -est in loudest #Phrasal verbs, e.g.
Lexical scope was used for the imperative language ALGOL 60 and has been picked up in most other imperative languages since then.Borning A. CSE 341 -- Lexical and Dynamic Scoping. University of Washington. Languages like Pascal and C have always had lexical scope, since they are both influenced by the ideas that went into ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68 (although C did not include lexically nested functions).
For example the word bass can be pronounced one way to mean fish or another way to represent a musical instrument. When words like this are presented to a reader, no specific lexical item is activated. Instead, two lexical items activated through semantic judgment and lexical decision while naming the word. Ambiguous words consist of the same spelling but have two or more meanings.
Dependency grammars do not acknowledge phrasal categories in the way that phrase structure grammars do. What this means is that the distinction between lexical and phrasal categories disappears, the result being that only lexical categories are acknowledged. The tree representations are simpler because the number of nodes and categories is reduced, e.g. ::Syntactic categories DG The distinction between lexical and phrasal categories is absent here.
A lexical rule is in a form of syntactic rule used within many theories of natural language syntax. These rules alter the argument structures of lexical items (for example verbs and declensions) in order to alter their combinatory properties. Lexical rules affect in particular specific word classes and morphemes. Moreover, they may have exceptions, do not apply across word boundaries and can only apply to underlying forms.
For bilingual and multilingual lexical resources, the words may be connected or not connected from one language to another. When connected, the equivalence from a language to another is performed through a bilingual link (for bilingual lexical resources, e.g., using the relation vartrans:translatableAs in OntoLex-Lemon) or through multilingual notations (for multilingual lexical resources, e.g., by reference to the same ontolex:Concept in OntoLex-Lemon).
Patients have difficulty generating names, especially with phonological tasks such as words starting with a certain letter. They also have word-retrieval difficulties in spontaneous speech but still have relatively preserved naming of presented stimuli. Later, loss of naming of low-frequency lexical items occurs. Eventually, the loss of ability to comprehend and name the same lexical item indicates semantic loss of the lexical item.
Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning. It is related to the broader concept of coherence. There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion, which is based on structural content—and lexical cohesion, which is based on lexical content and background knowledge. A cohesive text is created in many different ways.
The cohort model relies on a number of concepts in the theory of lexical retrieval. The lexicon is the store of words in a person's mind.;, The Free Dictionary it contains a person's vocabulary and is similar to a mental dictionary. A lexical entry is all the information about a word and the lexical storage is the way the items are stored for peak retrieval.
Language blocking and lexical access in bilinguals. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39(2), 295-319. If the answer is "yes", it might suggest the other possibility that the recognition of a word is processed in parallel for both languages and the lexical information of both languages are activated, in which case lexical access is language non- selective.Kroll, J. F., & Tokowicz, N. (2005).
Silber and McCoy also investigates text summarization, but their approach for constructing the lexical chains runs in linear time. Some authors use WordNet to improve the search and evaluation of lexical chains. Budanitsky and Kirst compare several measurements of semantic distance and relatedness using lexical chains in conjunction with WordNet. Their study concludes that the similarity measure of Jiang and Conrath presents the best overall result.
Lexical semantics may not be understood without a brief exploration of its history.
Cognitive lexical semantics is thought to be most productive of the current approaches.
McMahon, A., Lexical Phonology and the History of English, CUP 2000, p. 179.
Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with the Cariban languages.
This contrasts with lexical input which is lexically supplied and therefore language-specific.
However, the individual islands Wuvulu and Aua have a lexical and phonological distinction.
In 1985, Halliday revised the denominator of the Ure formula and proposed the following to compute the lexical density of a sentence: :: In some formulations, the Halliday proposed lexical density is computed as a simple ratio, without the "100" multiplier.
On the other hand, the processing that takes place in the lexical pathway appears to be more automatic, since the word-sound units in it are pre-assembled. Lexical processing is thus considered to be more passive, consuming less attentional resources.
Researchers also began to investigate the cognitive nature of bilingual lexical access in context by examining word recognition in sentences.Schwartz, A. I., & Kroll, J. F. (2006). Bilingual lexical activation in sentence context. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(2), 197-212.
Photocopy of handwritten ms.Doriot, Roger E. 1991. 6-2-3-4 Trek, April-May, 1991. Ms. Foley (2018) notes that Kembra has some lexical forms resembling Lepki, but not Murkim, hinting at lexical borrowing between Kembra and Lepki, but not Murkim.
One of the biggest challenges to defining the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis is in identifying the domain that syntax governs, the domain that morphology governs, and how these two constructs interact. Questions to be entertained, for example, are what constitutes a word and the point in which lexical insertion merges with sentence-level operations. is frequently used as a foundation for many explorations of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis. In this book, linguists Anna Maria Di Sciullo and Edwin S. Williams explore the concept of word atomicity, as well as the framing of syntax within the idea of a "sentence form" wherein sentences are skeletal placeholders of lexical items, such as listemes, which are lexical constituents that are stored in the lexicon as opposed to generated by rules.
Simply put, grammaticalization is the process in which a lexical word or a word cluster loses some or all of its lexical meaning and starts to fulfil a more grammatical function. Where grammaticalization takes place, nouns and verbs which carry certain lexical meaning develop over time into grammatical items such as auxiliaries, case markers, inflections, and sentence connectives. A well-known example of grammaticalization is that of the process in which the lexical cluster let us, for example in "let us eat", is reduced to let's as in "let's you and me fight". Here, the phrase has lost its lexical meaning of "allow us" and has become an auxiliary introducing a suggestion, the pronoun 'us' reduced first to a suffix and then to an unanalyzed phoneme.
However, deep dyslexics also produce semantic errors while reading, alluding to damage in this pathway as well. Other researchers refer to the phonological and semantic route as "modules". They believe that patients have a partially functioning lexical module and a completely deficient nonlexical module. The lexical module is analogous to the semantic route in the dual route model and relies on lexical memory, or the memory for words, to name words.
Psycholinguists have shown that when people speak to each other, they agree on a common interpretation via lexical alignment;S Brennan and H Clark (1996). Conceptual Pacts and Lexical Choice in Conversation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 22:1482-1493 this is not something which NLG systems can yet do. Ultimately, lexical choice must deal with the fundamental issue of how language relates to the non-linguistic world.
Like MacLisp, Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scope, offering static (or lexical) as an option starting from version 24. It can be activated by setting the file local variable `lexical-binding`. In dynamic scoping, if a programmer declares a variable within the scope of a function, it is available to subroutines called from within that function. Originally, this was intended as an optimization; lexical scoping was still uncommon and of uncertain performance.
Integrational Semantics treats lexical meanings (i.e., meanings of morphological or syntactic paradigms and their forms) as entities entirely different from syntactic meanings (meanings of simple or complex syntactic constituents obtained through syntactic meaning composition). Consequently, meaning composition, too, is construed differently for lexical and for syntactic meanings. Integrational Lexical Semantics (with Integrational Morphosemantics and Integrational Word Semantics as its parts) combines the psychological and the realist traditions in semantics.
The question of whether the presentation of words in a sentence context restricts lexical access to words of the target language only is studied mostly in bilinguals' second language (L2) processing. This sentence context effect might be an efficient strategy to speed up the lexical search because it reduces the number of lexical candidates. For example, Elston-Guttler et al.Elston-Güttler, K. E., Gunter, T. C., & Kotz, S. A. (2005).
Arends et al. classify an intertwined language as a language that "has lexical morphemes from one language and grammatical morphemes from another". This definition does not include Michif, which combines French lexical items in specific contexts, but still utilizes Cree lexical and grammatical items. Yaron Matras distinguishes between three types of models for mixed language: "language maintenance and language shift, unique and predetermined processes ("intertwining"), and conventionalisation of language mixing patterns".
The form of a lexical item may undergo different changes from its grammaticalised counterpart.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Arawakan languages due to contact.
There are phonological and lexical innovations which identify Goyaz Jê as a valid group.
Its lexical similarity to the y'all of the United States is attributed to coincidence.
Mother and child interaction has a positive influence on cognitive skills and lexical development.
Most modern languages use lexical scope for variables and functions, though dynamic scope is used in some languages, notably some dialects of Lisp, some "scripting" languages, and some template languages. Perl 5 offers both lexical and dynamic scope. Even in lexically scoped languages, scope for closures can be confusing to the uninitiated, as these depend on the lexical context where the closure is defined, not where it is called. Lexical resolution can be determined at compile time, and is also known as early binding, while dynamic resolution can in general only be determined at run time, and thus is known as late binding.
At that time, lexical scope in Lisp was commonly feared to be inefficient to implement. In A History of T, Olin Shivers writes: > All serious Lisps in production use at that time were dynamically scoped. No > one who hadn't carefully read the Rabbit thesis (written by Guy Lewis Steele > Jr. in 1978) believed lexical scope would fly; even the few people who had > read it were taking a bit of a leap of faith that this was going to work in > serious production use. The term "lexical scope" dates at least to 1967,"lexical scope", , University of Michigan.
Some concepts are often grammaticalized, while others, such as evidentiality, are not so much. For an understanding of this process, a distinction needs to be made between lexical items, or content words, which carry specific lexical meaning, and grammatical items, or function words, with little or no lexical meaning, which serve to express grammatical relationships between the different words in an utterance. Grammaticalization has been defined as "the change whereby lexical items and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions".Hopper & Traugott 2003, p. 1.
Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages."Dravidian languages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
This probably occurs because wood is a word but woot is not. An ambiguous phoneme presented in a lexical context will be perceived as consistent with the surrounding lexical context. This perceptual effect is known as the Ganong effect.Ganong, W. F. (1980).
Some relations between lexical items include hyponymy, hypernymy, synonymy, and antonymy, as well as homonymy.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Choco languages due to contact.
Bresnan, J. (2001). Lexical- functional syntax. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Di Biase, B., & Kawaguchi, S. (2002).
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Nambikwaran languages due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Mochica language due to contact.
A fair amount of lexical data was collected before the majority of languages became extinct.
Bilingual lexical access in context: Evidence from eye movements during reading. Journal of experimental psychology.
146 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan.
Lexical semantics also explores whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established by looking at its neighbourhood in the semantic net, (words it occurs with in natural sentences), or whether the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit. In English, WordNet is an example of a semantic network. It contains English words that are grouped into synsets. Some semantic relations between these synsets are meronymy, hyponymy, synonymy, and antonymy.
The CCG formalism defines a number of combinators (application, composition, and type-raising being the most common). These operate on syntactically-typed lexical items, by means of Natural deduction style proofs. The goal of the proof is to find some way of applying the combinators to a sequence of lexical items until no lexical item is unused in the proof. The resulting type after the proof is complete is the type of the whole expression.
However, the specific difference between low/high and falling/rising is marked in the IPA transcription. While tone in Mixtepec Mixtec is used to mark lexical distinctions, it can also be used to express morpho-syntactic, morpho- semantic, and adverbial functions. In certain phonetic and lexical context lexical tones, phonological tone may be realized over multiple phonetic units, including non-vowels. More specifically, this can be seen occurring with glides and nasals.
The elements form a catena insofar as they are linked together by dependencies. Some dependency grammar trees containing multiple-word lexical items that are catenae but not constituents are now produced. The following trees illustrate phrasal verbs: ::Lexical item trees 1 The verb and particle (in red) in each case constitute a particle verb construction, which is a single lexical item. The two words remain a catena even as shifting changes their order of appearance.
In computer science, a lexical grammar is a formal grammar defining the syntax of tokens. The program is written using characters that are defined by the lexical structure of the language used. The character set is equivalent to the alphabet used by any written language. The lexical grammar lays down the rules governing how a character sequence is divided up into subsequences of characters, each part of which represents an individual token.
A concept that can be expressed using a single word is called a lexical concept. A lexical concept is usually treated as a basic concept, although it can just as easily be a complex concept. Two lexical concepts are often used together as phrases to represent a combined concept of greater specificity. This is most readily seen in the use of adjectives to modify nouns and the use of adverbs to modify verbs and adjectives.
Clark notes that Peruvian, Bolivian, Ecuadorian and Colombian sign languages "have significant lexical similarities to each other" and "contain a certain degree of lexical influence from ASL" as well (30% in the case of PSL), at least going by the forms in national dictionaries. Chilean and Argentinian share these traits, though to a lesser extent. Clark counts the lexical similarities to Peruvian SL as Ecuadorian (54%), Bolivian (53%), Colombian (47%), Chilean (41%), and Argentinean (33%).
The lexical aspect or aktionsart (, plural aktionsarten ) of a verb is part of the way in which that verb is structured in relation to time. Any event, state, process, or action that a verb expresses (collectively, any eventuality) may also be said to have the same lexical aspect. Lexical aspect is distinguished from grammatical aspect by being an inherent (semantic) property of an eventuality. Grammatical aspect is a (syntactic or morphological) property of a realization.
Mire, or Mulgi, is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in the southwestern Chadian prefectures of Tandjile Prefecture and Lai Prefecture. Most of the speakers, who generally practice traditional religions or Christianity, speak Ndam (65% lexical similarity) or Kimré (32% lexical similarity) as a second language.
Lieber's monograph, Morphology and Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), is the first attempt to develop a theory of the lexical semantics of derivation and compounding. In addition to several monographs, she is the author of numerous articles and book chapters on morphology.
The lexical density may also impact the memorability and retention of a sentence and the message.
Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages.
Taleb gravesite is unknown.Daniela Menghini Correale, Taleb: Concordance and Lexical Repertoiries of 1000 Lines, Venice, 1990.
Additionally, various regions of the Ottawa Valley may possess their own vocabularies (lexical features) as well.
Particular attention will be paid to their interactional competence, fluency, lexical and grammar adequacy and pronunciation.
In a survey of historical texts by Michael Stubbs, the typical lexical density of fictional literature ranged between 40% and 54%, while non-fiction ranged between 40% and 65% percent. The relation and intimacy between the participants of a particular communication impact the lexical density, states Ure, as do the circumstances prior to the start of communication for the same speaker or writer. The higher lexical density of written forms of communication, she proposed, is primarily because written forms of human communication involve greater preparation, reflection and revisions. Human discussions and conversations involving or anticipating feedback tend to be sparser and have lower lexical density.
Dyirbal, a language of the Cairns rain forest in Northern Queensland, employs a system known as the affinal taboo index. Speakers of the language maintain two sets of lexical items: 1) an "everyday" or common interaction set of lexical items and 2) a "mother-in- law" set that is employed when the speaker is in the very distinct context of interaction with their mother-in-law. In this particular system of deference indices, speakers have developed an entirely separate lexicon (there are roughly four "everyday" lexical entries for every one "mother-in-law" lexical entry; 4:1) to index deference in contexts inclusive of the mother-in-law.
A key distinction in resource management within a program is between lexical management and explicit management – whether a resource can be handled as having a lexical scope, such as a stack variable (lifetime is restricted to a single lexical scope, being acquired on entry to or within a particular scope, and released when execution exits that scope), or whether a resource must be explicitly allocated and released, such as a resource acquired within a function and then returned from it, which must then be released outside of the acquiring function. Lexical management, when applicable, allows a better separation of concerns and is less error-prone.
Though not referred to by name, the earliest theoretical beginnings of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis seems to be from , while linguist Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy interestingly attributes it to , even though Bresnan and Mchombo themselves refer to the Lexical Integrity Principle as a given concept within the linguistics canon. While today they are generally distinct theories, the LIH is historically referred to interchangeably with the Lexicalist Hypothesis, making the origin of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis as a concept distinct from the Lexicalist hypothesis difficult to pinpoint. However, Bruening (2008) attributes the Lexicalist hypothesis, of which the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis is a subset, to Chomsky (1970).
Out of over a thousand Austronesian languages, there are only a dozen with lexical tone; in this case it appears to be a remnant of shift from Papuan languages. Lexical tone is found only in final syllables.Arnold, Laura. 2018. ‘A preliminary archaeology of tone in Raja Ampat’.
In digital lexicography, natural language processing, and digital humanities, a lexical resource is a language resource consisting of one or several dictionaries, e.g., in the form of a database (Gil Francopoulo).SARMA, Shikhar Kr, et al. Building multilingual lexical resources using wordnets: Structure, design and implementation.
Finite automata are often used in the frontend of programming language compilers. Such a frontend may comprise several finite-state machines that implement a lexical analyzer and a parser. Starting from a sequence of characters, the lexical analyzer builds a sequence of language tokens (such as reserved words, literals, and identifiers) from which the parser builds a syntax tree. The lexical analyzer and the parser handle the regular and context-free parts of the programming language's grammar.
Approximately 2%-4% of the population has some form of synesthesia. An even smaller percentage, around 0.2% or lower, have lexical-gustatory synesthesia. There appears to be a strongly linked genetic component to neurological cross-linking phenomenon. Lexical-gustatory synesthesia and other forms of synesthesia are familial, meaning that they are passed on through a family As many as 40% of synesthetes have an immediate family member with synesthesia. For example, PS’s mother also had lexical gustatory synesthesia.
She has worked on both the syntax of Germanic languages and on the development of Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG), with excursions into lexical semantics. Her contributions to the theory of Lexical Functional Grammar are in the development of notions such as long-distance dependencies, functional uncertainty and the difference between subsumption and equality. She has had 27 scientific publications between 1996 and 2008,. Zaenen is also known for her sharp commentary on research trends in Computational Linguistics.
They tend to be inclusive, attempting to capture everything the term is used to refer to, and as such are often too vague for many purposes. When the breadth or vagueness of a lexical definition is unacceptable, a precising definition or a stipulative definition is often used. Words can be classified as lexical or nonlexical. Lexical words are those that have independent meaning (such as a Noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (Adv), or preposition (P).
Macro systems—such as the C preprocessor described earlier—that work at the level of lexical tokens cannot preserve the lexical structure reliably. Syntactic macro systems work instead at the level of abstract syntax trees, and preserve the lexical structure of the original program. The most widely used implementations of syntactic macro systems are found in Lisp-like languages. These languages are especially suited for this style of macro due to their uniform, parenthesized syntax (known as S-expressions).
An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language that through its prestige is a source of lexical borrowings to another. Generally, the term is used about languages in particular geolinguistic or geopolitical contexts. For example, early in England's history, Old Norse contributed an adstrate to the lexical structure of Old English.For example, take replaced earlier niman in the lexical slot of a transitive verb for "to take", though archaic forms of to nim survived in England.
Bilingual lexical access is an area of psycholinguistics that studies the activation or retrieval process of the mental lexicon for bilingual people. Bilingual lexical access can be understood as all aspects of the word processing, including all of the mental activity from the time when a word from one language is perceived to the time when all its lexical knowledge from the target language is available.De Groot, A. M. (2011). Language and cognition in bilinguals and multilingual: An introduction.
Most current studies of bilingual lexical access are based on the comprehension of isolated words without considering whether contextual information affects lexical access in bilinguals. However, in everyday communication, words are most often encountered in a meaningful context and not in isolation (e.g. in a newspaper article). Research done by Déprez (1994) has shown that mixed utterances in children are not limited to the lexical level but also in the areas of morphology, syntax, and pronunciation.
Some varieties of English make distinctions in stressed vowels that are not captured by the 24 lexical sets. For example, some Irish and Scottish accents that have not undergone the fern–fir–fur merger split the lexical set into multiple subsets. For such accents, the 24 Wells lexical sets may be inadequate. Because of this, a work devoted to Irish English may split the Wells set into two subsets, a new, smaller set and a set.
The syntactic and lexical analyses correspond in the following ways: In the lexical accounts, the causative alternation takes place at the level of the lexical conceptual structure (LCS), while in the syntactic accounts, the alternation happens at the level of the syntax, as a result of the interaction between the syntactic structure and the basic verbal element. In the lexical accounts [x CHANGE] corresponds with the layered process phrase (procP) and the result phrase (resP) in the syntactic account. The [y CAUSE [x CHANGE in the lexical accounts corresponds with the process phrase (procP), the result P (resP) along with initiator phrase (initP), which is the additional verbal layer in the syntactic account. The presence of this additional verbal layer (initP) is what distinguishes the causative/transitive variant from the anticausative/instransitive variant in the syntactic account.
Village names with lexical components meaning red (kizil), bell (çan), church (kilise, e.g. Kirk Kilise) were changed.
Like all other Eskimo languages, the morphology is rather complex. A description grouped by lexical categories follows.
The vocabulary collected by Wood accounts for the majority of lexical data we currently have of Nottoway.
Some examples of lexical items in Mochica from Hovdhaugen (2004):Hovdhaugen, Even (2004). Mochica. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
18 (MIT Press 1996).Munat, Judith. Lexical Creativity, Texts and Context, p. 148 (John Benjamins Publishing, 2007).
Lexical access, according to this model, is a process that encompasses two serially ordered and independent stages.
The extensive lexical data and transcriptions are stored in a digitized data bank for researchers to access.
Cofán is a language isolate. Some scholars claim Cofán is not classified into a language family. The language does exhibit some lexical similarities to Chibchan, a geographically neighboring language. However, evidence of the lexical influence Chibchan has on Cofán does not prove any genetic relationship between the two languages.
These results potentially mediate between the pre-lexical and lexical hypotheses by showing that both levels of representation may be seen in the VWFA, but at different latencies after reading a word. Previous studies using fMRI did not have the temporal resolution to differentiate between these two stages.
Unfortunately often the semantics were different. These earlier Lisps implemented lexical scoping in the compiler and dynamic scoping in the interpreter. Common Lisp requires that both the interpreter and compiler use lexical scoping by default. The Common Lisp standard describes both the semantics of the interpreter and a compiler.
Clark notes that Peruvian, Bolivian, Ecuadorian and Colombian sign languages "have significant lexical similarities to each other" and "contain a certain degree of lexical influence from ASL" as well, at least going by the forms in national dictionaries. Chilean and Argentine share these traits, though to a lesser extent.
This system first appeared around 2000 BC; its structure reflects the decimal lexical numerals of Semitic languages rather than Sumerian lexical numbers. However, the use of a special Sumerian sign for 60 (beside two Semitic signs for the same number) attests to a relation with the Sumerian system.
Clark notes that Peruvian, Bolivian, Ecuadorian and Colombian sign languages "have significant lexical similarities to each other" and "contain a certain degree of lexical influence from ASL" as well, at least going by the forms in national dictionaries. Chilean and Argentinian share these traits, though to a lesser extent.
IndoWordNetPushpak Bhattacharyya, IndoWordNet, Lexical Resources Engineering Conference 2010 (LREC 2010), Malta, May, 2010. is a linked lexical knowledge base of wordnets of 18 scheduled languages of India, viz., Assamese, Bangla, Bodo, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri), Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.
Lexical variation between BASL and other dialects of ASL was first noted in the Dictionary of American Sign Language.Stokoe 1965, pp. 313–19 In a later study of 34 lexical signs, Black signers were found to have 28 signs that White signers did not know.Lucas and McCaskill 2014, p.
He also favoured o in successive syllables to u, as is common in the South Estonian dialects. Aavik considered many of his neologisms as created out of nothing (see ex nihilo lexical enrichment). However, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, many of Aavik's neologisms were influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish (Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French).Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew.
The type 2 categories are given by the 'Lexical Word Ordering', a classification system on the set of all lexical words of the idiolect system. Both the Syntactic Unit Ordering and the Lexical Word Ordering are components of the syntactic part of an idiolect system. Any syntactic unit can be assigned at least one syntactic structure. The syntactic structures of a unit are to jointly represent all formal information (including intonation) that is relevant with respect to the syntactic meanings of the unit.
Early research of bilingual lexical access was based on theories of monolingual lexical access. These theories relied mainly upon generalizations without specifying how lexical access works. Subsequent advancement in medical science has improved understanding of psycholinguistics, resulting in more detailed research and a deeper understanding of language production. "Many early studies of second language acquisition focused on the morphosyntactic development of learners and the general finding was that bound morphemes appear in the same order in the first and second language".
The lexical form would be "give", verb. There are two kinds of morphological dictionaries: aligned and non-aligned.
Springer, Dordrecht. Susan Rothstein. 2008. Structuring Events: A Study in the Semantics of Lexical Aspect. Susan Rothstein. 2010.
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics.
Subjectification is realized in lexical and grammatical change. It is also of interest to cognitive linguistics and pragmatics.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Kwaza, Aikanã, and the Nambikwaran languages due to contact.
Linguistics 49, 175–228. Just as with lexical phrasemes, morphological phrasemes can be either compositional or non-compositional.
The vocabulary, too, will develop to contain more and more items according to a rationale of lexical enrichment.
The same study showed 60.6% lexical similarity between Dongotono and Lotuko, and 56.5% similarity between Dongotono and Lokoya.
This shows that hemispheric asymmetry for lexical processing is not altered by having a reading disability. Finally, responses in the pseudoword condition were slower when people with phonological dyslexia were only using their left hemisphere which suggests that there's more reliance on lexical processing by the right hemisphere than non-lexical processing by the left hemisphere. This research has furthered the knowledge of inter-hemispheric communication in people with reading disabilities so that now inter-hemispheric communication for the processing of unfamiliar and pseudowords is all that is needed to help people with phonological dyslexia develop a non-lexical strategy. The identification of a critical time period in which an intervention should take place is also needed.
A fundamental distinction in scope is what "part of a program" means. In languages with lexical scope (also called static scope), name resolution depends on the location in the source code and the lexical context (also called static context), which is defined by where the named variable or function is defined. In contrast, in languages with dynamic scope the name resolution depends upon the program state when the name is encountered which is determined by the execution context (also called runtime context, calling context or dynamic context). In practice, with lexical scope a name is resolved by searching the local lexical context, then if that fails by searching the outer lexical context, and so on, whereas with dynamic scope a name is resolved by searching the local execution context, then if that fails by searching the outer execution context, and so on, progressing up the call stack.
The Lisp family splits over the use of dynamic or static (a.k.a. lexical) scope. Clojure, Common Lisp and Scheme make use of static scoping by default, while newLISP, Picolisp and the embedded languages in Emacs and AutoCAD use dynamic scoping. Since version 24.1, Emacs uses both dynamic and lexical scoping.
English fell (as in "Paul felled the tree") can be thought of as a lexical causative of fall ("the tree fell"), exemplifying this category. This is considered a lexical change because it is not at all productive. If it were productive, it would be an internal change morphological causative (below).
There also appears to be activation in the right hemisphere during most language tasks. Language-related areas are dedicated to certain components of language processing (e.g. lexical semantics). These areas are functionally characterized by linguistically pertinent systems, such as phonology, syntax, and lexical semantics—and not in speaking, reading, and listening.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawak, Leko, and Omurano language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Bororo, Tupi, and Karib language families due to contact.
Other sources of vocabulary are Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Finally Kannada, Marathi, and Portuguese have enriched its lexical content.
A multilingual notation is a representation in a lexical resource that allows the translation between two or more words.
') : ('he did it?!') All these sentences have the same lexical and grammatical structure. The differences are in their intonation.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kayuvava, Tupi, and Arawak language families due to contact.
In contrast, in the lexical accounts, the causative is determined by the presence of a causative predicate ([y CAUSE]).
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kwaza, Zaparoan, and Nambikwaran language families due to contact.
Lexical sets have also been used to describe the pronunciation of other languages, such as French, Irish and Scots.
It is nearly intelligible with Satawalese, with an 18 percent intelligibility and an 82 percent lexical similarity, and Puluwatese, with a 75 percent intelligibility and an 83 percent lexical similarity. The language today has become mutually intelligible with Chuukese, though marked with a distinct Mortlockese accent. Linguistic patterns show that Mortlockese is converging with Chuukese since Mortlockese now has an 80 to 85 percent lexical similarity. There are approximately five to seven thousand speakers of Mortlockese in the Mortlock Islands, Guam, Hawaii, and the United States.
In exploring the Lexical Quality Hypothesis Charles Perfetti focuses on analyzing the brain’s fundamentals of being able to read. In Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to comprehension, Perfetti states, that differences in characteristics of word comprehension impacts reading ability and comprehension. High-lexical qualities partly involve the spelling of a word as well as the manipulation of meaning about a word which allows meaning retrieval at a rapid pace. However, low quality representations of a word promote word-related difficulties in comprehension of a text.
Migliazza has presented lexical evidence in support of a genetic relationship between the Panoan and Yanomaman languages. He also urges that a Panoan–Chibchan relationship is plausible.American Indian Languages, Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, Campbell, Lyle, 2000. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawakan languages due to contact.
There are three main types of verbs in Yolmo, lexical verbs, auxiliary verbs and copula verbs. The lexical verbs inflect for tense, aspect, mood and evidence and can take negation. The infinitive form of verbs takes the suffix -tɕe. The infinitive is used in a number of constructions, including the habitual and complementation.
Moldovan and Adrian study the use of lexical chains for finding topically related words for question answering systems. This is done considering the glosses for each synset in WordNet. According to their findings, topical relations via lexical chains improve the performance of question answering systems when combined with WordNet. McCarthy et al.
The clang compiler has two mechanisms. The original, simpler and less powerful, mechanism was pretokenized headers where the stream of lexical tokens in one or more source files is stored in what is in effect a token cache, from which they can be more quickly retrieved in subsequent compilations than performing lexical analysis again on the original source files. Compared to a full precompiled header mechanism this has the advantages of language independence, as lexical analysis is the same in clang for the C, C++, Objective C, and Objective C++ languages, and architecture independence, as the same stream of tokens can be used when compiling for different target architectures. It however has the disadvantage of not going any further than simple lexical analysis, requiring that syntactic and semantic analysis of the token stream be performed with every compilation; and the time to compile scaling linearly with the size, in lexical tokens, of the pretokenized file, which is not necessarily the case for a fully-fledged precompilation mechanism.
Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with the Barbacoan languages due to contact.
Saponi shares half of its basic lexical vocabulary with Rasawa, but its pronouns instead resemble those of East Bird's Head.
Lexical roots are disyllabic. Final syllables are typically (C)V((C)C). Non-final are typically ((C)C)V(C).
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Irantxe, Puinave-Kak, and Arawa language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawak, Bororo, Takana, and Tupi language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Uru-Chipaya, Yurakare, and Pano language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Urarina, Arawak, Zaparo, and Leko language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Cholon-Hibito, Kechua, and Mochika language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Karib, Puinave-Nadahup, and Tupi language families due to contact.
This approach is highly developed within Construction grammarConcerning Construction Grammar, see Goldberg (2006). and has had some influence in Head-Driven Phrase Structure GrammarConcerning Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, see Pollard and Sag (1994). and Lexical Functional Grammar,Concerning Lexical Functional Grammar, see Bresnan (2001). the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.
Cassandre also provided meta-data and some lexical analysis (words counts) accessible through the Porphyry sidebar, a Firefox add-on. Cassandre second version surfaced in 2010. Initially designed as PHP/SQL server (first MySQL then PostgreSQL), Cassandre was refactored as a CouchDB application. Lexical analysis was optimized and included in the per text view.
Vietnamese lexical categories (or "parts of speech") consist of nouns, demonstrative noun modifiers, articles, classifiers, numerals, quantifiers, the focus marker particle, verbs, adverbial particles, prepositions. The syntax of each lexical category and its associated phrase (i.e., the syntactic constituents below the sentence level) is detailed below. Attention is paid to both form and function.
Kholosi is definitively known to be an Indo-Aryan language albeit with significant lexical borrowing from Iranian languages given its geographical location. At the lexical level, it seems to share vocabulary largely with the Sindhi languages, which are the source of other Indo-Aryan migrations to the Middle East such as Luwati in Oman.
Many of Leti's lexical items are organised into lexical pairs, which are always deployed as fixed combinations in a fixed order. A few pairs involve adjectives or numerals, but the vast majority consist of nouns (e.g. püata // müani 'woman // man', üèra // vatu 'water // stone') or verbs (e.g. kili // toli 'look // see', keri // kòi 'scratch / scrape').
Even though the applicability of lexical chains is diverse, there is little work exploring them with recent advances in NLP, more specifically with word embeddings. In, lexical chains are built using specific patterns found on WordNet and used for learning word embeddings. Their resulting vectors, are validated in the document similarity task. Gonzales et al.
Hale and Keyser 1990 structure Kenneth Hale and Samuel Jay Keyser introduced their thesis on lexical argument structure during the early 1990s. They argue that a predicate's argument structure is represented in the syntax, and that the syntactic representation of the predicate is a lexical projection of its arguments. Thus, the structure of a predicate is strictly a lexical representation, where each phrasal head projects its argument onto a phrasal level within the syntax tree. The selection of this phrasal head is based on Chomsky's Empty Category Principle.
The lexical density for an individual evolves with age, education, communication style, circumstances, unusual injuries or medical condition, and his or her creativity. The inherent structure of a human language and one's first language may impact the lexical density of the individual's writing and speaking style. Further, human communication in the written form is generally more lexically dense than in the spoken form after the early childhood stage. The lexical density impacts the readability of a composition and the ease with which the listener or reader can comprehend a communication.
The stimulus consisted of 30 Chinese characters, 30 pinyin-writing characters, 30 novel characters, 30 English words. In the lexical decision task, participants had to figure out whether the stimulus was a real Chinese character or not and lasted for over 5 minutes. The result concerning their behavioral performance during training revealed how decision times and lexical decision accuracy improved over the time span of 5 days for the character writing and pinyin- writing conditions. Results also revealed brain activation patterns for the passive viewing and lexical decision tasks.
Lex is a computer program that generates lexical analyzers ("scanners" or "lexers"). Lex is commonly used with the yacc parser generator. Lex, originally written by Mike Lesk and Eric Schmidt and described in 1975, is the standard lexical analyzer generator on many Unix systems, and an equivalent tool is specified as part of the POSIX standard.The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 7, 2018 edition § Shell & Utilities § Utilities § lex Lex reads an input stream specifying the lexical analyzer and outputs source code implementing the lexer in the C programming language.
Many commercial companies have been using stemming since at least the 1980s and have produced algorithmic and lexical stemmers in many languages.Language Extension Packs , dtSearchBuilding Multilingual Solutions by using Sharepoint Products and Technologies , Microsoft Technet The Snowball stemmers have been compared with commercial lexical stemmers with varying results.CLEF 2003: Stephen Tomlinson compared the Snowball stemmers with the Hummingbird lexical stemming (lemmatization) systemCLEF 2004: Stephen Tomlinson "Finnish, Portuguese and Russian Retrieval with Hummingbird SearchServer" Google search adopted word stemming in 2003.The Essentials of Google Search, Web Search Help Center, Google Inc.
The situation is similar in Standard Chinese. French (some authors add Chinese) can be considered to have no real lexical stress.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Sape, Timote-Kuika, and Puinave-Kak language families due to contact.
The Projection Principle states that properties of lexical items must be satisfied in order to create well-formed sentences (SKS, 2015).
Dialects included Yanaba, Lougaw (Gawa), Wamwan, Nawyem, Iwa. Iwa dialect is transitional between Muyuw and Kilivila. Lexical similarity 68% with Kilivila.
This point is more obvious still with those names like Sarah and London which have no lexical meaning of their own.
The complexity of the task should be noted as such tasks often require lexical-semantic abilities as well as imagery abilities.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Arawak, Kandoshi, Pukina, and Karib language families due to contact.
Carolinian has 95% lexical similarity with Satawalese, 88% with Woleaian and Puluwatese; 81% with Mortlockese; 78% with Chuukese, 74% with Ulithian.
A programmer supplied action file is input to FleXML; the output is a file suitable for input to Flex lexical analyser.
A lexical set is a group of words that all fall under a single category based on some shared phonological feature.
Perl variables can be global, dynamic (local keyword), or lexical (my and our keywords). Global variables are accessible via the stash and the corresponding typeglob. Local variables are the same as global variables but a special opcode is generated to save its value on the savestack and restore it later. Lexical variables are stored in the padlist.
The processing starts with visual feature detectors in extrastriate cortex, proceeding through letter detectors and letter-cluster detectors in the posterior fusiform, and then activating lexical representations stored in more anterior multimodal fusiform area. The theory states the function of the VWFA is pre-lexical as it occurs before the word is understood to have meaning.
The former uses lexical cognates like the comparative method, while the latter uses only lexical similarity. The theoretical basis of such methods is that vocabulary items can be matched without a detailed language reconstruction and that comparing enough vocabulary items will negate individual inaccuracies; thus, they can be used to determine relatedness but not to determine the proto- language.
Pingelapese is a Micronesian member of the Austronesian language family. It is closely related to other languages within the Chuukic-Pohnpeic branch, sharing 83% lexical similarity with Mokilese and sharing 79% lexical similarity with Pohnpeian. Approximately 5,000 years ago, the Micronesian peoples voyaged eastward from Taiwan, and eventually made it to Micronesia about 3,000 years later. Morton et al.
Lexical preprocessors are the lowest-level of preprocessors as they only require lexical analysis, that is, they operate on the source text, prior to any parsing, by performing simple substitution of tokenized character sequences for other tokenized character sequences, according to user-defined rules. They typically perform macro substitution, textual inclusion of other files, and conditional compilation or inclusion.
There are four villages of people who consider themselves to be Mbeten (and not Kwakum). The lexical similarity between the Kwakum of the Dimako district and the Mbeten villages is 81.3%. The Mbaki live far from the Kwakum and the lexical similarity is only 47.7%. It is thus unlikely that Mbaki should be considered a dialect of Kwakum.
Citrine uses dynamic scoping instead of lexical scoping. Thus, there is no need for dependency injection or global variables, but it might be harder to reason about than lexical scope. This is similar in programming languages like Emacs Lisp and BASIC. In code blocks the var keyword needs to be used to declare a local variable.
Some types of causative constructions essentially do not permit double causatives, e.g. it would be difficult to find a lexical double causative. Periphrastic causatives however, have the potential to always be applied iteratively (Mom made Dad make my brother make his friends leave the house.). Many Indo-Aryan languages (such as Hindustani) have lexical double causatives.
The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river". Or consider "apothecary".
The active nature of the mental lexicon makes any dictionary comparison unhelpful. Research is continuing to identify the exact way that words are linked and accessed. A common method to analyze these connections is through a lexical decision task. Lexical decision tasks have been used for many years to access how the mental lexicon is structured.
It is created each time the outer function is invoked. In addition, each nested function forms a lexical closure: The lexical scope of the outer function (including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes. JavaScript also supports anonymous functions.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Maku, Sape, Warao, Tikuna-Yuri, and Tukano language families due to contact. Lexical similarities with Tucanoan languages are mostly cultural loanwords. Arutani and Tucanoan languages also have completely different pronominal systems, and sound correspondences are irregular. Thus, similarities between them can be attributed to contact with Eastern Tucanoan.
That is quite true even though each Chuukic language has close to a very high 50% lexical similarity with all the other members of the Continuum. Nonetheless, that still leaves the remaining 50% in which to find differences among languages, and this will prove to be enough to refine in on Carolinian lines of lexical inheritance.
Due to their silent nature, phi-features are often only understood if someone is a native speaker of a language, or if the translation includes a gloss of all these features. Many languages exhibit a pro-drop phenomenon which means that they rely on other lexical categories to determine the phi-features of the lexical heads.
Asymmetry is also relevant to grammar and linguistics, especially in the contexts of lexical analysis and transformational grammar. Enumeration example: In English, there are grammatical rules for specifying coordinate items in an enumeration or series. Similar rules exist for programming languages and mathematical notation. These rules vary, and some require lexical asymmetry to be considered grammatically correct.
Following Tovar (1961), Loukotka (1968), and Tovar (1984), Kaufman (1994) notes that while Taushiro has been linked to the Zaparoan languages, it shares greater lexical correspondences with Kandoshi and especially with Omurano. In 2007 he classified Taushiro and Omurano (but not Kandoshi) as Saparo–Yawan languages. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Tequiraca and Leco.
Lexical access is the way that an individual accesses the information in the mental lexicon. A word's cohort is composed of all the lexical items that share an initial sequence of phonemes,^ Fernandez, E.M. & Smith Cairns, H. (2011). Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics (Malden, MZ: Wiley-Blackwell). ( and is the set of words activated by the initial phonemes of the word.
The RE/flex project was designed and implemented by professor Robert van Engelen in 2016 and released in 2017 as free open source. The software evolved with several contributions made by others. The RE/flex tool generates lexical analyzers based on regular expression ("regex") libraries, instead of fixed DFA tables generated by traditional lexical analyzer generators.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawa, Guahibo, and Tupi language families due to contact. A discussion of lexical and phonological correspondences between the Nadahup (Vaupés-Japurá) and Tupi languages can be found in Jolkesky and Cabral (2011).Jolkesky, Marcelo; Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara Cabral. 2011. Desvendando as relações entre Tupí e Vaupés-Japurá.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Jaqi, Kawapana, Kechua, Pano, and Uru- Chipaya language families due to contact.
Kalanadi is an unclassified Southern Dravidian language of India. It is most similar to Pathiya with which it shares 88% lexical similarity.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andoke-Urekena, Arawak, Arutani, Maku, and Tukano language families due to contact.
The internal properties of Japanese adjectival nouns can be analysed either through a lexical features approach or through a Distributed Morphology approach.
These are obligatory accompaniments of a quarter of all lexical signs. Making visual syllables with the mouth is referred to as mouthing.
The Hello Internet podcast featured a listener with lexical- gustatory synesthesia in Episodes #44 and #45 who emailed to discuss the topic.
111, No. 4 (Oct., 1991), pp. 720-730 There are some lexical matches between Hurro-Urartian and Sumerian, indicating an early contact.
The exceptional type of clause is that of declarative clause with a lexical verb in a present simple or past simple form.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawak, Tupi, Chapakura-Wañam, Nambikwara, and Yanomami language families due to contact.
Dholuo is a tonal language. There is both lexical tone and grammatical tone, e.g. in the formation of passive verbs.Okoth Okombo §1.3.
Papasena is a Lakes Plain language of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Ethnologue reports a 23% lexical similarity with Sikaritai, another East Tariku language.
Cladistic analysis of Bantu languages: a new tree based on combined lexical and grammatical data. Naturwissenschaften 93, 189–194. Holden et al.
The semantics of formulaic language have often been debated on, and to date, there lacks a consensus on whether or not filler words are intentional in speech and whether or not they should be considered as words or if they are simply side effects of difficulties in the planning process of speech by speakers. Bailey & Ferriera's (2007) paper found that there is little evidence to suggest that the use of filler words are intentional in speech and that they should not be considered as words in the conventional sense. Filler words consist of "Non-lexical fillers" and "Lexical fillers". "Non-lexical fillers" are recognized as fillers that are not words and "Lexical fillers" are recognized as fillers that are words and both types of fillers are thought to contain little or no semantic information.
Ure proposed the following formula in 1971 to compute the lexical density of a sentence: :: Biber terms this ratio as "type-token ratio".
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Leko, Mapudungun, Mochika, Kandoshi, Muniche, and Barbakoa language families due to contact.
Word order, grammatical structure and vocabulary have remained markedly comparable, well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g. function words).
Word order, grammatical structure and vocabulary have remained markedly comparable, well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g., function words).
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Mochika, Kandoshi, Jaqi, Kechua, Mapudungun, and Uru-Chipaya language families due to contact.
A handful of words exhibit a fossilized lexical form of nasal-coda erhua. An example is bíting "nasal mucus", cf. the etymon bíti .
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Kunza, Leko, Uru-Chipaya, Arawak, and Pukina language families due to contact.
After a complex interactive process of activation and inhibition, the lexical candidate corresponding to the presented word becomes the most active word unit.
The Desano language has a 90% lexical similarity with the Siriano language. The language is reported to have a form of whistled speech.
There are objections to the hypothesis such as distributed morphology.Halle & Marantz (1993) The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis is a subset of the Lexicalist Hypothesis.
The origin of the field theory of semantics is the lexical field theory introduced by Jost Trier in the 1930s,David Corson, Using English Words, Springer, 1995. although according to John Lyons it has historical roots in the ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt and Johann Gottfried Herder. In the 1960s Stephen Ullmann saw semantic fields as crystallising and perpetuating the values of society. For John Lyons in the 1970s words related in any sense belonged to the same semantic field, and the semantic field was simply a lexical category, which he described as a lexical field.
Strictly speaking and in practice for most programming languages, "part of a program" refers to a portion of source code (area of text), and is known as lexical scope. In some languages, however, "part of a program" refers to a portion of run time (time period during execution), and is known as dynamic scope. Both of these terms are somewhat misleading—they misuse technical terms, as discussed in the definition—but the distinction itself is accurate and precise, and these are the standard respective terms. Lexical scope is the main focus of this article, with dynamic scope understood by contrast with lexical scope.
The goals of LMF are to provide a common model for the creation and use of lexical resources, to manage the exchange of data between and among these resources, and to enable the merging of large number of individual electronic resources to form extensive global electronic resources. Types of individual instantiations of LMF can include monolingual, bilingual or multilingual lexical resources. The same specifications are to be used for both small and large lexicons, for both simple and complex lexicons, for both written and spoken lexical representations. The descriptions range from morphology, syntax, computational semantics to computer-assisted translation.
However, some filler words are used to express certain speech acts. "Yeah", a "Lexical filler", is used to give affirmation, introduce a new topic, shows speaker's perception and understanding, and occurs after a speech management problem when the speakers does not how to continue their speech. Fillers like "Mmmm", a "Non-lexical filler", and "Well", a "Lexical filler", are also said to signal listener's understanding of the information provided. Research has shown that people were less likely to use formulaic language in general topics and domains they were more well-versed in, because they were more adept at selecting the appropriate terms.
Duyck, 2007Von Holzen, 2012Gullifer, 2013 Despite the specific language contexts, both languages are activated, showing that lexical access is not language-specific and that top- down processing is important in lexical access. Findings suggest that the amount of activation that occurred cross-linguistically was related to the similarity between the translation equivalents of the languages. These findings suggest that when bilinguals read sentences, the language of the sentence does not necessarily act as an early cue for the restriction of the individual's lexical search to one language or the other.Duyck, Assche, Drieghe, & Hartsuiker, 2007 Rather, this decision is made later.
Lexical substitution is the task of identifying a substitute for a word in the context of a clause. For instance, given the following text: "After the match, replace any remaining fluid deficit to prevent chronic dehydration throughout the tournament", a substitute of game might be given. Lexical substitution is strictly related to word sense disambiguation (WSD), in that both aim to determine the meaning of a word. However, while WSD consists of automatically assigning the appropriate sense from a fixed sense inventory, lexical substitution does not impose any constraint on which substitute to choose as the best representative for the word in context.
But still the utility has some weight in the sense that if the disutilities are the same in the alternatives, and hence we cannot minimise the disutility any further, then we ought to maximise the utility. Depending on what kinds of disutilities we choose in establishing this order, we get different lexical negativisms." 'Lexical threshold' negative utilitarianism says that there is some disutility, for instance some extreme suffering, such that no positive utility can counterbalance it.: "Lexical Threshold NU Suffering and happiness both count, but there is some amount of suffering that no amount of happiness can outweigh.
The lexical decision task (LDT) is a procedure used in many psychology and psycholinguistics experiments. The basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords. Although versions of the task had been used by researchers for a number of years, the term lexical decision task was coined by David E. Meyer and Roger W. Schvaneveldt, who brought the task to prominence in a series of studies on semantic memory and word recognition in the early 1970s. Since then, the task has been used in thousands of studies, investigating semantic memory and lexical access in general.
While the link between signified and signifier (as per Saussure) may be separately represented in a junction grammar, the interfacing between J-rule structuring and the coding extant in other components of the model is provided by context-sensitive coding grammars formulated as algorithms in an appropriate pattern matching language. For example, JG incorporates a lexical coding grammar consisting of lexical rules (L-rules) which encodes unordered sememic structuring as ordered lexical strings in a separate coding space.See, for example, Billings, Floyd and Thompson, Tracy (1972). “Proposals for Ordering Well-formed Syntactic Statements.” LINGUISTICS SYMPOSIUM: AUTOMATIC LANGUAGE PROCESSING, 30–31 March 1972.
Also in Acta Linguistica Hungarica 41, F. Kiefer (ed.) (1991), Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. 1992: (with Charles J. Fillmore) "Towards a Frame-based Lexicon: the Semantics of RISK and its Neighbors", in Frames, Fields and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic and Lexical Organization, A. Lehrer & E. F. Kittay (eds.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, New Jersey. 75-102. 1992: (with N. Ostler) "Predictable meaning shift: some linguistic properties of lexical implication rules" in Lexical Semantics and Commonsense Reasoning, (eds.) J. Pustejovsky & S. Bergler, Springer-Verlag, NY. pp. 87-98. 1993: "Theoretical Lexicography and its relation to Dictionary-making".
Those who claim that the theory provides an insufficient account of linguistic conceptual combination refer to the ability of humans to readily understand lexical concept combinations with seemingly no apparent connection with one another. One example of this would be the sentence "John saw an elephant cloud." "Elephant" and "cloud" do not shared a close association, but it takes little effort to comprehend that the term "elephant cloud" refers to a cloud shaped like an elephant. This has led some to conclude that the combination of lexical concepts does not wholly rely on the simultaneous activation of linked lexical concepts alone.
The lexical hypothesis (also known as the fundamental lexical hypothesis, lexical approach, or sedimentation hypothesis) is a thesis, current primarily in early personality psychology, and subsequently subsumed by many later efforts in that subfield. Despite some variation in its definition and application, the hypothesis is generally defined by two postulates. The first states that those personality characteristics that are important to a group of people will eventually become a part of that group's language. The second follows from the first, stating that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word.
In a study by Pate et al. (2011), where a computational language model was presented, it was shown that acoustic cues can be helpful for determining syntactic structure when they are used with lexical information. Combining acoustic cues with lexical cues may usefully provide children with initial information about the place of syntactic phrases which supports the prosodic bootstrapping hypothesis.
There are many kinds of semantic relations between words. For example homonymy, antonymy, meronymy, and paronymy. Semantics that is specifically involved in lexicological work is called lexical semantics. Lexical semantics is somewhat different from the semantics of larger units such as phrases, sentences, and complete texts (or discourses), because it does not involve the same degree of compositional semantics complexities.
The difference is in the degree of lexical diversification > along the scales of meaning. English seems to have more 'fool' words with > more specificity – Japanese seems to have fewer 'fool' words with more > vagueness. There are decided pragmatic and communicative advantages to such > lexical vagueness. If you call me a stupid son-of-a-bitch, I know exactly > what you mean.
This method uses stable lexical fields, such as stance verbs, to try to establish long-distance relationships.Nichols : Quasi-cognates and Lexical Type Shifts (in Phylogenetics and the Prehistory of Languages, Forster and Renfrew, 2006) Account is taken of convergence and semantic shifts to search for ancient cognates. A model is outlined and the results of a pilot study are presented.
In Chapter 2 of Aspects, Chomsky discusses the problem of subcategorization of lexical categories and how this information should be captured in a generalized manner in the grammar. He deems that rewriting rules are not the appropriate device in this regard. As a solution, he borrows the idea of features use in phonology. A lexical category such as noun, verb, etc.
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices. Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element. Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.
A nice feature of SYNTAX (compared to Lex/Yacc) is its built-in algorithmPierre Boullier and Martin Jourdan. A New Error Repair and Recovery Scheme for Lexical and Syntactic Analysis. Science of Computer Programming 9(3): 271-286 (1987). for automatically recovering from lexical and syntactic errors, by deleting extra characters or tokens, inserting missing characters or tokens, permuting characters or tokens, etc.
A multiword expression is "lexical units larger than a word that can bear both idiomatic and compositional meanings. (...) the term multi-word expression is used as a pre-theoretical label to include the range of phenomena that goes from collocations to fixed expressions." It is a problem in natural language processing when trying to translate lexical units such as idioms.
For lexical-gustatory synesthesia evidence also points towards ideasthesia: In lexical-gustatory synesthesia, verbalisation of the stimulus is not necessary for the experience of concurrents. Instead, it is sufficient to activate the concept. Another case of synesthesia is swimming-style synesthesia in which each swimming style is associated with a vivid experience of a color.Mroczko-Wąsowicz, Aleksandra, and Markus Werning.
The CMPT, therefore, was created to probe lexical access in real time. During this task, study participants heard recorded sentences containing lexical or syntactic ambiguities while seated in front of a computer screen. At the same moment when the ambiguous word or phrase was uttered, simultaneously a string of letters---either a word or a non-word---was flashed on the computer screen.
Nez Perce has , believed to be the lateral affricate in the proto-language. Nez Perce, like Kutenai, lies in the eastern periphery of the Northwest Linguistic area. Another typological analysis investigates the lexical category of preverbs in Kutenai. This lexical category distinguishes neighboring Algonquian languages, found to the east of the Kootenay Rocky Mountains and near the Kutenai linguistic area.
Computational models of bilingual comprehension. Handbook of bilingualism, 202. the bilingual models began by focusing on if bilingual lexical access would be different from monolinguals. In addition, to study the activation process in a separate language, they also investigated whether the lexical activation would be processed in a parallel fashion for both languages or selectively processed for the target language.
Laufer suggests that 3,000 word families or 5,000 lexical items are a threshold () beyond which learners will be able to read more efficiently. Coady & Nation (1998) suggest 98% of lexical coverage and 5,000 word families or 8,000 items for a pleasurable reading experience (). After this threshold, the learner leaves the beginner paradox, and enters a virtuous circle (). Then, extensive reading becomes more efficient.
The Proto-Hmong–Mien language shares many lexical similarities with neighboring language families, including Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai (Tai- Kadai), Austronesian, and Tibeto-Burman (Ratliff 2010). Martha Ratliff (2010:233-237) lists the following lexical resemblances between Proto- Hmong–Mien (abbreviated below as PHM) and other language families. Proto- Hmongic and Proto-Mienic are provided if the Proto-Hmong–Mien form is not reconstructed.
However, since the late 1990s, most research has revolved around the contrasting hypothesis that Lexical gestures serve a primarily cognitive purpose in aiding the process of speech production. As of 2012, there is research to suggest that Lexical Gesture does indeed serve a primarily communicative purpose and cognitive only secondary, but in the realm of socio-pragmatic communication, rather than lexico-semantic modification.
The semantic relationship is obtained through WordNet, which works a ground truth to indicate which lexical structure connects two words (e.g., hypernyms, hyponyms, meronyms). If a word without any semantic affinity with the current chain presents itself, a new lexical chain is initialized. On the other hand, FXLC II breaks text segments into pre-defined chunks, with a specific number of words each.
In the 1980s, Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, again emphasizing five broad factors which he later labeled the "Big Five". Colin G.
Lao has six lexical tones.Blaine Erickson, 2001. "On the Origins of Labialized Consonants in Lao". Analysis based on T. Hoshino and R. Marcus (1981).
Monosemy means 'one-meaning' and is a methodology primarily for lexical semantic analysis, but which has widespread applicability throughout the various strata of language.
Lexical choices may frame speaker affect. Examples are slender (positive affect) vs. scrawny (negative affect), thrifty (positive) vs. stingy (negative), freedom fighter (positive) vs.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Cholon-Hibito, Jivaro, Kawapana, Kechua, Kunza, Mochika, and Pano language families due to contact.
Lexical particularities were the least relied upon.Such criteria were proposed and used by Emil Petrovici, Romulus Todoran, Emanuel Vasiliu, and Ion Gheție, among others.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kunza, Pukina, Pano, Jaqi, Kechua, Mapudungun, and Moseten-Tsimane language families due to contact.
Moreover, since a lexis is a way of calling, different words such as child, children, child's and children's may realise the same lexical item.
Gk ψυχή, πνεῦμα; Lat. animus, spīritus; Arab. روح rūḥ, etc. François built on this example to propose a method for constructing lexical semantic maps.
This theory aims to explain the acquisition of lexical categories such as verbs, nouns, etc. and functional categories such as case markers, determiners, etc.
If n > 1, the attributes are n-place intensional relations between real-world entities, and the extension is the set of n-tuples of real- world entities among which the n-place relations in the intension hold. Such 'relational concepts' typically occur as lexical meanings of verbs and adpositions (prepositions, etc.) but also of other kinds of relational words. The only concept for which the notions of intension and extension are not defined is the (0-place) 'empty concept,' occurring as the meaning component of lexical words such as auxiliaries and modal particles, and of all affixes, that is, of linguistic entities whose contribution to meaning composition is not based on lexical meanings. Given the notion of empty concept, the IL conception of concepts is both flexible and powerful enough to assign meanings to lexical words of any kind.
Because it is poorly attested, it has not been possible to definitively classify Culle. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Leco.
10–11, 15 passim. There is no consensus on the matter.For survey of the lexical variety, see Naremore (2008), pp. 9, 311–12 n. 1.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Saliba-Hodi, Arawak, Bora-Muinane, Choko, Witoto-Okaina, and Waorani language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kunza, Mochika, Uru-Chipaya, Arawak, Pano, Cholon-Hibito, and Kechua language families due to contact.
NeuroImage 47, 326–333 This language nonselective lexical access has been shown during semantic activation across languages, but also at the orthographic and phonological levels.
The phonology of al- is the study of its constituent letters and vowels, and of its pronunciation in different dialects and in different lexical circumstances.
Further studies of the underlying brain regions involved in synesthetes like JIW could aid in identifying the root physiological mechanisms involved in lexical-gustatory synesthesia.
Of less importance are the morphological, syntactical, and lexical particularities, as they are too small to provide clear distinctions. All Romanian dialects are mutually intelligible.
In addition to very productive morphological causatives, Turkish also has some lexical causatives: kır- "break", yırt- "split", dik- "plant", yak- "burn", sakla- "hide", aç- "open".
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kulle, Omurano, Taushiro, Urarina, Arawak, Cholon-Hibito, Jaqi, and Quechua language families due to contact.
International Journal of American Linguistics 71: 365–412. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Kanoe, Kwaza, and Nambikwara due to contact.
There are four types of TCU categorized by the roles they play in the utterance: 1\. Lexical TCU: e.g. "Yes", "There" 2\. Phrasal TCU: e.g.
By doing lexical decision tasks, researchers have been able to analyze what words are stored with what related counterparts, and what can activate these words.
The three essential properties of sloppy identity in Mandarin sluicing include: (1) c-commanding (2) lexical identity between wh- words and (3) na ‘that’ effect.
The lexical similarity between the Kwakum spoken in these two districts is 92.3%. Among these villages are the two villages of Baktala and Longtimbi. The people who live in these villages consider themselves to be Kwakum, but also call themselves Til. There is a lexical similarity of 91.4% between the Kwakum spoken in the Dimako district and the language spoken in the Til villages.
During the Ottoman rule of Egypt, the region was ruled directly by Turkish-speaking elites. Consequently, the lexical Turkish influence of Egyptian Arabic has been clearer and more consistent than in Levantine Arabic, especially the formal terms like Pasha and Bek which are still used till today in daily conversations. Today, many Turkish lexical items (and Persian borrowings through Turkish) have been firmly integrated into Egyptian Arabic.
Tanenhaus has collaborated with others to edit two books. His first book “Lexical Ambiguity Resolution: Perspective from Psycholinguistics, Neuropsychology, and Artificial Intelligence” was published in 1988. This book contains eighteen original papers which look at the concept of Lexical Ambiguity Resolution. His most recent work “Approaches to Studying World- Situated Language Use: Bridging the Language and Product and Language as Action Traditions” was published in 2004.
Schweickert proposed that the redintegration of memory trace happens through two independent processes. In the lexical process, the memory trace is attempted to be converted into a word. In the phonemic process, the memory trace is attempted to be converted into a string of phenomes. Consequently, the probability of correct redintegration (R), becomes a function of L (lexical process) and/or P (phonemic process).
This test for lexical integrity highlights how phrasal compounds may appear to be penetrable by syntactic operations, but have in fact been lexicalized. These lexical entries have the semblance of figurative quotations. Spencer (1988, 1991) lends support to the LIH through examples such as a Baroque flautist or transformational grammarian that seem to lack any conceptual counterparts, like a wooden flautist or partial grammarian.
In German, the pluperfect (Plusquamperfekt, Präteritumperfekt, or Vorvergangenheit, lit. pre-past) is used in much the same manner, normally in a nachdem sentence. The Plusquamperfekt is formed with the Partizip Perfekt (Partizip II) of the full lexical verb, plus the auxiliary verb haben or sein in its preterite form, depending on the full lexical verb in question. :Nachdem ich aufgestanden war, ging ich ins Badezimmer.
Handbook of bilingualism psycholinguistic approaches, 54, 179-201. For instance, when the Dutch word work is activated, is the English word pork also activated? If the answer is "no", it might suggest that language selection happens before the recognition of a word and only the lexical information of the target language is selectively activated, in which case lexical access is language selective.Grainger, J., & Beauvillain, C. (1987).
With origins in the late 19th century, use of the lexical hypothesis began to flourish in English and German psychology in the early 20th century. The lexical hypothesis is a major foundation of the Big Five personality traits, the HEXACO model of personality structure and the 16PF Questionnaire and has been used to study the structure of personality traits in a number of cultural and linguistic settings.
"Awara has three means for deriving verb stems: lexical compounding, benefactive compounding, and forming verbs from nouns via the addition of derivational suffix -la 'become'." Lexical compounding uses the two types of compounds in Awara: noun-verb and verb-verb compounds. Noun-verb compounds refer to what is used to perform the action or what happens to the object. Verb-verb compounds describe two actions that occur.
A linguistic expression displays semantic ambiguity when it can have multiple senses, at least when uttered out of context. Lexical ambiguity is the subtype of semantic ambiguity which occurs at the level of words or morphemes. When a lexical ambiguity results from a single word having two senses, it is called polysemy (e.g. the "foot" of a person versus the "foot" of a pot).
Put forward by Kronbilcher et al. (2004), was based on functional imaging data that showed, in a parametric fMRI study, that a decrease in activation in the left fusiform gyrus was seen in response to an increase in the frequency of the word - where the frequency is how common the word is. This data refutes the previous pre-lexical theory as if the VWFA was pre-lexical one would expect equal activation throughout all frequencies. Instead a lexical theory was proposed where the left fusiform gyrus neurons are thought not to detect words by attempting to match them to stored representations of known words.
In linguistics generally, words and affixes are often classified into two major word categories: lexical words, those that refer to the world outside of a discourse, and function words—also including fragments of words—which help to build the sentence in accordance with the grammar rules of the language. Lexical words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and sometimes prepositions and postpositions, while grammatical words or word parts include everything else. The native tradition in Japanese grammar scholarship seems to concur in this view of classification. This native Japanese tradition uses the terminology , for words having lexical meaning, and , for words having a grammatical function.
Van Holzen relates the following: Bilingual Model of Lexical Access (BIMOLA) This model suggests there are two "separate but interconnected lexicons" in the bilingual brain (p. 583). This, however, was discredited by a study done by Von Holzen & Mani (2012) because it does not provide a possible mechanism to explain the cross-language activation seen in studies of lexical access. Processing Rich Information from Multidimensional Interactive Representations (PRIMIR) This model suggests one integrated phono- lexical system that is organized based on the different characteristics of language input. This model "allows for both cross-language effects while also noting stronger within-language effects" (Von Holzen & Mani, 2012, p.
Cross-Modal Priming Task. The Cross-Modal Priming Task (CMPT), developed by David Swinney, is an online measure used to detect activation of lexical and syntactic information during sentence comprehension. Prior to Swinney's introduction of this methodology, studies of lexical access were largely procured by offline measures, such as a phoneme-monitoring task. In these measures, study participants were asked to respond to a syntactic or lexical ambiguity in a sentence only after the entire sentence had been comprehended. Since Swinney considered the system of resolving ambiguities to be an autonomous, fast, and mandatory process, he suggested that the “downstream” temporal delay between stimulus and response could contaminate results.
Conversely, it means that certain lexical detail made explicit in the word stream is only implicit in J-trees. For example, depending upon the ordering rules of the lexical coding grammar in play and the discourse context of the sentence - the same J-tree may yield alternative word orders in the lexical coding space. The overall effect - as previously noted - is that, inasmuch as JG uses coding rather than derivation as a bridge between levels of representation, much that models of syntax have been preoccupied with in deriving surface structure from deep structure (movement, deletion, insertion, etc.) is taken over in JG by coding operations.
The lexical syllabus is a form of the propositional paradigm that takes 'word' as the unit of analysis and content for syllabus design. Various vocabulary selection studies can be traced back to the 1920s and 1930s (West 1926; Ogden 1930; Faucet et al. 1936), and recent advances in techniques for the computer analysis of large databases of authentic text have helped to resuscitate this line of work. The modern lexical syllabus is discussed in Sinclair & Renouf (1988), who state that the main benefit of a lexical syllabus is that it emphasizes utility - the student learns that which is most valuable because it is most frequent.
The list of words affected differs from dialect to dialect and occasionally from speaker to speaker, which is an example of sound change by lexical diffusion.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Aikanã, Irantxe, Itonama, Kanoe, Kwaza, Peba-Yagua, Arawak, Bororo, and Karib language families due to contact.
Hjørland and Nicolaisen (2005, p. 103) identified three kinds of scattering: #Lexical scattering. The scattering of words in texts and in collections of texts. #Semantic scattering.
Akadem 41 Retrieved 2012-07-02. The complete lexical archive will contain at least 25 million quotations.Literary and Linguistic Computing, Oxford Journals. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
For a similar hypothesis see Uralo-Siberian languages. A few potential lexical cognates between Proto-Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut are pointed out in Aikio (2019: 53f.).
MA thesis, University of Texas at Arlington. provides comparative lexical data for the Guba, Mandura, North Dibat'e, Wenbera, Sirba Abay, Agelo Meti, Yaso, and Metemma dialects.
G. A. Miller, R. Beckwith, C. D. Fellbaum, D. Gross, K. Miller. 1990. WordNet: An online lexical database. Int. J. Lexicograph. 3, 4, pp. 235-244.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Irantxe, Taruma, Katukina-Katawixi, Puinave-Kak, Tupi, Arawa, Guahibo, and Jivaro language families due to contact.
Code- mixing may also function to fill gaps in their lexical knowledge. Some forms of code-mixing by young children may indicate risk for language impairment.
According to the Ethnologue, the two languages share a lexical similarity of 60%.Raymond G. Gordon Jr., ed. 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 15th edition.
Turkish,Levi, Susannah V. (2005). "Acoustic correlates of lexical accent in Turkish" Journal of the International Phonetic Association, vol. 35.1, pp. 73-97. DOI: ; see p.
In 1987, a supplement was separately published, produced under the guidance of Gaston Waringhien and Roland Levreaud. It covered approximately 1000 words and 1300 lexical units.
He used lexical tools constantly in order to catch every nuance of meaning in the original language, finishing his translation of Isaiah during his Ph.D. program.
Rather, there is a figurative filter that permits some syntactic operations on lexical items. This is evidenced by the fact that languages permit syntactic structures to be "downgraded" to words in that syntactic phrases can be merged into lexical items over time. Professors Antonio Fábregas of the University of Tromsø, Elena Felíu Arquiola of the University of Jaén and Soledad Varela of the Autonomous University of Madrid use the concept of a Morphological Local Domain in their discussion of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis, in which words have multiple binary branching layers composed of roots and functional projections, with the deeper layers of the morphological hierarchy being too far away for the syntax to see and only the higher head of this multi-layered morphological tree has the ability to transmit information. Additionally, some theories of syntax appear to be incompatible with the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis, such as Minimalism.
Tearma.ieThe site is at "tearma.ie", not at the internationalized domain name "téarma.ie". (previously Focal.ie) is the website of a lexical database for terminology in the Irish language.
There are phonological, lexical, and morphological differences between Afghan Persian and Iranian Persian. There are no significant differences in the written forms, other than regional idiomatic phrases.
Crystal, David. (2003) A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics (5th edition). New York: Wiley-Blackwell. Lexical verbs are categorized into five categories: copular, intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, and ambitransitive.
Odbert reported 17, 953.Allport, G.W., & Odbert, H.S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 47(1, Whole No. 211), 171–220.
Most family languages display lexical accent on nouns and grammatical case, which distinguishes the nominative from the oblique. Nouns do not obligatorially inflect for gender or number.
The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish.Geoffrey Hull, Halyna Koscharsky. " Contours and Consequences of the Lexical Divide in Ukrainian". Australian Slavonic and East European Studies. Vol.
Khmer Khe (Khmer Khes) is a Khmeric language spoken in Stung Treng Province, Cambodia. It has an estimated lexical similarity of between 95-96% with Central Khmer.
Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S. C., & Oller, D. K. (1993). Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: Comparison to monolingual norms. Language Learning, 43(1), 93-120.
It also contains a certain number of introduced lexical items from Romani such as the term gadje "non- Traveller" or "kushti" (from the Romanichal word for "good").
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Mapudungun, Moseten-Tsimane, Tukano, Uru-Chipaya, Harakmbet, Arawak, Kandoshi, and Pukina language families due to contact.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Cariban, Arutani, Maku, and Sape language families due to contact within an earlier Guiana Highlands interaction sphere.
There are phonological, lexical, and morphological differences between Afghan Persian and Iranian Persian. There are no significant differences in the written forms, other than regional idiomatic phrases.
If we lemmatize the collocates and also look at lexical sets, then the power of attraction of the head-words is seen to be much stronger again.
Special Array Value is padlist which is an array of array. Its 0th element to an AV containing all lexical variable names (with prefix symbols) used within that subroutine. The padlist's first element points to a scratchpad AV, whose elements contain the values corresponding to the lexical variables named in the 0th row. Another elements of padlist are created when the subroutine recurses or new thread is created.
A speech disfluency, also spelled speech dysfluency, is any of various breaks, irregularities, or non-lexical vocables which occur within the flow of otherwise fluent speech. These include "false starts", i.e. words and sentences that are cut off mid-utterance; phrases that are restarted or repeated and repeated syllables; "fillers", i.e. grunts or non-lexical utterances such as "huh", "uh", "erm", "um", "well", "so", "like", and "hmm"; and "repaired" utterances, i.e.
This research reveals that higher lexical quality representations can support better comprehension of text. To provide evidence of this, Perfetti analyzes three types of lower lexical quality words and what they contribute to the processing of text. The types of words consist of homographs, ambiguous words and homophones. Homographs are words that have the same spelling but two different meanings in a language, depending on how they are pronounced.
Written languages commonly categorize tokens as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or punctuation. Categories are used for post-processing of the tokens either by the parser or by other functions in the program. A lexical analyzer generally does nothing with combinations of tokens, a task left for a parser. For example, a typical lexical analyzer recognizes parentheses as tokens, but does nothing to ensure that each "(" is matched with a ")".
All GermaNet data is stored in a PostgreSQL relational database. The database schema follows the internal structure of GermaNet: there are tables to store synsets, lexical units, conceptual and lexical relations, etc. GermaNet data is distributed both in this database format and as XML files. In the XML data, two types of files, one for synsets and the other for relations, represent all data available in the GermaNet database.
For linguistic categories relevant to lexical resources, the lexinfo vocabulary represents an established community standard, in particular in connection with the OntoLex vocabulary and machine- readable dictionaries in the context of Linguistic Linked Open Data technologies. Like the OntoLex vocabulary builds on the Lexical Markup Framework (LMF), lexinfo builds on (the LMF section of) ISOcat.Cimiano, P., Chiarcos, C., McCrae, J. P., & Gracia, J. (2020). Linguistic Linked Data (pp. 137-160).
Addy Vannasy reads aloud to children at a village "Discovery Day" in Laos. Reading aloud is a common technique for improving literacy rates. Big Brother Mouse, which organized the event, trains its staff in read-aloud techniques such as making eye contact with the audience, modulating one's voice, and pausing occasionally for dramatic effect. Both lexical and sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read.
Nǁng moras may carry a high or low tone, /H/ or /L/. A typical lexical word consists of two moras, and so may have a high (HH), low (LL), rising (LH), or falling (HL) tone. Monomoraic lexical roots, such as 'mouth', are high- rather than low-tone by a 5–1 margin. CVV and CVN roots are HH, HL, and LH with about equal frequency, with LL slightly less common.
The lexical field is often used in English to describe terms further with use of different words. Trier's theory assumes that lexical fields are easily definable closed sets,David Kronenfeld and Gabriella Rundblad in Regine Eckardt, Klaus von Heusinger, Christoph Schwarze, Words in Time, Walter de Gruyter, 2003, p68. with no overlapping meanings or gaps. These assumptions have been questioned and the theory has been modified since its original formulation.
Closures are lexical, and scope is both lexical and dynamic. Further features typical of functional languages are supported, including creation of closures via partial application (explicit currying), tail call optimization, list comprehensions, and coroutines. Specifics include the implicit expansion of tuples and the stateless pattern system. Its constant-time message lookup and real-time garbage collection allows large systems to be efficient and to handle signal processing flexibly.
The cohort model in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is a model of lexical retrieval first proposed by William Marslen-Wilson in the late 1970s.William D. Marslen-Wilson and Alan Welsh (1978) Processing Interactions and Lexical Access during Word Recognition in Continuous Speech. Cognitive Psychology,10,29–63 It attempts to describe how visual or auditory input (i.e., hearing or reading a word) is mapped onto a word in a hearer's lexicon.
The special identifiers , and refer to items on the parser's stack. Yacc produces only a parser (phrase analyzer); for full syntactic analysis this requires an external lexical analyzer to perform the first tokenization stage (word analysis), which is then followed by the parsing stage proper. Lexical analyzer generators, such as Lex or Flex, are widely available. The IEEE POSIX P1003.2 standard defines the functionality and requirements for both Lex and Yacc.
Sexual Futures, Queer Gestures, and Other Latina Longings. New York: NYU Press, 2014. Within the field of linguistics, the most hotly contested aspect of gesture revolves around the subcategory of Lexical or Iconic Co-Speech Gestures. Adam Kendon was the first to hypothesize on their purpose when he argued that Lexical gestures do work to amplify or modulate the lexico-semantic content of the verbal speech with which they co-occur.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Taruma, Arawak, Jeoromitxi, Arawa, Jivaro, Mura- Matanawi, Nambikwara, Peba-Yagua, Aikanã, and Kanoe language families due to contact.
Pattern Grammar: A Corpus-Driven Approach to the Lexical Grammar of English. John Benjamins. 1998\. G. Francis, S. Hunston, E. Manning. Collins COBUILD Grammar patterns: Nouns and adjectives.
It was suggested that this is different from semantic satiation and from the stimulus familiarization effect because orthographic satiation occurs after the perceivers have access to lexical meaning.
"Variation in Tejano English: Evidence for Variable Lexical Phonology." Language Variety in the South. eds. Cynthia Berstein et al. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1997. 197-210.
Many of these difficulties can, however, be overcome by the integration of various tools, including mathematical techniques such as singular value decomposition and lexical databases such as WordNet.
Morphology in Comparison, ed. by Elke Nowak, 1–37. Technische Universität Berlin Arbeitspapiere zur Linguistik 37. Prefixes which are furthest away from the lexical stem display more variability.
Sechura is too poorly known to be definitively classified. Kaufman notes that a connection between Sechura and the Catacaoan languages is likely and is supported by lexical evidence.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Chibchan languages due to contact, which may point to the earlier presence of Chibchan speakers in the Orinoco basin.
Foley (2018) provides the following classification. Foley considers the inclusion of Sause within the Tor family to be questionable due to insufficient lexical evidence. See Kapauri–Sause languages.
In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction.
EuroWordNet is a system of semantic networks for European languages, based on WordNet.P. Vossen, Ed. 1998. EuroWordNet: A Multilingual Database with Lexical Semantic Networks. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Given these lexical identity restrictions, the derivation of the sloppy identity reading predicts that wh-antecedent is required to be overtly present, otherwise only the strict reading allowed.
Serindia Publications. London. . The original dictionary contained 9,565 lexical entries divided into 277 chapters,Keown, Damien. (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 167. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. .
Yolmo has two strategies for reporting speech, the first is using the lexical verb má or làp 'say', the second is using the clause final evidential particle ló.
The Tiniwan languages are two extinct and one moribund language of Colombia that form a small family. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Andaqui.
Local variables are fundamental to procedural programming, and more generally modular programming: variables of local scope are used to avoid issues with side-effects that can occur with global variables. Local variables may have a lexical or dynamic scope, though lexical (static) scoping is far more common. In lexical scoping (or lexical scope; also called static scoping or static scope), if a variable name's scope is a certain block, then its scope is the program text of the block definition: within that block's text, the variable name exists, and is bound to the variable's value, but outside that block's text, the variable name does not exist. By contrast, in dynamic scoping (or dynamic scope), if a variable name's scope is a certain block, then its scope is that block and all functions transitively called by that block (except when overridden again by another declaration); after the block ends, the variable name does not exist.
In natural languages, the meaning of a complex spoken sentence can be understood by decomposing it into smaller lexical segments (roughly, the words of the language), associating a meaning to each segment, and combining those meanings according to the grammar rules of the language. Though lexical recognition is not thought to be used by infants in their first year, due to their highly limited vocabularies, it is one of the major processes involved in speech segmentation for adults. Three main models of lexical recognition exist in current research: first, whole-word access, which argues that words have a whole-word representation in the lexicon; second, decomposition, which argues that morphologically complex words are broken down into their morphemes (roots, stems, inflections, etc.) and then interpreted and; third, the view that whole-word and decomposition models are both used, but that the whole- word model provides some computational advantages and is therefore dominant in lexical recognition.Badecker, William and Mark Allen.
This lexical projection of the predicate's argument onto the syntactic structure is the foundation for the Argument Structure Hypothesis. This idea coincides with Chomsky's Projection Principle, because it forces a VP to be selected locally and be selected by a Tense Phrase (TP). Based on the interaction between lexical properties, locality, and the properties of the EPP (where a phrasal head selects another phrasal element locally), Hale and Keyser make the claim that the Specifier position or a complement are the only two semantic relations that project a predicate's argument. In 2003, Hale and Keyser put forward this hypothesis and argued that a lexical unit must have one or the other, Specifier or Complement, but cannot have both.
Beyond the Indo- European family, such other European languages as Hungarian and Finnish, both of which belong to the Uralic family, completely lack prepositions or have only very few of them; rather, they have postpositions. Other terms than part of speech—particularly in modern linguistic classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than the traditional scheme does—include word class, lexical class, and lexical category. Some authors restrict the term lexical category to refer only to a particular type of syntactic category; for them the term excludes those parts of speech that are considered to be functional, such as pronouns. The term form class is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions.
Closures are typically implemented with a special data structure that contains a pointer to the function code, plus a representation of the function's lexical environment (i.e., the set of available variables) at the time when the closure was created. The referencing environment binds the non- local names to the corresponding variables in the lexical environment at the time the closure is created, additionally extending their lifetime to at least as long as the lifetime of the closure itself. When the closure is entered at a later time, possibly with a different lexical environment, the function is executed with its non-local variables referring to the ones captured by the closure, not the current environment.
Psycholinguistic theories must explain how syntactic representations are built incrementally during sentence comprehension. One view that has sprung from psycholinguistics is the argument structure hypothesis (ASH), which explains the distinct cognitive operations for argument and adjunct attachment: arguments are attached via the lexical mechanism, but adjuncts are attached using general (non-lexical) grammatical knowledge that is represented as phrase structure rules or the equivalent. Argument status determines the cognitive mechanism in which a phrase will be attached to the developing syntactic representations of a sentence. Psycholinguistic evidence supports a formal distinction between arguments and adjuncts, for any questions about the argument status of a phrase are, in effect, questions about learned mental representations of the lexical heads.
In computational linguistics, FrameNet is a project housed at the International Computer Science Institute in Berkeley, California which produces an electronic resource based on a theory of meaning called frame semantics. FrameNet reveals for example that the sentence "John sold a car to Mary" essentially describes the same basic situation (semantic frame) as "Mary bought a car from John", just from a different perspective. A semantic frame can be thought of as a conceptual structure describing an event, relation, or object and the participants in it. The FrameNet lexical database contains over 1,200 semantic frames, 13,000 lexical units (a pairing of a word with a meaning; polysemous words are represented by several lexical units) and 202,000 example sentences.
In some instances the above behaviour may be undesirable, and it is necessary to bind a different lexical closure. Again in ECMAScript, this would be done using the `Function.bind()`.
Many clauses have as their finite verb an auxiliary, which governs a non-finite form of a lexical (or other auxiliary) verb. For clauses of this type, see below.
For the Mura-Matanawi languages, Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kwaza, Taruma, Katukina-Katawixi, Arawak, Jeoromitxi, Tupi, and Arawa language families due to contact.
Aphasia with impaired speech perception typically shows lesions or damage located in the left temporal or parietal lobes. Lexical and semantic difficulties are common, and comprehension may be affected.
Davison, Alice. 2004a. Structural case, Lexical case and the verbal projection. In V. Dayal and A. Mahajan (eds), Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. Dordrecht: Kluwer, pp. 199–225.
They are non-conventional, that is, they are not part of the "conventional" (lexical and logical) meaning of a sentence. Lastly, they can be context dependent, as mentioned above.
The greatest portion of Wutun lexical items is Chinese (but with their tones lost); a smaller one, Tibetan; and an even smaller one comes from the Bonan Mongolian language.
The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.
Mathematical notation, widely used in physics and other sciences, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguities remain.
Vossen observes that on the surface there are four tones in Dongotono: High, Low, Mid, and High-Falling. They appear to be used for both lexical and grammatical contrasts.
From the perspective of the whole-word model, however, these words are thought be stored as full words, so the constituent parts wouldn't necessarily be relevant to lexical recognition.
Vossen observes that on the surface there are four tones in Lokoya: High, Low, Mid, and High-Falling. They appear to be used for both lexical and grammatical contrasts.
Dynamic Syntax constitutes several core components: semantic formulae and composition calculus (epsilon calculus within typed lambda calculus), trees (lambda application ordering), and tree building actions (lexical and computational actions).
They also do not express complex path movements at once, but rather do so sequentially. In adults, it has been shown that iconicity can help in learning lexical signs.
From a computational linguistics viewpoint, there are semantic models of a sentence. This approach going further than just the lexical aspect is especially studied in SFB 991 in Düsseldorf.
The classification of Molbog is controversial. Thiessen (1981) groups Molbog with the Palawanic languages, based on shared phonological and lexical innovations.Thiessen, Henry Arnold (1981). Phonological reconstruction of Proto Palawan.
In the field of computational linguistics, a morphological dictionary is a linguistic resource that contains correspondences between surface form and lexical forms of words. Surface forms of words are those found in any text. The corresponding lexical form of a surface form is the lemma followed by grammatical information (for example the part of speech, gender and number). In English give, gives, giving, gave and given are surface forms of the verb give.
According to the BIA+ model, orthographic representations activate first, which then activate phonological and semantic representations. According to the BIA+ model of bilingual lexical processing, the brain activates both languages when recognizing a word in either language. Rather than selecting a single language, lexical access, or the sound-meaning connections of a language, is non-selective across languages. The BIA+ model suggests that orthographic representations activate first, followed by their associated phonological and semantic representations.
Semantics as a linguistic discipline has its beginning in the middle of the 19th century, and because linguistics at the time was predominantly diachronic, thus lexical semantics was diachronic too – it dominated the scene between the years of 1870 and 1930.Dirk Geeraerts, The theoretical and descriptive development of lexical semantics, Prestructuralist semantics, Published in: The Lexicon in Focus. Competition and Convergence in Current Lexicology, ed. Leila Behrens and Dietmar Zaefferer, p.
Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing a historical process of grammaticalization: lexical item → clitic → affixKlavans, Judith L. On Clitics and Cliticization: The Interaction of Morphology, Phonology, and Syntax. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print. According to this model from Judith Klavans, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.).
MTOM only optimizes element content that is in the canonical lexical representation of the xs:base64Binary data type. Since there is no standard way to indicate whether data is in the canonical lexical representation, the mechanism for applying MTOM is implementation-dependent. The use of MTOM is a hop-by-hop contract between one SOAP node and the next. There is no guarantee that the optimization will be preserved if there are multiple SOAP nodes involved.
In morphology and syntax, words are often organized into lexical categories or word classes, such as "noun", "verb", "adjective", and so on. These word classes have grammatical features (also called categories or inflectional categories), which can have one of a set of potential values (also called the property, meaning, or feature of the category).Kibort, Anna & Corbett, Greville G. Grammatical Features - Feature Inventory For example, consider the pronoun in English. Pronouns are a lexical category.
The Dravidian language influenced the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.
The Chinese lexical item 热狗 règǒu "hotdog" consists of 热 rè "hot" and 狗 gǒu "dog", and is thus an etymological calque of the English lexical item hotdog. Those making the calque (as well as Chinese speakers) are completely aware that when they eat a 热狗 règǒu "hotdog" they do not eat dog meat. Nonetheless, they chose to retain the English etymology within the Chinese neologism. Therefore, règǒu is an etymological calque.
Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)The classic work of HPSG is Pollard and Sag (1994). introduces a handful of such schemata which aim to subsume all such valence related rules as well as other rules not related to valence. A network is developed for information related to specific lexical items. The network and one of the schemata aims to subsume the large number of specific rules defining the valence of particular lexical items.
RBMT's biggest downfall is that everything must be made explicit: orthographical variation and erroneous input must be made part of the source language analyser in order to cope with it, and lexical selection rules must be written for all instances of ambiguity. Adapting to new domains in itself is not that hard, as the core grammar is the same across domains, and the domain-specific adjustment is limited to lexical selection adjustment.
RE/flex (regex-centric, fast lexical analyzer) is a free and open source computer program written in C++ that generates fast lexical analyzers (also known as "scanners" or "lexers") in C++. RE/flex offers full Unicode support, indentation anchors, word boundaries, lazy quantifiers (non-greedy, lazy repeats), and performance tuning options. RE/flex accepts Flex lexer specifications and offers options to generate scanners for Bison parsers. RE/flex includes a fast C++ regular expression library.
The same is obviously true, suggests Dennett, of many of our everyday automatic behaviors such as "desiring to breathe clear air" in a stuffy environment. Some linguists and philosophers of language have criticized Fodor's self-proclaimed "extreme" concept nativism. Kent Bach, for example, takes Fodor to task for his criticisms of lexical semantics and polysemy. Fodor claims that there is no lexical structure to such verbs as "keep", "get", "make" and "put".
Toki Pona's word order is subject–verb–object. The word introduces predicates, introduces direct objects, prepositional phrases follow the objects, and phrases come before the subject to add additional context. Some roots are grammatical particles, while others have lexical meanings. The lexical roots do not fall into well defined parts of speech; rather, they may be used generally as nouns, verbs, modifiers, or interjections depending on context or their position in a phrase.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Choko, Guahibo, Tukano, Witoto-Okaina, Yaruro, Arawak, and Tupi language families due to contact in the Caquetá River basin region.
Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala): International School of Dravidian Linguistics. pp. 508-09. The Mappila form show some lexical (vocabulary) admixture from Arabic and Persian.Krishna Chaitanya. Kerala. India, the Land and the People.
Lexical similarity is 77 to 89% between the three dialects. Rajbonshi shares 48 to 55% of its vocabulary with Assamese and Bengali and 43 to 49% with Maithili and Nepali.
See p. 150 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). .
Sabah Bisaya language has 90% intelligibility of Tatana, a Dusun dialect. Bisaya in Sabah also has 58% lexical similarity with dialects of Sarawak Bisaya and 57%–59% with Brunei dialect.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Chapakura-Wañam, Jivaro, Kwaza, Maku, Mura-Matanawi, Taruma, Yanomami, Arawak, Nadahup, Puinave-Kak, and Tupi language families due to contact.
Sub-lexical reading associates characters or groups of characters with sounds or uses phonics learning and teaching methodology. It is sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods.
It has a fairly complex phonology with lexical and grammatical tone, vowel harmony and nasalisation. Virtually all Cipu speakers speak the lingua franca Hausa. Many also speak other nearby languages.
Stulić's dictionary is the largest work of older Croatian lexicography (more than 4,700 pages and around 80,000 words). Stulli's dictionary is most valuable as a treasure of Croatian lexical material.
Colexification, together with its associated verb colexify, are terms used in semantics and lexical typology. It refers to the case when a language expresses different meanings using the same word.
By 2009, Noegel and Rendsburg had listed a total of "twenty grammatical and thirty-one lexical items" typical of IH in the MT of the Song.Noegel and Rendsburg (2009): 52.
Some information on Teanu, as well as on the two other languages of the island, can be found in . Lexical information is found in the Teanu online dictionary (François 2020).
There are some lexical noun-noun compounds in Tundra Nenets. As shown in the following example, the first element in the compound can always be modified and take a number.
Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT Press. . pp. 237–241Small, Steven Lawrence; Cottrell, Garrison Weeks & Tanenhaus, Michael K. (1988). Lexical ambiguity resolution: perspectives from psycholinguistics, neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence.
Swiss French () is the variety of French spoken in the French-speaking area of Switzerland known as Romandy. The differences between Swiss French and Parisian French are minor and mostly lexical.
In addition to the ordinary lexical tones which go with individual words, and the grammatical tones of verb tenses, other tones can be heard which show phrasing or indicate a question.
Strictly speaking, suppletion occurs when different inflections of a lexeme (i.e., with the same lexical category) have etymologically unrelated stems. The term is also used in looser senses, albeit less formally.
In both cases, attriters performed worse than non- attriters.Ammerlaan, T. (1996). "You get a bit wobbly...": exploring bilingual lexical retrieval processes in the context of first language attrition. Nijmegen, Netherlands: S.n.
While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions.
A 2013 study published in the International Journal of Psychology also found an adult female advantage in time for performing a verbal lexical task and temperament scale of social-verbal tempo.
Pustejovsky proposed generative lexicon theory in lexical semantics in an article published in 1991. His other interests include temporal reasoning, event semantics, spatial language, language annotation, computational linguistics, and machine learning.
Sabela is not known to be related to any other language. However, it forms part of Terrence Kaufman's Yawan proposal. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Yaruro.
When she realized that young tribal members were taking an interest in learning, she worked to make a lexical dictionary. Marie Wilcox and her daughter teach weekly classes around Tulare County.
Models of bilingual representation and processing. Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches, 531-553. Research pertaining to lexical access has indicated that it is not achievable to completely suppress a known language.
The term continues to be used for the central Eurasian typological, grammatical and lexical convergence zone.BROWN, Keith and OGILVIE, Sarah eds.:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. 2009. p. 722.
JavaScript has simple scope rules,"Everything you need to know about Javascript variable scope", Saurab Parakh, Coding is Cool, 2010-02-08 but variable initialization and name resolution rules can cause problems, and the widespread use of closures for callbacks means the lexical context of a function when defined (which is used for name resolution) can be very different from the lexical context when it is called (which is irrelevant for name resolution). JavaScript objects have name resolution for properties, but this is a separate topic. JavaScript has lexical scope nested at the function level, with the global context being the outermost context. This scope is used for both variables and for functions (meaning function declarations, as opposed to variables of function type).
Lexemes with purely grammatical function such as lexically-governed prepositions are not included at this level of representation; values of inflectional categories that are derived from SemR but implemented by the morphology are represented as subscripts on the relevant lexical nodes that they bear on. DSyntR is mapped onto the next level of representation by rules of the deep-syntactic component. The surface-syntactic representation (SSyntR) represents the language-specific syntactic structure of an utterance and includes nodes for all the lexical items (including those with purely grammatical function) in the sentence. Syntactic relations between lexical items at this level are not restricted and are considered to be completely language-specific, although many are believed to be similar (or at least isomorphic) across languages.
A non-lexical backchannel is a vocalized sound that has little or no referential meaning but still verbalizes the listener's attention, and that frequently co-occurs with gestures. In English, sounds like uh-huh and hmm serve this role. Non-lexical backchannels generally come from a limited set of sounds not otherwise widely used in contentful conversational speech; as a result, they can be used to express support, surprise, or a need for clarification at the same time as someone else's conversational turn without causing confusion or interference. English allows for the reduplication, or repetition, of syllables within a non-lexical backchannel, such as in responses like uh-huh, mm-hm, or um-hm, as well as for single-syllable backchanneling.
In the second half of the last century, Paul K. Benedict raised a vocal critique of the Austric proposal, eventually calling it an 'extinct' proto-language. Hayes' lexical comparisons, which were presented as supporting evidence for Austric between 1992 and 2001, were criticized for the greater part as methodologically unsound by several reviewers. Robert Blust, a leading scholar in the field of Austronesian comparative linguistics, pointed out "the radical disjunction of morphological and lexical evidence" which characterizes the Austric proposal; while he accepts the morphological correspondences between Austronesian and Austroasiatic as possible evidence for a remote genetic relationship, he considers the lexical evidence unconvincing. A 2015 analysis using the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP) did not support the Austric hypothesis.
The lexical definition of a term, also known as the dictionary definition, is the meaning of the term in common usage. As its other name implies, this is the sort of definition one is likely to find in the dictionary. A lexical definition is usually the type expected from a request for definition, and it is generally expected that such a definition will be stated as simply as possible in order to convey information to the widest audience. Note that a lexical definition is descriptive, reporting actual usage within speakers of a language, and changes with changing usage of the term, rather than prescriptive, which would be to stick with a version regarded as "correct", regardless of drift in accepted meaning.
While each prosodic unit may carry a large information load in rehearsed speech, in extemporaneous conversation the amount of information is much more limited. There is seldom more than a single lexical noun in any one IU, and it is uncommon to have both a lexical noun and a lexical verb in the same IU. Indeed, many IUs are semantically empty, taken up by filler words such as um, well, or y'know. Chafe (1994) believes that this reflects the constraints of information processing by the brain during speech production, with chunks of speech (IUs) corresponding to chunks of cognitive output. It is also a possibility that the distribution of information across IUs is designed to maximize language comprehension by the other party.
It has been noted that even though early lexical studies in the English language indicated five large groups of personality traits, more recent, and more comprehensive, cross-language studies have provided evidence for six large groups rather than five. These six groups forms the basis of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Based on these findings it has been suggested that the Big Five system should be replaced by HEXACO, or revised to better align with lexical evidence.
As different languages do not always have a common definition of the lexical environment, their definitions of closure may vary also. The commonly held minimalist definition of the lexical environment defines it as a set of all bindings of variables in the scope, and that is also what closures in any language have to capture. However the meaning of a variable binding also differs. In imperative languages, variables bind to relative locations in memory that can store values.
Lexical analysis is also an important early stage in natural language processing, where text or sound waves are segmented into words and other units. This requires a variety of decisions which are not fully standardized, and the number of tokens systems produce varies for strings like "1/2", "chair's", "can't", "and/or", "1/1/2010", "2x4", "...,", and many others. This is in contrast to lexical analysis for programming and similar languages where exact rules are commonly defined and known.
She is probably a development of the Old English feminine demonstrative pronoun sēo ("that one").Example, American Heritage Dictionary and Online Etymology Dictionary derive she from the demonstrative pronoun seo. However, Merriam-Websters Dictionary derives she from an alteration of the variant form of heo, being hye. Although she was a lexical alteration of an Old English pronoun, its grammatical place in Middle English was not determined by its lexical predecessor's grammatical place in Old English.
That is, it is indicated by certain grammatical elements, such as through affixes or number words. Grammatical number may be thought of as the indication of semantic number through grammar. Languages that express quantity only by lexical means lack a grammatical category of number. For instance, in Khmer, neither nouns nor verbs carry any grammatical information concerning number: such information can only be conveyed by lexical items such as khlah 'some', pii- bey 'a few', and so on..
The first major area in semantic analysis is the identification of the intended meaning at the word level (taken to include idiomatic expressions). This is word-sense disambiguation (a concept that is evolving away from the notion that words have discrete senses, but rather are characterized by the ways in which they are used, i.e., their contexts). The tasks in this area include lexical sample and all-word disambiguation, multi- and cross-lingual disambiguation, and lexical substitution.
16th tablet of the Urra=hubullu lexical series, Louvre Museum The cuneiform lexical lists are a series of ancient Mesopotamian glossaries which preserve the semantics of Sumerograms, their phonetic value and their Akkadian or other language equivalents. They are the oldest literary texts from Mesopotamia and one of the most widespread genres in the ancient Near East. Wherever cuneiform tablets have been uncovered, inside Iraq or in the wider Middle East, these lists have been discovered.
The only published scholarship on the Bantayanon language is a Master of Arts thesis presented to Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) by Minda Carabio-Sexon,Carabio-Sexon, Minda. 2007. “Bantayanon: A Lexical Comparison and Sociolinguistic Description.” Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology. in which she looks at the lexical relationship between Bantayanon and its neighboring languages, presents findings from mutual-intelligibility tests with related languages, and provides a sociolinguistic profile of the island’s inhabitants.
The Tula–Waja, or Tula–Wiyaa languages are a branch of the provisional Savanna languages, closest to Kam (Nyingwom), spoken in northeastern Nigeria. They are spoken primarily in southeastern Gombe State and other neighbouring states. They were labeled "G1" in Joseph Greenberg's Adamawa language-family proposal and later placed in a Waja–Jen branch of that family. Guldemann (2018) observes significant internal lexical diversity within Tula-Waja, partly as a result of word tabooing accelerating lexical change.
An estimated 90 to 95% of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin, and there are few lexical differences between the two languages. Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as Malay, Khoisan languages, Portuguese, and Bantu languages, and Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by South African English.
Models of language processing can be used to conceptualize the nature of impairment in persons with speech and language disorder. For example, it has been suggested that language deficits in expressive aphasia may be caused by excessive competition between lexical units, thus preventing any word from becoming sufficiently activated.Self-organizing dynamics of lexical access in normals and aphasics. McNellis, Mark G.; Blumstein, Sheila E.; Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 13(2), Feb 2001. pp. 151-170.
Morphological Merger is generalized as follows in Marantz 1988: 261: Morphological Merger: ''' At any level of syntactic analysis (d-structure, s-structure, phonological structure), a relation between X and Y may be replaced by (expressed by) the affixation of the lexical head of X to the lexical head of Y.Marantz, Alec. "Clitics, morphological merger, and the mapping to phonological structure." Theoretical morphology (1988): 253–270. Two syntactic nodes can undergo Morphological Merger subject to morphophonological well-formedness conditions.
Semantic lexicons are made up of lexical entries. These entries are not orthographic, but semantic, eliminating issues of homonymy and polysemy. These lexical entries are interconnected with semantic relations, such as hyperonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, or troponymy. Synonymous entries are grouped together in what the Princeton WordNet calls "synsets" Most semantic lexicons are made up of four different "sub-nets": nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, though some researchers have taken steps to add an "artificial node" interconnecting the sub-nets.
Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew is a scholarly book written in the English language by linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, published in 2003 by Palgrave Macmillan. The book proposes a socio-philological framework for the analysis of "camouflaged borrowing" such as phono-semantic matching. It introduces for the first time a classification for "multisourced neologisms", new words that are based on two or more sources at the same time.
Both of them prominently feature lexical parallelism. Per van Engelenhoven 2004, "the major issue in formal Leti discourse is to keep speaking as long as possible. Indeed, the important element in 'royal speech' is not what is said, but rather how it is said and how long it takes to be said". In particular lirmarna features formulaic pairs of clauses which are syntactically identical, each pair of corresponding words in the two clauses forming a lexical pair.
The general consensus in the field is that there is a derivational relationship between verbs undergoing the causative alternation that share the same lexical entry. From this it follows that there is uncertainty surrounding which form, the intransitive or the transitive, is the base from which the other is derived. Another matter of debate is whether the derivation takes place at the syntactic or lexical level. With reference to these assumptions, syntactic and lexicalist accounts have been proposed.
Other lexical preprocessors include the general-purpose m4, most commonly used in cross-platform build systems such as autoconf, and GEMA, an open source macro processor which operates on patterns of context.
Elkin cited linguistic commonalities of certain far northern Australian indigenous words and lexical items and ancient southern Indian Dravidian languages. There are also documented analogues and marked similarities in their kinship systems.
The grammatical and lexical meanings expressed by prepositions in the Indo- European languages are expressed by suffixes in Nukak. Adjectives, which are not inflected for grammatical gender, usually follow their head noun.
Lexical Boosting of Noise-band Speech in Open- and Closed-set Formats. Speech Communication 47(4), 424-435. 2005\. Paternalism and Cognitive Bias. Law and Philosophy 24(4, July), 393-434. 2005\.
Cross-language activation therefore seems less surprising. However, cross-language activation has also been reported in bilinguals whose two languages have different scripts (writing systems) and lexical forms (e.g. Japanese and English).
Latas () is a surname, found in many countries in Europe, mainly in Serbia, Poland, Croatia, but also Spain and Portugal from Middle Ages. However their mutual geographical and lexical origin is undetermined.
Within the Wakashan language family, "core arguments are identified only by pronominal enclitics attached to the initial predicate. Lexical nominals carry no case marking and constituent order does not distinguish grammatical role".
JavaCC also generates lexical analyzers in a fashion similar to lex. The tree builder that accompanies it, JJTree, constructs its trees from the bottom up. JavaCC is licensed under a BSD license.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Sape, Arutani, and Warao languages, as well as the Saliba-Hodi, Tikuna-Yuri, Katukina-Katawixi, and Arawa language families due to contact.
Behavioural experiments are often used in personality and social psychology, and include lexical and self-report methods where people are asked to complete paper-based and computer-based forms prepared by psychologists.
The few lexical and semantic items recorded in the East German Duden migrated from ' because the printing press in Leipzig did not publish the multiple volume Duden which has become the current standard.
Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.
Rochelle Lieber is an American Professor of Linguistics at the University of New Hampshire. She is a linguist known for her work in morphology, the syntax- morphology interface, and morphology and lexical semantics.
This assumption along with other resources, such as grammar and morphological cues or lexical constraints, may help aid the child in acquiring word meaning, but conclusions based on such resources may sometimes conflict.
Hebraism [ˈhiːbreɪɪz(ə)m] is a lexical item, usage or trait characteristic of the Hebrew language. By successive extension it is often applied to the Jewish people, their faith, national ideology or culture.
The lexical similarity and phonology with French makes Portuguese a relatively easy language for the people to learn. Most of the roughly 175,000 Portuguese speakers in the DRC are Angolan and Mozambican expatriates.
In 2016, regarding fake news she said that it will be difficult to validate the information content for truth or falsehood. She is an author of Linked Lexical Knowledge Bases: Foundations and Applications.
There are no extant texts in the Baekje language. The primary contemporary lexical evidence comes from a few glosses in Chinese and Japanese histories, as well as proposed etymologies for old place names.
There are five tonemes in Buyuan Jino language. Gai believes that the function of tonemes are distinguishing lexical meanings and grammatical meanings.Xingzhi, Gai. 1986. Jinoyu Jianzhi [A brief description of the Jinuo language].
The Irukandji spoke Yirrgay, one of the five dialects of the language group generally known as Djabugay. These dialects indicate that Djabugay was genetically related to Yidiny, with a lexical overlap of 53%.
Paamese is an Austronesian language of Vanuatu. It is most closely related to the language of Southeastern Ambrym. The two languages, while sharing 60-70% of the lexical cognate, are not mutually intelligible.
Crucially, selection determines the shape of syntactic structures. Selection takes into consideration not only lexical properties but also constituent selection, that is what X-Bar Theory predicts as appropriate formulations for specific constituents.
Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or receptive aphasia, which is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or jargon speech.
In a 2010 blog post, Wells wrote: He also wrote that he claimed no copyright in the Standard Lexical Sets, and that everyone was "free to make whatever use of them they wish".
In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque. In 1884, Polish scholar discovered an inscription near Köylütolu, in western Turkey. The largest known inscription was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya. Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite, Akkadian, and Northwest Semitic; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist.
According to the RHM, lexical associations from L2 to L1 are stronger than that of L1 to L2. While the link from L1 to conceptual memory is stronger than the link from L2 to conceptual memory, the two conceptual links are nevertheless bidirectional. The revised hierarchical model (RHM) hypothesizes that lexical connections are stronger from L2 to L1 than from L1 to L2. In other words, translating a word from second language to first language occurs faster than vice versa.
In his article Learning words in Zekish: Implications for understanding Lexical Representation, He describes their studies of phonology, orthography and comprehension. For phonology his research considers the sounds that exist in language and how they collaborate to form other words. When discussing orthography the spelling of words and how a language can facilitate the spelling of words. When analyzing comprehension, he considers lexical knowledge that is placed into a system which can provide and maintain what is represented in a text being read.
In 1994, Dell proposed a model of the lexical network that became fundamental in the understanding of the way speech is produced. This model of the lexical network attempts to symbolically represent the lexicon, and in turn, explain how people choose the words they wish to produce, and how those words are to be organized into speech. Dell's model was composed of three stages, semantics, words, and phonemes. The words in the highest stage of the model represent the semantic category.
When a lexer feeds tokens to the parser, the representation used is typically an enumerated list of number representations. For example, "Identifier" is represented with 0, "Assignment operator" with 1, "Addition operator" with 2, etc. Tokens are defined often by regular expressions, which are understood by a lexical analyzer generator such as lex. The lexical analyzer (generated automatically by a tool like lex, or hand- crafted) reads in a stream of characters, identifies the lexemes in the stream, and categorizes them into tokens.
Grammaticalization is an historical linguistic process whereby regular lexical items shift function (and sometimes form) and become part of the grammar structure. An example of this in Yahgan would be the change of posture verbs into aspectual markers. Yahgan has a system of verbs which denote the posture of an entity: 'stand' mvni, 'sit' mu:tu:, 'lie' (w)i:a and others (for instance a:gulu: 'fly/jump', kvna 'float' etc.). In normal lexical usage one could say hai ha-mu:t-ude: 'I sat'.
In Chilean Spanish there is lexical influence from Argentine dialects, which suggests a covert prestige. Lexical influences cut across the different social strata of Chile. Argentine summer tourism in Chile and Chilean tourism in Argentina provide a channel for influence on the speech of the middle and upper classes. The majority of the population receive Argentine influence by watching Argentine programs on broadcast television, especially football on cable television and music such as rock and cumbia on the radio as well.
The terminology here is by no means consistent, however. Many grammars also draw a distinction between lexical categories (which tend to consist of content words, or phrases headed by them) and functional categories (which tend to consist of function words or abstract functional elements, or phrases headed by them). The term lexical category therefore has two distinct meanings. Moreover, syntactic categories should not be confused with grammatical categories (also known as grammatical features), which are properties such as tense, gender, etc.
The parsing virtual machine includes a tape data structure as well as a stack (data structure), along with a "workspace" (which is the equivalent of the sed "pattern space" and a number of other buffers of lesser importance. This virtual machine is designed specifically to be apt for the parsing of formal languages. This parsing process traditionally involves two phases; the lexical analysis phase and the formal grammar phase. During the lexical analysis phase as series of tokens are generated.
The base in the syntactic component functions as follows: In the first step, a simple set of phrase structure rules generate tree diagrams (sometimes called Phrase Markers) consisting of nodes and branches, but with empty terminal nodes; these are called "pre-lexical structures". In the second step, the empty terminal nodes are filled with complex symbols consisting of morphemes accompanied by syntactic and semantic features, supplied from the lexicon via lexical insertion rules. The resulting tree diagram is called a "deep structure".
On the other hand, within the same Euskaltzaindia, he has been responsible for management of the Commission for the Establishment of Lexical Criteria (LEF in its acronym in Euskera). Around this line of work the projects of fixation of the writing of the lexical loans, the Basque General Dictionary and the EEBS project (Egungo Euskararen Bilketa Sistematikoa) were developed. Since April 27, 2006, he is an academic in number. He read his address to San Sebastian on June 2, 2007.
Luganda Basic Course, pp.xviii, xix. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kib _ú_ ga ekik _ú_ lu mu Ug _áń_ da 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana, Nambikwara, Taruma, Warao, Arawak, Bororo, Jeoromitxi, Karaja, Rikbaktsa, and Tupi language families due to contact. Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various Macro- Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the Lower Amazon region (rather than in the Guiana Highlands), where they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River.
If the 3rd person plural possessor is a lexical word, not a pronoun (thus the plurality is marked on it), the possession will be marked like the 3rd person singular: a szülők lakása (not a szülők lakásuk) ("the parents' flat/apartment"). In other words, the plurality of the 3rd person plural possession is only marked once: either on the possessor (in the case of lexical words) or on the possession (in the case of pronouns), cf. az ő lakásuk (above).
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15.6 (1976): 607–620. Retrieved 27 April 2014. Though proponents of the decompositional model recognize that a morpheme-by-morpheme analysis may require significantly more computation, they argue that the unpacking of morphological information is necessary for other processes (such as syntactic structure) which may occur parallel to lexical searches. As a whole, research into systems of human lexical recognition is limited due to little experimental evidence that fully discriminates between the three main models.
Lexical field theory, or word-field theory, was introduced on March 12, 1931 by the German linguist Jost Trier. He argued that words acquired their meaning through their relationships to other words within the same word-field. An extension of the sense of one word narrows the meaning of neighboring words, with the words in a field fitting neatly together like a mosaic. If a single word undergoes a semantic change, then the whole structure of the lexical field changes.
Related vocabularies that focus on standardizing and publishing lexical resources include DICT (text-based format), the XML Dictionary eXchange Format, TEI-Dict (XML) and the Lexical Markup Framework (abstract model usually serialized in XML; the Lemon vocabulary originally evolved from an RDF serialization of LMF). OntoLex-Lemon differs from these earlier models in being a native Linked Open Data vocabulary that does not (just) formalize structure and semantics of machine- readable dictionaries, but is designed to facilitate information integration between them.
Informed by studies child language development, morphological change and psycholinguistic experimentation, Bybee proposed in the late 1980s and early 1990s a model to account for the cognitive representation of morphologically complex words: the Network Model. Words entered in the lexicon have varying degrees of lexical strength, due primarily to their token frequency. Words with high lexical strength are easy to access, serve as the bases of morphological relations and exhibit an autonomy that makes them resistant to change and prone to semantic independence.
Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović was among the first to use Serbian vernacular as a standard language for the purpose of writing sermons. After the Vuk type of written language had won, lexical gaps were filled mainly words and expressions already present in the vernacular. This method provided a very limited stylistic and lexical inventory for the writers. Venclović's stylistic neologisms, possessing such qualities as picturesqueness and semantic transparency, served to draw attention of the audience to the text of the sermon.
The indigenous Norwegian Travellers used to speak their own language. This language was known as Rodi. Rodi has heavy lexical borrowings from German Rotwelsch as well as lexical borrowings from Romani too. The German Rotwelsch lexicon found within Norwegian Rodi is theorised to be from Yenish Travellers (German Travellers) migrating to Norway and mixing with indigenous Norwegian Travellers, ite also theorised that indigenous Norwegian Travellers are descended from Yenish Travellers who migrated to Norway centuries ago, although this hasn’t been proven.
Divergence in linguistics refers to one of the five principles by which grammaticalization can be detected while it is taking place. The other four are: layering, specialisation, persistence, and de-categorialisation. Divergence names a state of affairs subsequent to some change, namely the result of the process called “split” by Heine and Reh. “When a lexical form undergoes grammaticalization to a clitic or affix, the original form may remain as an autonomous lexical element and undergo the same changes as ordinary lexical items.” (Hopper 1991: 22) A possible formal distinction between divergence and split would be that the latter seems to be confined to cases where one and the same source has several targets, whereas the former merely refers to the drifting apart of previously more similar items.
An issue in the cognitive and neurological study of reading and spelling in English is whether a single-route or dual-route model best describes how literate speakers are able to read and write all three categories of English words according to accepted standards of orthographic correctness. Single-route models posit that lexical memory is used to store all spellings of words for retrieval in a single process. Dual-route models posit that lexical memory is employed to process irregular and high-frequency regular words, while low-frequency regular words and nonwords are processed using a sub-lexical set of phonological rules. The single-route model for reading has found support in computer modelling studies, which suggest that readers identify words by their orthographic similarities to phonologically alike words.
However, cognitive and lesion studies lean towards the dual-route model. Cognitive spelling studies on children and adults suggest that spellers employ phonological rules in spelling regular words and nonwords, while lexical memory is accessed to spell irregular words and high-frequency words of all types. Similarly, lesion studies indicate that lexical memory is used to store irregular words and certain regular words, while phonological rules are used to spell nonwords. More recently, neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography and fMRI have suggested a balanced model in which the reading of all word types begins in the visual word form area, but subsequently branches off into different routes depending upon whether or not access to lexical memory or semantic information is needed (which would be expected with irregular words under a dual-route model).
GL was initially developed as a theoretical framework for encoding selectional knowledge in natural language. This in turn required making some changes in the formal rules of representation and composition. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of GL has been the manner in which lexically encoded knowledge is exploited in the construction of interpretations for linguistic utterances. The computational resources available to a lexical item within this theory consist of the following four levels: #Lexical typing structure: giving an explicit type for a word positioned within a type system for the language; #Argument structure: specifying the number and nature of the arguments to a predicate; #Event structure: defining the event type of the expression and any subeventual structure it may have; with subevents; #Qualia structure: a structural differentiation of the predicative force for a lexical item.
Position in functional space must maintain functional equidistance and disturbances in functional equidistance set off error correcting chain reactions that are cyclical in nature and subject to drift. Thus, functionally salient lexical items will eventually set off a push chain conveyor belt pressure in functional space, sending functionally close-by affixes down the path of attrition. Such is the origin of agglutinating clitics of non-standard oral French from erstwhile lexical pronouns, setting off the attrition of functionally equivalent fusional means of inflection inherited from Old French and Latin: loss of suffixal inflection on the verb, compensated by the rise of proclitic means indicating person, number and tense. Conversely, functional items going down the path of attrition leave behind functional gaps, triggering a drag chain effect on surrounding functionally salient lexical items.
Changes in pitch are used for grammatical rather than lexical purposes. This includes distinctions of gender, number and case. In some cases, these distinctions are marked by tone alone (e.g. Ínan, "boy"; inán, "girl").
Forvo: Bu elmalar taze mi? A raised pitch is also used in Turkish to indicate focus (the word containing the important information being conveyed to the listener). "Intonation ... may override lexical pitch in Turkish".
GermaNet has been developed and maintained at the University of Tübingen since 1997 within the research group for General and Computational Linguistics. It has been integrated into the EuroWordNet, a multilingual lexical-semantic database.
Hayim Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew, p. 462. According to the Talmud, Succoth Benoth was represented with a Hen and her Chicks, thus associating this god with the astrological constellation Pleiades.
Introduction to the grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The descriptor lexical is applied to the words of a language's lexicon, often to indicate a content word, as distinct from a function word.
Additionally, all Obanliku speakers have some understanding of the neighbouring Bete-Bendi language, mainly through learning it at the market; the Obanliku and Bete-Bendi languages also had an average of 70% lexical similarity.
The Bangi language, or Bobangi, is a relative and main lexical source of Lingala spoken in central Africa. Dialects of the language are spoken on both sides of the Ubangi River and Congo River.
Minimal Recursion Semantics. An introduction. In Research on Language and Computation. 3:281–332 MRS enables a simple formulation of the grammatical constraints on lexical and phrasal semantics, including the principles of semantic composition.
Canberra, ACT: Australian National University. On the other hand, Starosta argued that neither voice nor focus is correct and that it is a lexical derivation.Starosta, Stanley. (2002). Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization.
Translation and cognitive testing of the harmonised personal well-being questions. April 2008. Office for National Statistics Sylheti shares some linguistic properties with Bengali,(Chatterjee 1939, Gordon 2005) with a lexical similarity of 70%.
In Java's anonymous inner classes, only references to final members of the lexical scope are allowed, thus requiring the developer to mark which variables to make available, and in what state (possibly requiring boxing).
Lexical choice is the subtask of Natural language generation that involves choosing the content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) in a generated text. Function words (determiners, for example) are usually chosen during realisation.
The gate interacts with frontal regions to > select a syntactic structure and binds roles in that structure to a specific > lexical content. Plans are constructed in the planning layer of competition > queuing CQ network.
Lexical categories in Igbo include nouns, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, and a single preposition.Green, M.M. and G.E. Igwe. 1963. A Descriptive Grammar of Igbo. Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: Institut für Orientforschung.
Italian grammar is the body of rules describing the properties of the Italian language. Italian words can be divided into the following lexical categories: articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawakan, Tupian, Trumai, and Ofayé language families due to contact, pointing to an origin of Proto-Mataguayo-Guaicuruan in the Upper Paraguay River basin.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kunza, Leko, Mapudungun, Mochika, Uru-Chipaya, Zaparo, Arawak, Kandoshi, Muniche, Pukina, Pano, Barbakoa, Cholon-Hibito, Jaqi, Jivaro, and Kawapana language families due to contact.
O IKPENG EM CONTATO COM O PORTUGUÊS: EMPRÉSTIMO LEXICAL E ADAPTAÇÃO LINGÜÍSTICA. Universidade de São Paulo and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, 1-2. Retrieved from Pacheco, F. (1997).
These are disconnected sentences which are often rejected by leading theorists such as Lewis,Lewis,Michael (1993). The Lexical Approach. The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Hove: Language Teaching Publications, p. 96.
Thachanadan is an unclassified Southern Dravidian language spoken by a Scheduled tribe of India. Dissimilar to other Dravidian languages, its most likely affinities are to Mullu Kurumba, with which it has 66-72% lexical similarity.
A presupposition trigger is a lexical item or linguistic construction which is responsible for the presupposition, and thus "triggers" it.Kadmon, Nirit. Formal pragmatics: semantics, pragmatics, presupposition, and focus. Great Britain: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, page 10.
Predicates may be of any lexical category. There may be additional arguments added to a sentence in Okanagan via complementizers. Okanagan is unique among the majority of Salish languages for the inclusion of the complementizer.
Shopen, T. & Konaré, M. 1970. "Sonrai Causatives and Passives: Transformational versus Lexical Derivations for Propositional Heads", Studies in African Linguistics 1.211–54. Cited in Dixon, R.M.W. (2000). "A Typology of Causatives: Form, Syntax, and Meaning".
The IntraText interface applies a cognitive ergonomics model based on lexical hypertext and on the Tablet PC or touch screen interface. It uses a set of tools and methods based on HLT (Human Language Technologies).
The languages Lanmeng, Huaipa, Dakao, Laopin are similar to Pyen and Bisu, but have a ninety-three to ninety-five percent lexical similarity to Laomian and Laopin and eighty-eight percent to Bisu in Thailand.
With this Nistaar the annual contract of labour ends for the previous agricultural year. As lexical meaning of the word nistaar is "freedom", for an agricultural labourer, Puspuni means the independence day and hence, celebration.
Slovene Germanisms are primarily evident in the syntax, lexicon, semantics, and phraseology of the language. There are few Germanisms in Slovene phonology and morphology. Many Slovene lexical Germanisms come from Austrian German.Reindl, Donald F. 2008.
It is possible also to build and manage a lexical resource consisting of different lexicons of the same language, for instance, one dictionary for general words and one or several dictionaries for different specialized domains.
Within a phrase, lexical words receive greater stress than grammatical words. Within a word, the first syllable receives the most stress. Subsequent syllables receive less and less stress and are spoken more and more quickly.
It utilizes the WordNet lexical dictionary. Its name is an allusion to HAL 9000, the artificial intelligence from the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. Ultra Hal won the 2007 Loebner Prize for "most human" chatterbot.
Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon, which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of lexemes in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding.
"Sanye and Sandawe: A common substratum?" African Language Review 8, 148–155. This might explain why clicks are only present in about 40 lexical items, some of which are basic (e.g. "breast," "saliva," and "forest").
OntoLex is the short name of a vocabulary for lexical resources in the web of data (OntoLex-Lemon) and the short name of the W3C community group that created it (W3C Ontology-Lexica Community Group).
Yolmo has a major tense distinction between past and non-past. These are marked with suffixes on the lexical verb, -sin is the past tense marker and -ke or -ken is the non- past marker.
Nyole (also LoNyole, Lunyole, Nyuli) is a Bantu language spoken by the Luhya people in Tororo District, Uganda near Lake Kyoga. There is 61% lexical similarity with a related but different Nyole language in Kenya.
For instance, Sáchez-Casas et al.Sáchez-Casas, R. M., García-Albea, J. E., & Davis, C. W. (1992). Bilingual lexical processing: Exploring the cognate/non- cognate distinction. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 4(4), 293-310.
These corresponded to grammatical distinctions required by Sami languages, but not by Swedish.Yury Kuzmenko, 2015. Lexical Transfer of the Sámi Aspectuality in the Sámi-Swedish Pidgin in the 18th Century. Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University.
Socio-cultural interactions with Northwest Caucasians have been proposed, on the ground that the Proto-Indo-European language shows a number of lexical parallels with Proto-Northwest Caucasian. Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from other Caucasian languages, particularly Proto-Kartvelian. Proto-Indo-European probably also had trade relationships with Proto-Uralic speakers around the Ural Mountains. Words for "sell" and "wash" were borrowed in Proto-Uralic, and words for "price" and "draw, lead" were introduced in the Proto-Finno-Ugric language.
In 1984, Potter et al. proposed the hierarchical model of bilingual memory, consisting of two memory structures, the word association model and concept mediation model. The word association model proposes a link between languages at the lexical level while the concept mediation model proposes a direct link between the conceptual representation and the lexical representation in each language. The hierarchical model was later revised by Kroll and Stewart in 1994 to account for linguistic proficiency and direction of translation, since then it has been subsequently revised.
In computer science, lexical analysis, lexing or tokenization is the process of converting a sequence of characters (such as in a computer program or web page) into a sequence of tokens (strings with an assigned and thus identified meaning). A program that performs lexical analysis may be termed a lexer, tokenizer, or scanner, although scanner is also a term for the first stage of a lexer. A lexer is generally combined with a parser, which together analyze the syntax of programming languages, web pages, and so forth.
Wordster is a testbed for a number of scientific advances, such as the Lexical Crawler. The Lexical Crawler program "crawls" through websites, blogs, and other channels to find sample sentences for all the entries on Wordster. Over 1 million words have been identified from over 200 million documents that have been "crawled". To address one of the most difficult problems in the science of Natural Language Processing, Wordster has developed a system that allows for online semantic processing and recognition of words in context.
The traditional parts of speech are lexical categories, in one meaning of that term.See for instance Emonds (1976:14), Culicover (1982:12), Brown and Miller (1991:24, 105), Cowper (1992:20, 173), Napoli (1993:169, 52), Haegeman (1994:38), Culicover (1997:19), Brinton (2000:169). Traditional grammars tend to acknowledge approximately eight to twelve lexical categories, e.g. :: _Lexical categories_ ::adjective (A), adposition (preposition, postposition, circumposition) (P), adverb (Adv), coordinate conjunction (C), determiner (D), interjection (I), noun (N), particle (Par), pronoun (Pr), subordinate conjunction (Sub), verb (V), etc.
When linguists study a lexicon, they consider such things as what constitutes a word; the word/concept relationship; lexical access and lexical access failure; how a word's phonology, syntax, and meaning intersect; the morphology-word relationship; vocabulary structure within a given language; language use (pragmatics); language acquisition; the history and evolution of words (etymology); and the relationships between words, often studied within philosophy of language. Various models of how lexicons are organized and how words are retrieved have been proposed in psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and computational linguistics.
In linguistics, boundedness is a semantic feature that relates to an understanding of the referential limits of a lexical item. Fundamentally, words that specify a spatio-temporal demarcation of their reference are considered bounded, while words that allow for a fluidly interpretable referent are considered unbounded. This distinction also relies on the divisibility of the lexical item's referent into distinct segments, or strata. Though this feature most often distinguishes countability in nouns and aspect in verbs, it applies more generally to any syntactic category.
The following trees illustrate polywords: ::Lexical item trees 2 The component words of the polywords (in red) are continuous in the vertical dimension and are therefore catenae. They cannot, however, be construed as constituents since they do not form complete subtrees. The following trees illustrate idioms: ::Lexical item trees 3 The fixed words constituting the idiom (in red) build a catena each time. Note that your is not part of the idiom in the first tree (tree a) because the possessor is variable, e.g.
Those who study contemporary language changes, such as William Labov, acknowledge that even a systematic sound change is applied at first unsystematically, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors.; . The sound change gradually spreads in a process known as lexical diffusion. While it does not invalidate the Neogrammarians' axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions", the gradual application of the very sound laws shows that they do not always apply to all lexical items at the same time.
One of the possible uses of Dictionary-Based Machine Translation is facilitating "Foreign Language Tutoring" (FLT). This can be achieved by using Machine-Translation technology as well as linguistics, semantics and morphology to produce "Large-Scale Dictionaries" in virtually any given language. Development in lexical semantics and computational linguistics during the time period between 1990 and 1996 made it possible for "natural language processing" (NLP) to flourish, gaining new capabilities, nevertheless benefiting machine translation in general. "Lexical Conceptual Structure" (LCS) is a representation that is language independent.
Furthermore, the languages required can also depend on the specific target language at stake. For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the most important languages that should include the same lexical item in order for it to qualify as an internationalism in Hebrew are Yiddish, Polish, Russian, French, German and English.Pages 187-188 in Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, by Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. The term is uncommon in English, although English has contributed a considerable number of words to world languages, e.g.
Extent of agreeableness in the five factor model of personality is most commonly assessed through self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either lexical or based on statements. Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken. Lexical measures use individual adjectives that reflect agreeableness or disagreeableness traits, such as sympathetic, cooperative, warm, considerate, harsh, unkind, rude.
Many researchers have since built upon her work, including AI researcher Fei-Fei Li, the inventor of ImageNet, which was inspired by a 2006 conversation with Fellbaum as well as by the name and design of the original WordNet. She is a founder and president of the Global WordNet Association, which guides the construction of lexical databases in many languages. She is a site coordinator of the North American Computational Linguistics Open competition. Her research focuses on lexical semantics, the syntax-semantics interface, and computational linguistics.
Word generation tasks including rhyme generation (phonological bases), synonym generation (semantic search bases), and translation (lexical access to other language) are used to observe lexical-semantics. Word generation has been shown to cause significant activation in the left dorsolateral frontal cortex (Brodmann areas 9, 45, 46, 47). Considerable overlie has been found in the frontal areas, regardless of task requirements (rhymes or synonyms) and language used (L1 or L2). Selective activation is observed in the left putamen when words are generated in the second language (i.e.
O'Grady et al. define dialect: "A regional or social variety of a language characterized by its own phonological, syntactic, and lexical properties."O'Grady, William, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, and Jane Rees-Miller. eds. (2001) Contemporary Linguistics.
Current LDT research has increased the knowledge of inter-hemispheric communication in people with and without reading disabilities.Rutherford, B.J. (2006). Reading Disability and hemispheric interaction on a lexical decision task. Brain and Cognition 60. 55-63.
Levin. B. and S. Pinker (eds.). 1992. Lexical and Conceptual Semantics. Blackwell. Levin, B. 1993. English Verb Classes and Alternations: A Preliminary Investigation, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Levin, B. and M. Rappaport Hovav. 1995.
Blust (2006) states that lexical evidence indicates that Sama–Bajaw originated in the Barito region of southeast Borneo, though not from any established group of Barito languages. Ethnologue has followed, calling the resulting group 'Greater Barito'.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Paez, Chibcha (also proposed by Rivet 1924Rivet, Paul. 1924. La langue Andakí. Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 16:99-110.), and Tinigua-Pamigua due to contact.
The Witsuwitʼen verb consists of a lexical root and an aspectual, tense, or modal affix (most often a suffix). All Witsuwitʼen verbs carry tense and subject inflection; there is no Witsuwitʼen equivalent to the English infinitive.
Hemda Ben-Yehuda’s 1904 neologism אופנה ' "fashion" is an etymological calque - deriving from אופן ' "mode" – of the internationalism móda "fashion" (e.g. moda in Italian), which can be traced back to the Latin lexical item modus "mode".
All adult speakers of Pokomo are bilingual in Swahili, East Africa's lingua franca. There is high of lexical similarity between other languages like Mvita (63%), Amu (61%), Mrima (60%), Kigiryama (59%), Chidigo (58%) or Bajun (57%).
Over 50 Reviews as well as lexical entries in many leading academic journals and anthologies, including the Indo-Iranian Journal, Acta Orientalia, Studies in Central and East Asian Religions, Zentralasiatische Studien, The World of Music, etc.
Eckhard J. Schnabel (born May 9, 1955 in Bad Cannstatt) is a German evangelical theologian and professor of the New Testament. He is the author of numerous scholarly books, Bible commentaries, specialist articles and lexical contributions.
These methods typically start from domain terminology and extract one or more glosses for each term of interest. Glosses can then be analyzed to extract hypernyms of the defined term and other lexical and semantic relations.
A non-lexical form of Latin is often used as accompaniment for orchestral movie and video game soundtracks. It utilizes strings of Dog Latin syllables and a deep tone to emulate ominous or grandiose Latin chants.
Zay has been greatly affected by contact it has had with the Oromo language. This contact has created a significant amount of lexical and grammatical change in Zay.Meyer, R. (2006). "The Zay Language (East-Gurage, Ethiopia)".
Maisin displays significant lexical copying from Korafe, a neighboring Papuan language. Other languages with disputed affiliation between either Austronesian or Papuan are Magori, the Reefs-Santa Cruz languages, the Lower Mamberamo languages, and the Pasismanua languages.
Hijuk is a minor Bantu language of Cameroon. Guthrie had left it unclassified within the Bafia languages (A.50), but according to Ethnologue 16, it has only 45% lexical similarity with Bafia, and 84% with Basaa.
Integrational Syntax is also a 'syntax as a basis for semantics' in the sense that every meaning of a complex syntactic unit is obtained from the lexical meanings of its primitive meaningful parts on the basis of one of its structures. (The nature of lexical meanings is specified in Integrational Lexical Semantics, while ontological questions regarding syntactic meanings and the details of syntactic-semantic meaning composition are treated in Integrational Sentence Semantics.) Among the syntactic entities postulated in Integrational Syntax for the syntactic part of arbitrary idiolect systems, there are: syntactic base forms, syntactic units, syntactic paradigms, lexical words, syntactic categories (either syntactic unit categories or word categories), syntactic structures, and syntactic functions. A syntactic unit of an idiolect system is a sequence of syntactic base forms. (Again, unit sequences, but not the empty sequence, are allowed as a limiting case of syntactic units, that is, a syntactic unit may contain a single syntactic base form.) In a system of a spoken idiolect, the syntactic base forms are precisely the phonological words occurring in the phonological part of the system (analogously, for systems of written and signed idiolects).
Each quadruple consists of (i) a syntactic unit (or concatenation of units) of an idiolect system, (ii) a syntactic structure the unit or concatenation has in the system, (iii) an assignment of lexical meanings to the primitive constituents contained in the unit given the structure and the system (called a 'lexical interpretation'), and (iv) the system itself. The values of such grammatical functions are two-(or more)-place relations among constituents of the syntactic unit. (Grammatical functions are only one type of 'constituent functions,' which also include 'scope functions' like negation and qualification, and 'phoric functions' like antecedent; and there are other types of syntactic functions besides the constituent functions.) Syntactic functions play a central role, via their semantic content, in the composition process by which syntactic meanings of a syntactic unit are constructed from the lexical meanings of its primitive constituents. Incorporating features of Valency Grammar, Integrational Syntax construes subject and object functions as derived from more basic complement functions that simultaneously cover all complements of a single verbal nucleus; it generalizes the notion of valency to arbitrary lexical words, excluding purely auxiliary words.
The first linguistic system to be affected by first language attrition is the lexicon. The lexical-semantic relationship usually starts to deteriorate first and most quickly, driven by Cross Linguistic Interference (CLI) from the speaker's L2, and it is believed to be exacerbated by continued exposure to, and frequent use of, the L2. Evidence for such interlanguage effects can be seen in a study by Pavlenko (2003, 2004) which shows that there was some semantic extension from the L2, which was English, into the L1 Russian speakers' lexicons. In order to test for lexical attrition, researchers used tests such as picture naming tasks, where they place a picture of an item in front of the participant and ask them to name it, or by measuring lexical diversity in the speaker's spontaneous speech (speech that is unprompted and improvised).
The marking structure contains additional categorial information beyond what is provided by the constituent structure. Each primitive constituent of the syntactic unit, that is, each occurrence of a form of a lexical word in the unit, is assigned a 'marking': a set of pairs each consisting of two sets of categories. The first set contains syntactic unit categories of which the word form itself is an element; more specifically, the set is identical with a categorization the word form has in the paradigm of a lexical word to which the word form belongs; if the word form has several categorizations in the paradigm, then all these categorizations appear as first components of pairs in the marking of the primitive constituent, thus, the marking has several elements. The second set contains word categories (in particular, government categories) characterizing the lexical word itself.
Some words are confined to lexical pairs, such as tirka in tirka // llena 'lightning', or both dupla and mavla in dupla // mavla 'witchcraft'; these pairs are restricted to lirmarna. In lirmarna the function of lexical pairs is to highlight particular elements of a sentence, or simply to mark formality. When used in ordinary speech, the meanings of lexical pairs can relate in various ways to those of their components: : leli // masa 'ivory // gold', meaning 'treasure' : lòi // spou 'proa // sailing boat', meaning 'traditional fleet' : nusa // rai 'island // mainland', meaning 'archipelago' : ili // vatu 'hill // stone', meaning 'fort' : püata // müani 'woman // man', meaning either 'married couple' or 'gender' Or they can simply have the sense of a conjunction, e.g. asu // vavi 'dog // pig' = 'the dog and the pig'; these are the only sort of conjoined phrases that do not require the conjunction na.
Selkirk develops an explicit account of how F-marking propagates up syntactic trees. Accenting indicates F-marking. F-marking projects up a given syntactic tree such that both lexical items, i.e. terminal nodes and phrasal levels, i.e.
HSL shares few lexical and grammatical components with ASL.Tanigawa, N. (2016, NOV 22). Hawai'i Sign Language Still Whispers. Retrieved May 1, 2017 While HSL follows subject, object, verb (SOV) typology, ASL follows subject, verb, object (SVO) typology.
Koki is currently unclassified within Tibeto-Burman. Ethnologue (21st edition) notes that Koki shares 19%–32% lexical similarity with Tangkhul Naga [ntx] in Myanmar, 23% with Akyaung Ari Naga [nqy], and 22%–24% with Jejara Naga [pzn].
2011), (primary source)© Copyright 2011 Smiths Detection. A Part of Smiths Group plc. All Rights Reserved retrieved 09:12(UTC) 27.10.2011 functional to a degree that represents advances upon the performance of generic lexical data mining.
Unaccusativity: At the Syntax-Lexical Semantics Interface, Linguistic Inquiry Monograph 26, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. M. R. Hovav and B. Levin. 2001. "An event structure account of English resultatives." Language. Levin, B. and M. Rappaport Hovav. 2005.
Martin, Samuel E. (1966): Lexical Evidence Relating Japanese to Korean. Language 42/2: 185–251.Martin, Samuel E. (1990): Morphological clues to the relationship of Japanese and Korean. In: Philip Baldi (ed.): Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Warao, Chibchan, Puinave-Kak, Jirajara, Tukano (especially Cubeo and Wanano), Arutani, and Maku language families due to contact. Similarities with Chibchan are primarily with the Magdalena subgroup.
" Proceedings of The 1st International Conference on Language Resources & Evaluation. 1998. The process of resolving syntactic ambiguity is called syntactic disambiguation.MacDonald, Maryellen C., Neal J. Pearlmutter, and Mark S. Seidenberg. "The lexical nature of syntactic ambiguity resolution .
Philo of Byblos (, Phílōn Býblios; ; – 141 ), also known as Herennius Philon, was an antiquarian writer of grammatical, lexical and historical works in Greek. He is chiefly known for his Phoenician history assembled from the writings of Sanchuniathon.
Cognitive processing in bilinguals, 83, 221. For example, in Gerard and Scarborough'sGerard, L. D., & Scarborough, D. L. (1989). Language-specific lexical access of homographs by bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(2), 305.
The lexical information is supplemented by trailers, film clips from German classics, and, increasingly, full-length films. Moreover, editorial texts link the information with the history of film in the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany and the GDR.
Most conspicuously, in many languages verbs and adjectives form closed classes of content words. An extreme example is found in Jingulu, which has only three verbs, while even the modern Indo- European Persian has no more than a few hundred simple verbs, a great deal of which are archaic. (Some twenty Persian verbs are used as light verbs to form compounds; this lack of lexical verbs is shared with other Iranian languages.) Japanese is similar, having few lexical verbs.Categorial Features: A Generative Theory of Word Class Categories, p.
Lexical stress, or word stress, is the stress placed on a given syllable in a word. The position of lexical stress in a word may depend on certain general rules applicable in the language or dialect in question, but in other languages, it must be learned for each word, as it is largely unpredictable. In some cases, classes of words in a language differ in their stress properties; for example, loanwords into a language with fixed stress may preserve stress placement from the source language, or the special pattern for Turkish placenames.
The central lexical categories give rise to corresponding phrasal categories:See for instance Emonds (1976:12), Culicover (1982:13), Brown and Miller (1991:107), Cowper (1992:20), Napoli(1993:165), Haegeman (1994:38). :: _Phrasal categories_ ::Adjective phrase (AP), adverb phrase (AdvP), adposition phrase (PP), noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), etc. In terms of phrase structure rules, phrasal categories can occur to the left of the arrow while lexical categories cannot, e.g. NP → D N. Traditionally, a phrasal category should consist of two or more words, although conventions vary in this area.
Chapter 1.1.2, History, ANSI CL Standard It has many of the features of Lisp Machine Lisp (a large Lisp dialect used to program Lisp Machines), but was designed to be efficiently implementable on any personal computer or workstation. Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language and thus has a large language standard including many built-in data types, functions, macros and other language elements, and an object system (Common Lisp Object System). Common Lisp also borrowed certain features from Scheme such as lexical scoping and lexical closures.
Lexicostatistics is a method of comparative linguistics that involves comparing the percentage of lexical cognates between languages to determine their relationship. Lexicostatistics is related to the comparative method but does not reconstruct a proto-language. It is to be distinguished from glottochronology, which attempts to use lexicostatistical methods to estimate the length of time since two or more languages diverged from a common earlier proto-language. This is merely one application of lexicostatistics, however; other applications of it may not share the assumption of a constant rate of change for basic lexical items.
Denotation is the relation existing between a lexical item and a set of potential referents in some world. Reference is the relation between some expression and actual referents (subject to the technical restriction given above). The word rabbit denotes the entire class of objects that are classified with this term, whilst the RE my rabbit will generally refer, on a particular occasion of usage, to the one individual in my possession. Generally speaking, lexical items have denotation, whilst phrases have the job of doing reference in real situations.
The solution to this problem was based on the lexical hypothesis. Simply put, this hypothesis suggests that personality traits of importance in a society will lead to the development of words to describe both high and low levels of these traits. The first use of the lexical approach is attributed to Baumgartner, a Swiss industrial psychologist who used it to categorize words in the German language. Though Baumgartner was the first to use it, she was shortly followed by Allport and Odbert in 1936, who used the approach on the English language.
Although a considerable portion of the lexicon is derived from Arabic roots, including some of the Arabic plural patterns, the morphological process used to obtain these lexical elements has not been imported into Persian and is not productive in the language. These Arabic words have been imported and lexicalized in Persian. So, for instance, the Arabic plural form for ketāb (كتاب) ["book"] is kotob (كتب) obtained by the root derivation system. In Persian, the plural for the lexical word ketâb is obtained by simply adding the Persian plural morpheme hā: ketāb+hā → ketābhā (كتاب‌ها).
Bread and tomato soup would have been common flavors JIW experienced in his childhood. It is hypothesized that some or all forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia may trigger during early childhood development and lead to the over-representation of the flavors of childhood foods. Both consistency studies and fMRI scans have validated JIW’s lexical-gustatory synesthesia. A fMRI scan showed the bilateral activation of the Broca’s area 43 in the brain during JIW’s taste experiences. The Broca’s area 43 is a part of the primary gustatory cortex which is responsible for the perception of taste.
Lexical resources in digital lexicography are often referred to as machine-readable dictionary (MRD), a dictionary stored as machine (computer) data instead of being printed on paper. It is an electronic dictionary and lexical database. The term MRD is often contrasted with NLP dictionary, in the sense that an MRD is the electronic form of a dictionary which was printed before on paper. Although being both used by programs, in contrast, the term NLP dictionary is preferred when the dictionary was built from scratch with NLP in mind.
The traditional NP-analysis has the drawback that it positions the determiner, which is often a pure function word, below the lexical noun, which is usually a full content word. The traditional NP-analysis is therefore unlike the analysis of clauses, which positions the functional categories as heads over the lexical categories. The point is illustrated by drawing a parallel to the analysis of auxiliary verbs. Given a combination such as will understand, one views the modal auxiliary verb will, a function word, as head over the main verb understand, a content word.
This approach also has some differences compared to real closures, notably more controlled access to variables from the enclosing scopes: only final members can be referenced. Java 8, however introduces lambdas that fully inherit the current scope and, in fact, do not introduce a new scope. When a reference to a method can be passed around for later execution, a problem arises about what to do when the method has references to variables/parameters in its lexical scope. C# closures can access any variable/parameter from its lexical scope.
Lexical access, syntactic structure assignment, and meaning assignment happen at the same time in parallel. Several syntactic hypotheses can be considered at a time. The interactive model demonstrates an on-line interaction between the structural and lexical and phonetic levels of sentence processing. Each word, as it is heard in the context of normal discourse, is immediately entered into the processing system at all levels of description, and is simultaneously analyzed at all these levels in the light of whatever information is available at each level at that point in the processing of the sentence.
Fodor and Lyn Frazier proposed a new two-stage model of parsing human sentences and the syntactic analysis of these sentences. The first step of this new model is to “assign lexical and phrasal nodes to groups of words within the lexical string that is received”. The second step is to add higher nonterminal nodes and combines these newly created phrases into a sentence. Fodor and Frazier suggest this new method because it can transcend the complexities of language by parsing only a few words at a time.
Lexical proficiency is an alternative method that is also effective in measuring proficiency. In a study with heritage Russian speakers, there was a strong correlation between the speaker's knowledge of lexical items (measured using a basic word list of about 200) and the speaker's control over grammatical knowledge such as agreement, temporal marking, and embedding. Some heritage speakers explicitly study the language to gain additional proficiency. The learning trajectories of heritage speakers are markedly different from the trajectories of second language learners with little or no previous exposure to a target language.
Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later. As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding, using a lexical-decision task. He asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be non-words requiring a "no" response.
Dylan is not case sensitive. Dylan's lexical syntax allows the use of a naming convention where hyphen-minus signs are used to connect the parts of multiple- word identifiers (sometimes called "lisp-case" or "kebab case"). This convention is common in Lisp languages but cannot be used in programming languages that treat any hyphen-minus that is not part of a numeric literal as a single lexical token, even when not surrounded by whitespace characters. Besides alphanumeric characters and hyphen-minus signs, Dylan allows certain non-alphanumerical characters as part of identifiers.
The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (LIH) or Lexical Integrity Principle is a hypothesis in linguistics which states that syntactic transformations do not apply to subparts of words. It functions as a constraint on transformational grammar. Words are analogous to atoms in that, from the point of view of syntax, words do not have any internal structure and are impenetrable by syntactic operations. The ideas of this theory are complicated when considering the hierarchical levels of word formation and the broad variation in defining what constitutes a word, and when words are inserted.
All relations are classificatory – more people may fall into the "mother-in- law" category than just a man's wife's mother. Avoidance speech styles used with taboo relatives are often called mother-in-law languages, although they are not actually separate languages but separate lexical sets with the same grammar and phonology. Typically, the taboo lexical set has a one-to-many correspondence with the everyday set. For example, in Dyirbal the avoidance style has one word, jijan, for all lizards and iguanas while the everyday style differentiates many varieties.
When comprehension procedures in one language fail due to the language contextually changing, then the switch mechanism will automatically direct input to another language system. Therefore, bilinguals are slower at reading mixed language passages than at single language passages because they must spend time switching languages. However, those studies failed to consider that the two languages might be activated simultaneously and there might be a later lexical competition in choosing which language information to use. The later lexical completion can also be used to explain why bilinguals spend more time understanding passages in mixed languages.
Language contact is extremely common in most deaf communities, which are almost always located within a dominant oral language culture. It can also take place between two or more sign languages, and the expected contact phenomena occur: lexical borrowing, foreign "accent", interference, code switching, pidgins, creoles, and mixed systems. However, between a sign language and an oral language, even if lexical borrowing and code switching also occur, the interface between the oral and signed modes produces unique phenomena: fingerspelling, fingerspelling/sign combination, initialisation, CODA talk, TDD conversation, mouthing and contact signing.
Sipka is the author of various monographs and dictionaries, such as Serbian-English general dictionaries for "Prometej", the monograph titled Lexical Conflict: Theory and practice with Cambridge University Press; and Lexical Layers of Identity: Words, Meaning, and Culture in the Slavic Languages. His main research interests lie in the fields of lexicography, lexicology, linguistic anthropology, computational linguistics, and Slavic linguistics. In 2017, Sipka has signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins.Signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language, official website, retrieved on 2018-08-16.
Therefore, deaf Icelanders should learn Icelandic Sign Language as their first language and Icelandic as their second language. A lexical comparison of signs from Icelandic Sign Language with their counterparts in Danish Sign Language was undertaken to try to determine the degree of current lexical similarity. It was found that whilst the two sign languages are certainly related, 37% of signs analysed were completely different in structure and a further 16%, whilst similar, still contrasted in one of the four parameters of hand-configuration, location, movement or orientation.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Kwaza, Taruma, Yanomami, Katukina-Katawixi, Kandoshi, Tupi, and Arawa language families due to contact. This suggests that Jivaroan had originated further downstream in the Central Amazon region.
The community speaks Kulhaiya; a heavily modified Maithili-Bengali hybrid dialect with a considerable vernacular, phonetic and lexical influence of Gujarati, Kutchhi dialect of Sindhi, Nepali and Urdu. The dialect have large number of Persian and Arabic loanwords.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Pano, Puinave-Nadahup, Tupian, and Arawakan language families due to contact. Similarities with Tupian may be indicative of an earlier origin downstream in the Madeira River interaction sphere.
Sepik Iwam, or Yawenian, is a language of Papua New Guinea. It is the lexical basis of the Hauna trade pidgin. It is spoken in villages such as Iniok () in Tunap-Hunstein Rural LLG of East Sepik Province.
It was characterized by lexical purism.Mortensen, Bjarma. 2015. Policies and Attitudes towards English in the Faroes Today. In: Andrew Linn, Neil Bermel, & Gibson Ferguson (eds.), Attitudes towards English in Europe: English in Europe, Volume 1, pp. 212-220.
Within lexical or semantic items, the three features of initial, rime and tone are subject to sandhi phenomena. In colloquial Fuqing speech, this type of change is very frequently encountered, but is rare in Chinese as a whole.
John M. Lipski groups Colombian dialects phonologically into four major zones. Canfield refers to five major linguistic regions. Flórez proposes seven dialectal zones, based on phonetic and lexical criteria. Still others recognize eleven dialect areas, as listed below.
At the exception of the far-eastern dialect, much of the vocabulary of Kabyle is common among its dialects, though some lexical differences exist, e.g. the word dream in English (from west to east): bargu, argu, argu, bureg.
This prompted Budanitsky & Hirst to standardize the subject in 2006 with a summary that also set a framework for modern spelling and grammar analysis.Budanitsky, Alexander, and Graeme Hirst. "Evaluating WordNet-Based Measures of Lexical Semantic Relatedness." Comput. Linguist.
By not prescribing the inventory, lexical substitution overcomes the issue of the granularity of sense distinctions and provides a level playing field for automatic systems that automatically acquire word senses (a task referred to as Word Sense Induction).
A separate mental module parses sentences and lexical access happens first. Then, one syntactic hypothesis is considered at a time. There is no initial influence of meaning, or semantic. Sentence processing is supported by a temporo-frontal network.
Non-lexical vocables, which may be mixed with meaningful text, are a form of nonsense syllable used in a wide variety of music. Common English examples would be "la la la", "na na na" or "da da da".
There are no known dialects of Zaramo. It shares a lexical similarity: 68% with Kutu [kdc], 65% with Kami [kcu], 61% with Kwere [cwe] and Doe [doe]. This connection is substantiated by the historical relationship between the tribes.
Lexical analyses view classifiers as partially lexicalized words. Morphological analyses view classifiers as a series of morphemes. Currently, this is the predominant school of thought. In this analyses, classifier verbs are combinations of verbal roots with numerous affixes.
Dialectal differences in Bengali manifest themselves in three forms: standardised dialect vs. regional dialect, literary language vs. colloquial language and lexical (vocabulary) variations. The name of the dialects generally originates from the district where the language is spoken.
The posttest was the same as the pretest as far as the lexical items were concerned and was administered twice: the first time immediately after the experiment and the second time two weeks after the experiment, in class.
Maling, Joan & Sigríður Sigurjónsdóttir. 2015. From passive to active: Stages in the Icelandic New Impersonal. In Theresa Biberauer & George Walkden (eds.): Syntax over Time: Lexical, Morphological, and Information-Structural Interactions, pp. 36-53. [Oxford Studies in Diachronic & Historical Linguistics.
There are two main sub-varieties of Canadian French. Joual is an informal variety of French spoken in working- class neighbourhoods in Quebec. Chiac is a blending of Acadian French syntax and vocabulary with numerous lexical borrowings from English.
When identifying each token, several characteristics may be stored, such as the token's case (upper, lower, mixed, proper), language or encoding, lexical category (part of speech, like 'noun' or 'verb'), position, sentence number, sentence position, length, and line number.
With the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, all Slavic languages decline the nouns and adjectives in accordance with the genitive case using a variety of endings depending on the word's lexical category, its gender, and number (singular or plural).
A case study was conducted to show the benefits of cognitive sociolinguistic approach in investigating lexical polysemy (Robinson 2010). The advantage of such an approach was exemplified in people's different #usage-based variations in conceptualizations of the adjective awesome.
Inagta is said to have 86% intelligibility with Rinconada Bikol but with lexical similarity of 76%. Most Negritos or commonly called as Agta or Aeta (Ŋod for camaraderie) today are fluent in Rinconada Bikol though with a different variation.
He is the representative of a completely-new way of discourse with alternative lexical resources in preference of connotation rather than the commonly-old usage of denotation. He pioneers Vietnamese alliteration poetry and a new style named phac-nhien.
On the basis of a comparison with seventeen other Eastern Sudanic languages, Thelwall (1982) considers Nubian to be most closely related to Tama, a member of the Taman group, with an average lexical similarity of just 22.2 per cent.
In Io there are two ways of creating anonymous functions: methods and blocks. Between them, they are almost identical except for scope. While blocks have lexical scope, methods have dynamic scope. Both method and block are higher-order functions.
Heidi Britton Harley (born September 26, 1969) is a Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona. She is the author or coauthor of three books, and has several papers published on formal syntactic theory, morphology, and lexical semantics.
University Press of America.Blench, Roger [1987] 'A new classification of Bantoid languages.' Unpublished paper presented at 17th Colloquium on African Languages and Linguistics, Leiden. Blench argues for the unity of North Bantoid by citing phonological, lexical, and morphological evidence.
Ghera, also known as Bara, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken primarily in Hyderabad, Pakistan and surrounding areas in Sindh province. It possesses considerable lexical similarities with neighbouring languages, especially Gurgula. It is unclassified within the Western Hindi languages.
Below are the semantic sets of Indo-Pacific lexical parallels listed by Greenberg (1971):Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." In Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. 8: Linguistics in Oceania, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, 808-71.
Encyclopedia Britannica Sardinian is an autonomous linguistic group rather than an Italian dialectDe Mauro, Tullio. L'Italia delle Italie, 1979, Nuova Guaraldi Editrice, Florence, 89 as it is often noted because of its morphological, synctatic, and lexical differences from Italian.
This reconstruction of traditional conceptions, which distinguishes between (universal) syntactic functions on the one hand and their values for individual syntactic quadruples on the other, again allows to formulate general definitions for the names of syntactic functions in the Integrational Theory of Language and to identify their occurrences in the syntactic units of specific idiolect systems by statements in a grammar. Such identification, relative to the syntactic structure and lexical interpretation contained in a given syntactic quadruple, typically depends on the marking structure more than on other components of the syntactic structure, or the lexical interpretation. In particular, government categories, given through classifications in the Lexical Word Ordering and contained in the marking structure, are crucial to identifying the values of the complement functions relative to the syntactic quadruple. Type 1 categories, contained in the marking structure, may also play a role in the identification of syntactic function values.
Norman delivered the non-lexical vocables over Alexander Courage's opening theme song for the first two seasons of Star Trek. The music was re-recorded without Norman’s voice for the show’s third season so the producers could avoid paying her royalties.
In American Sign Language (ASL), more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing.Morford, Jill Patterson, and MacFarlane, James (2003). Frequency Characteristics of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, Volume 3, Number 2, Winter 2003, pp.
Hein van der Voort (2000) categorizes Kwaza as a ‘pro-drop’ language because subject agreement is obligatory, while pronominal reference is optional. Definite argument morphemes can agree with explicit lexical arguments, but overt pronouns have a contrastive effect by emphasizing them.
The name Psycho the rapist is a jocular rebracketing of psychotherapist.See p. 146 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew (Palgrave Macmillan), which mentions also to get her in trouble, a rebracketing of together in trouble.
Tongwe (Sitongwe) and Bende (Sibende) constitute a clade of Bantu languages coded Zone F.10 in Guthrie's classification. According to Nurse & Philippson (2003), they form a valid node. Indeed, at 90% lexical similarity they may be dialects of a single language.
For the Puinave-Nadahup languages, Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Tupian, Harakmbet, Katukina-Katawixi, Arawak, and Karaja language families due to contact, pointing to an origin of Proto-Puinave-Nadahup in the Madeira River basin.
There is no overt lexical marking of active and passive in Kriol. It is only the emphasis of a sentence which can clarify the meaning, together with context. Emphasis can be strengthened by adding emphatic markers, or through repetition and redundancy.
Some lexical forms of costeño origin registered in the region are: “cautivar” (cultivate), “concha” (shell or peel), “pollino” (young donkey), and “yerna” (daughter). It also has contributions from Western Colombian as “hamero” (wrapper of cob), “choclo” (tender maize), or “rabipelao” (opossum).
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Pijao, Yaruro, Arawak, Bora-Muinane, Choko, and Tukano language families due to contact. Some of this contact occurred had due to the expansion of Witotoan speakers down the Putumayo River.
In Russian, for example, there is no pluperfect or future perfect; these meanings are expressed by absolute past or future tense respectively, with adverbs or other lexical means being used, if required, to express temporal relations with specified reference points.
Pronoun and other pronoun-like words are classified as two separate lexical categories. This is for morphosyntactic reasons: pronouns show nominative-accusative case marking, while demonstratives, deictics, and other nominals show absolutive- ergative marking.Dixon, R.M.W. 1977. A Grammar of Yidiny.
The VerbNet project maps PropBank verb types to their corresponding Levin classes. It is a lexical resource that incorporates both semantic and syntactic information about its contents. VerbNet is part of the SemLink project in development at the University of Colorado.
In his psychotherapy work, he sometimes used client created aUI formulations to reveal possible subconscious associations to problematic concepts. aUI can also be considered an experiment in applied cognitive lexical semantics, and Weilgart claimed it could serve as an auxiliary language.
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / It is thus an example of a bilingual tautological name. Rabbi Schneuri was a prodigious student, and had begun to study Talmud at the age of seven.
François coined the term “colexification”.François (2008). This term captures the fact that certain concepts, which some languages distinguish in their lexicons, are encoded in the same way (“colexified”) in other languages. Colexification is increasingly used in research about lexical typology.
Lexical development does not occur in isolation.Goldstein, B. (2004). Bilingual language development and disorders in Spanish-English speakers. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub.. Children learn pronunciations, meanings and how to use words from interactions with their parents and environment (i.e.
Jointly with Yosi Amram, Sutherland developed NewsPage at Individual.com, one of the first publishers of news on the internet. The news engine used a lexical parsing system. Scrum is a framework for enabling business agility at scale across an entire organization.
The examples above can be turned into more precise definitions using the concept of social evaluation. At this point, we can propose to coin a new lexical item, image, whose character should be immediately evident and is clearly linked to reputation.
Developmental Psychology, 40, 746-763. Markman, Wasow, and Hansen (2003) found that “lexical constraints enable babies to learn words even under non-optimal conditions.”Markman, E.M., Wasow, J.L., & Hansen, M.B. (2003). Use of the mutual exclusivity assumption by young word learners.
It has been proposed that the language is connected to the still-spoken Yaruro language of Venezuela. It also has some lexical similarities with the extinct Yurumanguí language, as well with the southern Barbacoan language Tsafiki (especially plant and animal names).
836-841, Copenhagen, Denmark. developed an approach featuring lexical translation probabilities and relative alignment by mapping the problem to a Hidden Markov model. The states and observations represent the source and target words respectively. The transition probabilities model the alignment probabilities.
It differs with most widely used lexical preprocessors like M4, in that the body of a macro gets tokenized at definition time. The TeX macro language has been used to write larger document production systems, most notably including LaTeX and ConTeXt.
Now, most Salishanists believe that functional categories are not prescriptive of lexical categories, and that morphological evidence does not prove that the latter categories do not exist, only that the distinction is more subtle in some languages than in others.
The formal model is such that the results of the description take the form of double-entry tables, also called matrixes. Lexicon-grammar tables code lexical entries together with their syntaxico- semantic properties. As a result, they formalize syntaxico-semantic information.
Davelaar, E., & Coltheart, M. (1975). Effects of interpolated items on the association effect in lexical decision tasks. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 6, 269–272. He noticed the children making errors that indicated the masked words were acting as priming stimuli.
In this way, numbers of potential candidates would be activated simultaneously and then the lexical candidates which are most consistent with the input stimulus would be chosen. ResearchersGleason, J. Berko & Ratner, N. Bernstein. (1998) Psycholinguistics, 2nd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Khansama Persian word. Its lexical meaning - servant or servant. It is said that a wealthy merchant in this upazila (somehow the British merchant in some sense) was a very loyal servant. The servant gained immensely reputation for honesty, fidelity and etiquette.
Intelligibility among dialects is above 85%. Lexical similarity is 74%–82% with upper dialects, and 74%–95% with lower dialects. The language is used in home and for religious purposes. It is understood and spoken from people of vital age group.
Frame semantics is a theory of linguistic meaning developed by Charles J. FillmoreFillmore, Charles J., and Collin F. Baker. "Frame semantics for text understanding." Proceedings of WordNet and Other Lexical Resources Workshop, NAACL. 2001. that extends his earlier case grammar.
LF is one of the cornerstones of the classic generative approach to the syntax-semantics interface. However, it is not used in Lexical Functional Grammar and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, as well as some modern variants of the generative approach.
19041997 In computer science, identifiers (IDs) are lexical tokens that name entities. Identifiers are used extensively in virtually all information processing systems. Identifying entities makes it possible to refer to them, which is essential for any kind of symbolic processing.
Foley (2018) notes that Grass languages share very few lexical items with the other Ramu languages, with virtually no lexical cognates Banaro and Ap Ma. However, the Grass languages are still classified as Ramu due to widely shared morphosyntax and typology. Foley (2018: 205) leaves open the possibility of Grass being a third branch of the Lower Sepik-Ramu family, with Lower Sepik and Ramu being sister branches. Like the neighboring Yuat languages, Grass languages distinguish between inclusive and exclusive first person pronouns, a feature not found in most other Papuan languages. This tyopological feature has diffused from Yuat into the Grass languages.
In her 2008 book, Verb Meaning and The Lexicon: A First-Phase Syntax, linguist Gillian Ramchand acknowledges the roles of lexical entries in the selection of complex verbs and their arguments. 'First-Phase' syntax proposes that event structure and event participants are directly represented in the syntax by means of binary branching. This branching ensures that the Specifier is the consistently subject, even when investigating the projection of a complex verb's lexical entry and its corresponding syntactic construction. This generalization is also present in Ramchand's theory that the complement of a head for a complex verb phrase must co-describe the verb's event.
Scheme, which has an ALGOL-like lexical scope system with dynamic variables and garbage collection, lacks a stack programming model and does not suffer from the limitations of stack-based languages. Closures are expressed naturally in Scheme. The lambda form encloses the code, and the free variables of its environment persist within the program as long as they can possibly be accessed, and so they can be used as freely as any other Scheme expression. Closures are closely related to Actors in the Actor model of concurrent computation where the values in the function's lexical environment are called acquaintances.
Smadja F. A & McKeown, K. R. (1990): "Automatically extracting and representing collocations for language generation", Proceedings of ACL'90, 252–259, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. (ii) construction, which sees collocation either as a correlation between a lexeme and a lexical-grammatical pattern,Hunston S. & Francis G. (2000): Pattern Grammar — A Corpus-Driven Approach to the Lexical Grammar of English, Amsterdam, John Benjamins or as a relation between a base and its collocative partnersHausmann F. J. (1989): Le dictionnaire de collocations. In Hausmann F.J., Reichmann O., Wiegand H.E., Zgusta L.(eds), Wörterbücher : ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. Berlin/New-York : De Gruyter. 1010-1019.
The knowledge acquisition bottleneck is perhaps the major impediment to solving the WSD problem. Unsupervised methods rely on knowledge about word senses, which is only sparsely formulated in dictionaries and lexical databases. Supervised methods depend crucially on the existence of manually annotated examples for every word sense, a requisite that can so far be met only for a handful of words for testing purposes, as it is done in the Senseval exercises. One of the most promising trends in WSD research is using the largest corpus ever accessible, the World Wide Web, to acquire lexical information automatically.
Perfetti argues that words have a purpose that serve as a baseline acquiring reading skill and are important for understanding the components of a word that affect the knowledge of a word. In addition, he proposes that writing words within a text determines the rate at which a word is encountered. Therefore, each individuals reading experience is adjusted to the rate at which words are written into a context of words personally encountered words. In discussing how lexical quality is acquired, Perfetti proposes that aspects of experiencing language can facilitate higher or lower lexical quality for word representations.
There appear to have been at least two mutually intelligible dialects. Warrongo belongs to the Pama-Nyungan (macro)family. The most closely related languages are Gugu Badhun (90% lexical sharing in terms of Hale's 99-item vocabulary) and Gujal (94% lexical sharing). The intermediate level classification of this group seems uncertain: the evidence from phonological correspondences, pronouns and verb roots suggests it belongs to the Maric group (alongside Bidjara, Gungabula, Marganj, Gunja, Biri and Nyaygungu), while the verbal inflectional morphology is akin to that of the Hebert River group (which includes Dyirbal, Warrgamay, Nyawaygi and Manbarra).
There are also four language isolates and otherwise unclassified languages which have been indirectly linked to Saparo–Yawan, and for convenience they are included here. Tovar (1984) proposed a connection between Zaparoan and the otherwise unclassified Taushiro; Stark (1985) and Gordon (2005) see a connection with the extinct Omurano language. The extinct Awishiri and the Candoshi isolate have lexical similarities with Taushiro, Omurano, and each other; however, the four languages also have lexical similarities with Zaparoan, Jivaroan, and Arawakan. These six languages and families in the table at right have not been linked in any coherent fashion.
He has written five books, notably Cyclic and Lexical Phonology: The Structure of Polish (1984, Foris) and The Lexical Phonology of Slovak (1993, Oxford University Press). In recent years, Rubach has advocated Derivational Optimality Theory, a version of Optimality Theory in phonology which recognizes the need for derivational levels. Since 2003, Rubach has been doing fieldwork on the phonological system of Kurpian, a dialect of Polish spoken in northern Poland (Kurpia). He devised a uniform system of Kurpian orthography, which was presented in his book Zasady pisowni kurpiowskiego dialektu literackiego [Orthographic Principles of the Kurpian Literary Dialect], published in 2009.
There is also controversy over whether words learned by fast mapping are retained or forgotten. Previous research has found that generally, children retain a newly learned word for a period of time after learning. In the aforementioned Carey and Bartlett study (1978), children who were taught the word "chromium" were found to keep the new lexical entry in working memory for several days, illustrating a process of gradual lexical alignment known as "extended mapping." Another study, performed by Markson and Bloom (1997), showed that children remembered words up to 1 month after the study was conducted.
Some forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia are triggered by thinking of the word's meaning, rather than its sound or spelling. Others are triggered by hearing or reading an inducer word. In many forms, more well known words and words used with a higher frequency are more likely to have a strong taste association The phonological roots associated with this form of synesthesia drive the current research on lexical-gustatory synesthesia to determine which parts of the brain are active in synesthetes causing the neurological cross-talk condition and how the findings may relate to neurologically normal persons.
Paraphrase (d) is in fact the only possible interpretation of (1); this is possible due to the lexical ambiguity of "have" between an auxiliary verb and a lexical verb just as the English have; however the majority of participants (da: 78.9%; sv: 56%) gave a paraphrase which does not follow from the grammar. Another study where Danish participants had to pick from a set of paraphrases, say it meant something else, or say it was meaningless found that people selected "It does not make sense" for comparative illusions 63% of the time and selected it meant something 37% of the time.
Statement measures tend to contain more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, than lexical measures. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, "Talk to a lot of different people at parties or Often feel uncomfortable around others". While some statement-based measures of extraversion-introversion have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations to lexical measures, their generally emic development makes them less suited to use in other populations. For example, statements asking about talkativeness in parties are hard to answer meaningfully by those who do not attend parties, as Americans are assumed to do.
In Dâw there are either three or four tones, depending on analysis. There are a low tone, a high tone, a rising tone and a falling tone, marked by a grave accent, an acute accent, a caron and circumflex, respectively, but only the two latter are lexical. The low tone only occurs on syllables without stress, while the high tone only occurs on syllables with stress, and the rising and falling tones may occur on all syllables. As the low and high tones are not lexical, they are often left unmarked, as in "tooth", which really is realized as .
Prefixes, like other affixes, can be either inflectional, creating a new form of the word with the same basic meaning and same lexical category (but playing a different role in the sentence), or derivational, creating a new word with a new semantic meaning and sometimes also a different lexical category. Prefixes, like all other affixes, are usually bound morphemes. In English, there are no inflectional prefixes; English uses suffixes instead for that purpose. The word prefix is itself made up of the stem fix (meaning "attach", in this case), and the prefix pre- (meaning "before"), both of which are derived from Latin roots.
In comparing the Post-N400 Positivity (PNP) for congruent and incongruent sentence final words, a parietal PNP is observed for incongruent words. This parietal PNP is similar to the typical P600 response, suggesting continued or revised analysis. Within the congruent condition, when comparing high- and low-cloze probability sentence final words, a PNP response (if it is observed) is generally distributed across the front of the scalp. A recent study has shown that the frontal PNP may reflect processing an unexpected lexical item instead of an unexpected concept, suggesting that the frontal PNP reflects disconfirmed lexical predictions.
Sub-lexical reading, involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of characters with sounds or by using phonics or synthetic phonics learning and teaching methodology, which some argue is in competition with whole language methods. Lexical reading involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of characters that compose them or by using whole language learning and teaching methodology. Some argue that this competes with phonics and synthetic phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning to spell. Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial.
The large number of relations encoded in BulNet effectively illustrates the language's semantic and derivational richness that offers diverse opportunities for numerous applications of the multilingual database. BulNet offers linguistic solutions at the semantic level such as options for synonym selection, queries for semantic relations of a word in the language's lexical system (antonymy, holonymy, etc.), explanatory definition queries and translation equivalents for a lexical item. BulNet is an electronic multilingual dictionary of synonym sets along with their explanatory definitions and sets of semantic relations with other words in the language.Koeva, S. Derivational and morphosemantic relations in Bulgarian Wordnet.
Extensional suffixes, a term used in the Igbo literature, refer to morphology that has some but not all characteristics of derivation. The words created by these suffixes always belong to the same lexical category as the root from which they are created, and the suffixes' effects are principally semantic. On these grounds, Emenanjo (2015) asserts that the suffixes called extensional are bound lexical compounding elements; they cannot occur independently, though many are related to other free morphemes from which they may have originally been derived. In addition to affixation, Igbo exhibits both partial and full reduplication to form gerunds from verbs.
Some authors have noticed that many signs that people often think are idioms in ASL i.e., "Out of sight," "On the fence," "Funny None/Funny Zero," are either sign compounds with transparent meaning ("Funny none" means "not funny") or single-sense lexical items that either cannot be translated into English by using a single lexical item, or whose translation requires an English idiom. According to Battison in Valli and Lucas 1998, "We can show that things that are often called sign ‘idioms’: are often just ordinary signs that are difficult to translate into English."Battison, 1998, p.
In linguistics, semelfactive is a class of aktionsart or lexical aspect (verb aspects that reflect the temporal flow of the denoted event, lexically incorporated into the verb's root itself rather than grammatically expressed by inflections or auxiliary verbs). The event represented by a semelfactive verb is punctual (instantaneous, taking just a moment), perfective (treated as a complete action with no explicit internal temporal structure), and atelic (not having an end). Semelfactive verbs include "blink", "sneeze", and "knock". The idea of semelfactive as a category of lexical aspect was first posited by Bernard ComrieBernard Comrie, 1976. Aspect.
New York, NY, US: Psychology Press Research in this field seeks to fully understand these mental processes. Bilingual individuals have two mental lexical representations for an item or concept and can successfully select words from one language without significant interference from the other language. It is the field's goal to understand whether these dual representations interact or affect one another. Bilingual lexical access researchers focus on the control mechanisms bilinguals use to suppress the language not in use when in a monolingual mode and the degree to which the related representations within the language not in use are activated.
Word recognition is usually used in both narrow and broad ways. When it is used in the narrow sense, it means the moment when a match occurs between a printed word and its orthographic word-form stored in the lexicon, or a match between a spoken word and its phonological word-form. Only after this match has taken place, all the syntactical and morphological information of the word and the meaning of the word will become accessible for further processing. In a broader way, it refers to lexical access is the entire period from the matching processing to the retrieval of lexical information.
Internal consistency reliability of the International English Mini-Markers for the Neuroticism (emotional stability) measure for native English-speakers is reported as 0.84, and that for non-native English-speakers is 0.77. Statement measures tend to comprise more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, than lexical measures. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, "Remain calm under pressure", or "Have frequent mood swings". While some statement-based measures of neuroticism have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations to lexical measures, their generally emic development makes them less suited to use in other populations.
A foreign language writing aid is a computer program or any other instrument that assists a non-native language user (also referred to as a foreign language learner) in writing decently in their target language. Assistive operations can be classified into two categories: on-the-fly prompts and post- writing checks. Assisted aspects of writing include: lexical, syntactic (syntactic and semantic roles of a word's frame), lexical semantic (context/collocation-influenced word choice and user-intention-driven synonym choice) and idiomatic expression transfer, etc. Different types of foreign language writing aids include automated proofreading applications, text corpora, dictionaries, translation aids and orthography aids.
As mentioned above, the different theories of lexical acquisition are not mutually exclusive and do overlap each other. P. Bloom (2000) argued that there are three basic capacities that underlie child word learning: understanding mental states, understanding the kinds of things that get labeled, and understanding syntactic cues; these capacities correspond to social-cognitive understandings, cognitive biases and syntax, respectively. These underlying aspects of word learning may also change over time as the child develops. Older children have some syntax and word meanings acquired already so they may be less dependent on their input compared to children just beginning lexical development.
Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language. There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Persian, Turkish, Hungarian, Russian, and German.
The small families listed below in boldface are clearly valid units. The first five, sometimes classified together as Lower Ramu, are relatable through lexical data, so their relationship is widely accepted. Languages of the Ottilien family share plural morphology with Nor–Pondo.
Puluwatese has two dialects: Pulapese and Pulusukes, all of which have low intelligibility with Satawalese (64%), Woleaian (40%), and Ulithian (21%). Puluwatese does however have slightly higher lexical similarity with Satawalese and Carolinian (88%), Mortlockese (83%), Woleaian (82%), Chuukese (81%), and Ulithian (72%).
Stress and intonation in Shilha are the subject of a monograph by Roettger (2017), who used instrumental testing. He established the fact that Shilha does not have lexical stress (Roettger 2017:59), as noted earlier by Stumme (1899:14) and Galand (1988, 2.16).
Brown has published work on Hadith, Islamic law, Sufism, Arabic lexical theory and Pre-Islamic poetry and is currently focused on the history of forgery and historical criticism in Islamic civilization and modern conflicts between late Sunni Traditionalism and Salafism in Islamic Thought.
X-bar theory, for instance, often sees individual words corresponding to phrasal categories. Phrasal categories are illustrated with the following trees: ::Syntactic categories PSG The lexical and phrasal categories are identified according to the node labels, phrasal categories receiving the "P" designation.
Finally, subcategorization frames are associated most closely with verbs, although the concept can also be applied to other word categories. Subcategorization frames are essential parts of a number of phrase structure grammars, e.g. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, and Minimalism.
Bamu, or Bamu Kiwai, is a Papuan language of southern Papua New Guinea. A thousand speakers of Gama are included in the ISO code for Bamu. However, Ethnologue notes that lexical similarity is below 80% with the most similar dialect of Bamu proper.
111 and/or state charts and can also build lexical analysers via the longest-match method. Ragel specifically targets text parsing and input validation.Omar Badreddin (2010) "Umple: a model-oriented programming language." Software Engineering, 2010 ACM/IEEE 32nd International Conference on. Vol. 2.
In fact, 1967, the name of the municipality was changed to Sainte-Rose-du-Dégelis for lexical considerations. In 1969, the name was shortened to Dégelis when the place received town status. The inhabitants are appointed Dégelisiens for males and Dégelisiennes for females.
Several metrics use WordNet, a manually constructed lexical database of English words. Despite the advantages of having human supervision in constructing the database, since the words are not automatically learned the database cannot measure relatedness between multi-word term, non-incremental vocabulary.
In James N. Sneddon (ed.), Studies in Sulawesi languages, part 1, 19–53. Jakarta: Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya. Based on lexical similarity, Behoa occupies an immediate position within Badaic between Napu and Bada; nevertheless it is geographically, politically and culturally distinct.
A language construct is a syntactically allowable part of a program that may be formed from one or more lexical tokens in accordance with the rules of a programming language. The term "language construct" is often used as a synonym for control structure.
"The Great Gig in the Sky" is the fifth track on The Dark Side of the Moon, the 1973 album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd. The song features music by Richard Wright and non-lexical vocals by Clare Torry.
Hana, Jiri. Czech Clitics in Higher Order Grammar. Diss. The Ohio State University, 2007. It can be viewed simultaneously as generative-enumerative (like categorial grammar and principles and parameters) or model theoretic (like head-driven phrase structure grammar or lexical functional grammar).
McCune, Bruce & Grace, James (2002) Analysis of Ecological Communities. Mjm Software Design; . Recently the Dice score (and its variations, e.g. logDice taking a logarithm of it) has become popular in computer lexicography for measuring the lexical association score of two given words.
"Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages". Nature, 388(6638), 171. If that represents a different structure of the brain for bilinguals is still under study. There are also some debates over the basic mode of the lexical represent of bilingual.
These songs are most similar to traditional songs of the Plains area, but are characterized by a rapid rhythm composed of two note values, transcribed as quarter and eighth notes. Vocables, or non-lexical syllables are used, as are cadential and closing formulas.
English World- wide, 39(1): 24. DOI: 10.1075/eww.38.3.04lam As the term describes, Finglish is a macaronic mixture of the English and Finnish languages. In Finglish, the English lexical items are nativized and inserted into the framework of Finnish morphology and syntax.
Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. Therefore, it is common that they preserve words that become less common and archaic in broader society.Issa O. Sanusi and R.K. Omoloso. The role of Yoruba proverbs in preserving archaic lexical items and expressions in Yoruba.
Suárez (1977) suggests a relationship between Yuracaré and the Mosetenan, Pano–Tacanan, Arawakan, and Chon families. His earlier Macro-Panoan proposal is the same minus Arawakan (Suárez 1969). Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with the Moseten-Tsimane languages.
The Waruna language is a Papuan language of the New Guinea, spoken in a bend of the Fly River. It has 50% lexical similarity with Ari, its closest relative. It is spoken in the single village of Waruna in Gogodala Rural LLG.
The Tonga language of Mozambique, or Gitonga (spelled Guitonga in Portuguese) is a Bantu language spoken along the southern coast of the country. Often thought to be closest to Chopi to its south, the two languages have only a 44% lexical similarity.
"Sign Languages East and West" in For example, a feature unique to these three languages is the lexical encoding of gender. Some signs when made with the thumb indicate a male, while the corresponding signs made with the little finger indicate a female.
Contributions are added through an e-mail editing server, for which anyone can register. Lexical items are formulated in XML. Editorial discussion takes place via the mailing list. The content and the tools are licensed through the GNU General Public License (GPL).
Alejandro Tapia y Rivera. Puerto Rico: Imprenta de Marques. 1854. Accessed 15 November 2018. but a resurgence in the interest concerning Taíno history during the 20th century led to the popularization of native words and the latter term gained more lexical prominence.
These syntactic groups include: #Fixed intransitives #Fixed transitives #Causatives While children with SLI can typically use the lexical alternation for causative alternation as well as AC children, they tend to have difficulty using the syntactic cues to deal with verbs with fixed transitivity.
Among the earliest writers on tribal dialects were Yunus ibn Ḥabīb (d. 182/798) and ˀAbū ˁAmr aš- Šaybānì (d. 213/828), the author of the Kitāb al-jīm, in which odd and archaic lexical items used in certain tribes are recorded.
Native peoples of the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. The first grammatical and lexical description of the Huastec language accessible to Europeans was by Fray Andrés de Olmos, who also wrote the first such grammars of Nahuatl and Totonac.
'' Bulgarian verbs are the most complicated part of Bulgarian grammar. They are inflected for person, number and sometimes gender. They also have lexical aspect (perfective and imperfective), voice, nine tenses, five moods and six non-finite verbal forms. Bulgarian verbs are divided into three conjugations.
The name Zvi Hirsch is a bilingual tautological name in Yiddish.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / It means literally "deer- deer" and is traceable back to the Hebrew word צבי tsvi "deer" and the German word Hirsch "deer"..
Erzgebirgisch has lexical stress. There is a tendency to stress the first syllable even in French loanwords, where Standard German stresses the final syllable (e.g. biro 'office'), but loan words which follow the Standard German pattern are more numerous (e.g. dridewààr 'sidewalk' (from French )).
A lexeme () is a unit of lexical meaning that underlies a set of words that are related through inflection. It is a basic abstract unit of meaning,The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language. Ed. David Crystal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. p. 118\. .
Proto-Luish has been reconstructed by Huziwara (2012), with additional Proto-Luish lexical reconstructions by Matisoff (2013). Like Proto- Austroasiatic and Jingpho, Proto-Luish has a sesquisyllabic syllable structure. Proto-Luish reconstructions by Huziwara (2012), can be found at Wiktionary's list of Proto-Luish reconstructions.
Bhalay is an Indo-Aryan language of India spoken by the Bhalay people, a Scheduled Caste situated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. According to Ethnologue, it belongs to the Southern Zone, and possesses substantial lexical similarities with Gowlan.
Laycock classified Morwap as an isolate, but noted pronominal similarities with Border. Ross included Morwap in Border but noted that they do not appear to share any lexical similarities. However, his Morwap data were quite poor. Usher included it as a branch of Border.
In English, verbs frequently appear in combinations containing one or more auxiliary verbs and a nonfinite form (infinitive or participle) of a main (lexical) verb. For example: ::The dog was barking very loudly. ::My hat has been cleaned. ::Jane does not really like us.
The Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages: Proto-Slavic Lexical Stock (, abbreviated ESSJa / ) is an etymological dictionary of the reconstructed Proto-Slavic lexicon. It has been continuously published since 1974 until present, in 41 volumes, making it one of the most comprehensive in the world.
Traditionally these have been seen as more important than lexical ones and so some studies have put additional weighting on this type of character. Such features were included in the Ringe, Warnow and Taylor IE database for example. However other studies have omitted them.
Kurath, Hans; McDavid, Raven Ioor (1961).The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States. University of Michigan Press. Kurath and then later Craig Carver and the related Dictionary of American Regional English based their 1960s research only on lexical (vocabulary) characteristics, with Carver et al.
Mokilese is a Micronesian language, and therefore, a part of the Austronesian language family. Mokilese belongs to the Ponapeic subgrouping, and is the sister language of Pingelapese and Pohnpeian. Mokilese shares approximately 79% lexical similarity with Pingelapese, and 75% with Pohnapeian (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013).
Rombi (Lombi) is a Bantu language spoken in the Meme department of the Southwest Province of southwestern Cameroon by the Barombi (Barumbi, Balombi) people. It has a lexical similarity of 86% with Bankon, which is spoken in the nearby Moungo department of Littoral Province.
The name Tzvi Hirsh is a bilingual tautological name in Yiddish.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / It means literally "deer-deer" and is traceable back to the Hebrew word צבי tsvi "deer" and the German word Hirsch "deer".
Simulating cross-language competition with the bilingual interactive activation model. Psychologica Belgica, 38, 177–196. which was updated in 2002 to include phonologic and semantic lexical representations, revise the role of language nodes, and specify the purely bottom-up nature of bilingual language processing.
Rathwi Bareli is a Bhil language of India. It is close to two other languages called Bareli, but not mutually intelligible with them. It has 81%–93% lexical similarity with Rathwi Bareli dialects, 67%–73% with Palya Bareli and 68%–79% with Pauri Bareli.
Valency in Korean is partly lexical and partly derivational. Many forms can change their valency by the addition of the passive or causative derivational suffixes, -i , -hi , -li -ri, -ki , -wu -u, -kwu -gu, or -chwu -chu, sometimes with additional changes to the stem.
A Kurdish noun in the absolute state, i.e. without any ending of any kind, gives a generic sense of the noun. It is also the “lexical” form of the noun, i.e. the form in which a noun is given in a vocabulary list or dictionary.
The daughter of lonko Quilapán Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun. Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua. Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full- fluency speakers remain in Chile.
The Moby Project is a collection of public-domain lexical resources. It was created by Grady Ward. The resources were dedicated to the public domain, and are now mirrored at Project Gutenberg. , it contains the largest free phonetic database, with 177,267 words and corresponding pronunciations.
"Salishan languages are highly polysynthetic, employing numerous suffixes and reduplication patterns; prefixes and infixes are less numerous. Words often include lexical suffixes referring to concrete physical objects or abstract extensions from them."Smithsonian Institution handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7 Northwest Coast, pp.
There are many others. It has a 70% lexical similarity with Bera. Dialects include Kyanzi (Kihyanzi) and Suwa (Kusuwa). The Amba were part of the armed Rwenzururu movement against the Toro Kingdom and central government that reached heights in the mid-1960s and early 1980s.
Kalenjin is a tonal language. Tone is used both for lexical distinctions and to signal grammatical functions. For example, nominative case is marked with a special tonal pattern on the noun, while certain singular-plural distinctions in nouns and adjectives are signaled exclusively through tone.
The art of speech as a praise, allegory, and antithesis is used in the artistry and imagery of his poems, which may account for their soulfulness.Tohiriyon, Shahlo. Theoretical problems of poetical language in works of Bozor Sobir (Lexical-semantic aspect). Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan.
The name Zvi Hirsch is a bilingual tautological name in Yiddish.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / It means literally "deer-deer" and is traceable back to the Hebrew word צבי tsvi "deer" and the German word Hirsch "deer"..
Roger Blench (2017)Blench, Roger. 2017. Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany. suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques), can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic.
The lone line of vocals (aside from non-lexical harmonies) is "I don't know where, but she sends me there" sung in Mike Love's upper-register baritone. This section lasts for ten measures (6 + 2 + 2), which is unexpectedly long in light of previous patterns.
Near-Synonymy and Lexical Choice. Computational Linguistics 28:105-144. However such algorithms and models have not been widely used in applied NLG systems; such systems have instead often used quite simple computational models, and invested development effort in linguistic analysis instead of algorithm development.
Emem, or Emumu, is an Eastern Pauwasi language of West New Guinea. It has only 25% lexical similarity with Zorop, the most distinct Eastern Pauwasi language. North Emem and South Emem are quite distinct. North Emem is transitional into Zorop, and South Emem into Karkar.
There is no apparent connection to the Chibchan, Arawakan, or Cariban families, apart from sporadic resemblances with Paez and some divergent Chibchan languages, so Timotean appears to be an independent family. Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with the Jirajaran languages.
Research on mutual exclusivity as a lexical constraint first began in the 1980s. Markman and Wachtel (1988) designed what some consider to be the seminal study of mutual exclusivity.Markman, E.M., & Wachtel, G.F. (1988). Children’s use of mutual exclusivity to constrain the meanings of words.
He also compared the bridge's melodic non-lexical vocables to those in "Istanbul". The Factory Showroom recording features Julian Koster of Neutral Milk Hotel playing a musical saw. Linnell and Flansburgh call the effect of the saw "spooky".Flansburgh, John and John Linnell (1996).
Abui has a relatively simple phonemic inventory with 16 native and 3 loan consonants. There are 5 short vowels each of them having a long counterpart. In a number of cases lexical tone is found. All information in this section is from Kratochvíl 2007.
In Distributed Morphology there are two different types of meaning: the meaning associated with the bundles of features of the Lexicon and the idiosyncratic meaning listed in the Encyclopedia. It is believed that encyclopedic meaning is associated with lexical roots, rather than with complete phrases.
Rooted in the biblical tradition, they represent a "bridge" between the Old Church Slavonic lexical legacy and the Serbian vernacular, as well as demonstrate the possibility for the creation of a standard language based on vernacular, without divorcement from the tradition of Cyril and Methodius.
The lhukonzo (Konzo) language, variously rendered Rukonjo, Olukonjo, Olukonzo and konjo, is a Bantu language spoken by the Konjo people of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has a 77% lexical similarity with Nande. There are many dialects, including Sanza (Ekisanza).
There is no consensus on how to analyze classifier constructions. Linguistic analyses can be divided into three major categories: representational, morphological, and lexical. Representational analyses were the first attempt at describing classifiers. This analysis views them as manual representations of movements in the world.
The Wajuru people is subdivided into three subgroups: the Ngwayoroiat (‘those from the Stone’), the Ngwãkũyãian (‘the Agouti ones’), and the Kupndiiriat (‘the Forest ones’). Some lexical and phonological differences have been reported between the varieties spoken by the Ngwayoroiat (Wayoroiat) and by the Kupndiiriat.
Whereas many researchers lean towards a 'Full Transfer' view in which all the L1 grammar transfersUnsworth, Parodi, Sorace & Young-Scholten (2005). \- i.e. the initial state of the L2 is the final state of the first - Young-Scholten and Vainikka argued that only lexical categories (e.g.
Traditionally, a lexical analyzer represents tokens (the small units of indivisible character values) as discrete string objects. This approach is designated extractive parsing. In contrast, non-extractive tokenization mandates that one keeps the source text intact, and uses offsets and lengths to describe those tokens.
Personality computing begun around 2005 with few pioneering research works in personality recognition showing that personality traits could be inferred with reasonable accuracy from text, such as blogs, self-presentations,Argamon, Shlomo, et al. "Lexical predictors of personality type." (2005).Oberlander, Jon, and Scott Nowson.
Structural similarities between Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut languages were observed early. In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wöldike compared Greenlandic to Hungarian. In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, Finnish in particular, and presented a list of lexical correspondences (Rask also considered Uralic and Altaic to be related to each other.) In 1959, Knut Bergsland published the paper The Eskimo–Uralic Hypothesis, in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences. In 1962, Morris Swadesh proposed a relationship between the Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families.
Instead, the authors hypothesize that the difference in latency times is due to additional processing costs in Japanese, where the reader cannot rely solely on a direct orthography-to- phonology route, but information on a lexical-syntactical level must also be accessed in order to choose the correct pronunciation. This hypothesis is confirmed by studies finding that Japanese Alzheimer's disease patients whose comprehension of characters had deteriorated still could read the words out loud with no particular difficulty. Studies contrasting the processing of English and Chinese homophones in lexical decision tasks have found an advantage for homophone processing in Chinese, and a disadvantage for processing homophones in English.See Hino et al.
This would explain the data as more common words would take less time to detect than the less common words, reducing the energy needed for computation and therefore potentially reducing the magnitude of the haemodynamic response that is detected by BOLD fMRI. A recent intracranial electrocorticography study shows that the activity in the VWFA goes through multiple stages of processing. Using classification with direct neural recordings from the VWFA, Hirshorn et al. showed that early VWFA activity, from approximately 100-250 milliseconds after reading a word, is consistent with a pre-lexical representation and later activity, from approximately 300-500 milliseconds is consistent with a lexical representation.
In linguistics an accidental gap, also known as a gap, accidental lexical gap, lexical gap, lacuna, or hole in the pattern, is a word or other form that does not exist in some language but which would be permitted by the grammatical rules of the language. Accidental gaps differ from systematic gaps, those words or other forms which do not exist in a language due to the boundaries set by phonological, morphological, and other rules of that specific language. In English, for example, a word pronounced cannot exist because it has no vowels and therefore does not obey the word-formation rules of English. This is a systematic gap.
One of the first researchers on the subject of bilingual memory and representation was linguist Uriel Weinreich. Languages in Contact, an essay published by Weinreich in 1953, proposed a model of bilingual memory organization that made the theoretical distinction between the lexical and conceptual level of representation. Three different types of organizational models were proposed: coordinate, compound, and subordinate, each having a different relationship between the lexical and conceptual levels of representation. In 1954, Ervin and Osgood reformulated Weinreich's compound- coordinate representational model and placed further emphasis on the context of language learning, similar to the encoding specificity principle later proposed by Tulving in the 1970s.
Some linguists draw dialect boundaries based upon phonological (sound-pattern) differences and others on lexical (word-usage) differences, leading to various views on how to classify dialects in Texas, often by dividing the state into an eastern versus a western dialect region.Underwood, Gary N. (1990), "Scholarly Responsibility and the Representation of Dialects: The Case of English in Texas", Journal of English Linguistics 23: 95-112. 20th-century lexical research delimited Texas into two "layers": a southern Texas layer along the Mexican border with several Spanish loanwords and a central Texas layer settled by speakers of German and other European languages amidst a dominant Anglo-American settlement.Walters, Keith. "Dialects".
A root (or root word) is a word that does not have a prefix in front of the word or a suffix at the end of the word. The root word is the primary lexical unit of a word, and of a word family (this root is then called the base word), which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. Content words in nearly all languages contain, and may consist only of, root morphemes. However, sometimes the term "root" is also used to describe the word minus its inflectional endings, but with its lexical endings in place.
Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung,See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). . i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein's coinages kabe ‘draughts, chequers’ and male ‘chess’. The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf.
There is a book published in 2013: LMF Lexical Markup FrameworkGil Francopoulo (edited by) LMF Lexical Markup Framework, ISTE / Wiley 2013 () which is entirely dedicated to LMF. The first chapter deals with the history of lexicon models, the second chapter is a formal presentation of the data model and the third one deals with the relation with the data categories of the ISO-DCR. The other 14 chapters deal with a lexicon or a system, either in the civil or military domain, either within scientific research labs or for industrial applications. These are Wordnet-LMF, Prolmf, DUELME, UBY-LMF, LG-LMF, RELISH, GlobalAtlas (or Global Atlas) and Wordscape.
In the case of HM syllables, for example, the hand configuration of the Movement moves away from the location of the Hold. A syllable of type M can consist of the following specifications: a path movement (from one location to another), a path movement with secondary movement (such as wiggling or twisting), or a secondary movement without path movement. The syllable type H (a segment without a Movement) is not allowed for phonotactical reasons. An elementary component of lexical signs are non- manual lexical markings, such as movements of eyes (rolling, widening), mouth (puffing, rounding) and face, as well as the whole head (nodding, tilting) and upper body (leaning).
The term "suppletion" is also used in the looser sense when there is a semantic link between words but not an etymological one; unlike the strict inflectional sense, these may be in different lexical categories, such as noun/verb.Paul Georg Meyer (1997) Coming to know: studies in the lexical semantics and pragmatics of academic English, p. 130: "Although many linguists have referred to [collateral adjectives] (paternal, vernal) as 'suppletive' adjectives with respect to their base nouns (father, spring), the nature of ..."Aspects of the theory of morphology, by Igor Mel’čuk, p. 461 English noun/adjective pairs such as father/paternal or cow/bovine are also referred to as collateral adjectives.
Like most other Limburgish dialects, but unlike some other dialects in this area, the prosody of the Hamont-Achel dialect has a lexical tone distinction, which is traditionally referred to as stoottoon ('push tone') or Accent 1 and sleeptoon ('dragging tone') or Accent 2. In this article, they are transcribed as a distinction between falling and rising tone. The difference between Accent 1 and Accent 2 can signal either lexical differences or grammatical distinctions, such as those between the singular and the plural forms of some nouns. It is phonemic only in stressed syllables, an example of a minimal pair is ('(record) sleeve') vs. ('house').
The procedural account, which builds upon the lexical activation hypothesis, argues that people are more likely to engage in particular cognitive procedures during the encoding of items when generating than when reading. The process of generation induces people to connect the item to information in memory (unlike the lexical activation hypothesis, the information in memory does not necessarily reside in the lexicon). The generation effect occurs if the procedures used during encoding are reinstated during the memory test. Procedural account is also linked to transfer- appropriate processing in that they both cause or do not cause the generation effect depending on encoding and retrieval processes.
One particularly fascinating aspect is determining how lexical structures are represented in the brains of bilinguals versus monolinguals, as bilinguals must map two different languages. Particularly, researchers have been interested in determining if a bilingual individual has two separate lexicons for each language or one containing both.Pearson & Fernandez (1994) found that the language input children received was important in "determining how independent one language will be from the other in the child's mind" (p. 646). Research on how lexical items are accessed in a bilingual brain has tended toward a mixed representation, where there is interconnectivity and some overlapping of the two lexicons but other items stay separated.
In a cleverly designed experiment, one can draw theoretical inferences from differences like this. For instance, one might conclude that common words have a stronger mental representation than uncommon words. Lexical decision tasks are often combined with other experimental techniques, such as priming, in which the subject is 'primed' with a certain stimulus before the actual lexical decision task has to be performed. In this way, it has been shown that subjects are faster to respond to words when they are first shown a semantically related prime: participants are faster to confirm "nurse" as a word when it is preceded by "doctor" than when it is preceded by "butter".
There exist several criticisms of mutual exclusivity. Some theorists believe that children possess this bias from the start of word learning, whereas others argue that it is slowly acquired throughout early childhood. Diesendruck and Markson (2001) argued that children's avoidance of lexical overlap may actually be caused by the way researchers speak to them.Diesendruck, G., & Markson, L. (2001). Children’s avoidance of lexical overlap: A pragmatic account. Developmental Psychology, 37, 630-641. In one of their studies, they found that children interpret speakers’ requests based on shared knowledge between them. In other words, speakers’ communicative intentions help clue children in on what the speaker wants them to say.
The dialect in many towns and villages in the Wādī (valley) and the coastal region is characterised by its -yodization, changing the Classical Arabic reflex to the approximant . That resembles some Eastern Arabian and Gulf dialects, including the dialects of Basra in Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain other Arab Emirates. In educated speech, is realised as a voiced palatal plosive or affricate in some lexical items which are marked [+ religious] or [+ educated] (see below). The reflex is pronounced as a voiced velar in all lexical items throughout the dialect. In some other Arabic dialects, is realised as a voiceless uvular plosive in certain marked lexemes [+ religious], [+ educational]: “Qur’an”.
A serious deficiency of the system is that it does not provide for facial expression, mouthing, eye gaze, and body posture, as Stokoe had not worked out their phonemics in ASL.Kyle & Woll 1988:29 Verbal inflection and non-lexical movement is awkward to notate, and more recent analyses such as those of Ted Supalla have contradicted Stokoe's set of motion phonemes. There is also no provision for representing the relationship between signs in their natural context, which restricts the usefulness of the notation to the lexical or dictionary level. Nonetheless, Stokoe demonstrated for the first time that a sign language can be written phonemically just like any other language.
Different theories have been proposed by linguists to further refine this theory in order to account for cross-linguistic challenges to the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis. Two linguists, Joan Bresnan of Stanford University and Sam Mchombo of the University of California, Berkeley, maintain the idea of words as unanalyzable units; re-evaluate this theory using evidence from Bantu to resolve clitics' apparent violations of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis. They concluded that clitics and their prosodic word hosts are separate entities, thus stipulating that the hypothesis does not govern the prosodic word, but rather, the morphosyntactic word. This hypothesis is incompatible with endoclitics, claimed to exist e.g.
Like many tone languages, the Tone Bearing Unit (Goldsmith, 1990, p. 44) is the “syllable” in Zo, whose tonal rhymes consist of i) Short/lax and Long/tense vowel quality ii) Glides (diphthongs, triphthongs) which are realized as Rising(H), Mid(M) and, Falling(L) and Low tones in isolation respectively. In terms of lexical phonology, the basic tonemes or underlying tones or lexical tones or inherent tonemes either have Lax (short vowel, monophthong) or Tense vowel (diphthong, triphthong) within them as the nucleus depending upon the syntactic constructions with respect to other tonemes in phrasal phonological environments in which they occur as in morphonotonemic processes.
MateCat also provides suggestions by MT which are consistent with respect not only to the already edited segments but also, in theory, to the whole document. This context information will be embedded in the statistical models and should enable better disambiguation, for instance, between lexical alternatives. The context-based models will combine information about recurring terms and expressions extracted during the document analysis with the corresponding chosen and confirmed translations as soon as they become available. In particular, translation constraints related to inter-sentence and intra-sentence anaphoric expressions, to syntactic concordances, and to lexical coherence will be taken into account by means of specific statistical models.
2), Jerusalem 1971, p. 599, s.v. Alfasi, David Ben Abraham In Hebrew grammar, al-Fasi is known to have distinguished between the “šoršiyyot” (radical letters; lexical roots) and the “šimušiyyot” (theoretical roots; servile letters), but gave to them no mnemonics.Luba Charlap, A Re-examination of Menaḥem ben Sarūq's Root Concept – Lexical Root vs. Theoretical Root, who cites the eleven “šoršiyyot” that are brought down by him in alphabetical order – גדז חטס עפץ קר, as also the eleven “šimušiyyot” – אב הו יכלם נשת, and which are referred to in the Kitāb Jāmi' al-Alfāẓ of David ben Abraham al- Fāsī, [Agron], published by S. L. Skoss, vol.
Greater Siangic is a language grouping that includes the Siangic languages, Digaro languages (Idu Mishmi and Taraon) and Pre-Tani, the hypothetical substrate language branch of Tani before it became relexified by Sino-Tibetan. The Greater Siangic grouping was proposed by Roger Blench (2014), based on exclusively shared lexical items that had been noted by Modi (2013). Blench (2014) argues that Greater Siangic is an independent language family that has undergone areal influences from Sino-Tibetan languages, and is not a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family itself. Various lexical items exclusively shared by Milang, Koro, Taraon, and Idu have also been noted by Modi (2013).
Most dialects of Tshangla do not make lexical distinctions according to tone, however, the language overall may be in the process of tonogenesis. Some dialects such as those of Central Monpa and Padma-bkod have replaced voiceless-voiced contrasts with a high-low tone distinction, respectively.
The AVM deals with encoding, verification, and decision operations. Encoding is used to describe the early operations that lead to the unconscious activation of learned units in memory. After encoding, verification occurs. Verification often leads to the conscious recognition of a single lexical entry from the respondents.
The body has the task of acting as an official authority on the language. It is charged with promoting the use of Dzongkha; researching and publishing official dictionaries and grammar of the language; developing new lexical terminology; and developing software and fonts to support the language.
Arabic loans span a wide range of lexical classes. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'. Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon.
Lack of lexical and metaphors compensates for the lightness of expression and rhythm. By choosing the theme, the process, the feeling for verse and rhythm, his style does not significantly differ from today's literature. After all, Luka Milovanov followed the rules of classical prosody in his versification.
"Acoustic correlates of lexical accent in Turkish" Journal of the International Phonetic Association, vol. 35.1, pp. 73-97. DOI: . Some have claimed that the term "pitch accent" is not coherently defined and that pitch-accent languages are just a sub-category of tonal languages in general.
The Trans–New Guinea identity of Kiwaiian is supported by a relatively large number of basic lexical items. Ross (2005) tentatively linked Kiwaiian to the erstwhile language isolate Porome. However, the evidence is only two pronouns, and the connection has not been accepted by other researchers.
One example is grammaticalisation, where a lexical item became a grammatical marker. The markers may further grammaticalise, and a new marker may come in place to substitute the loss of meaning of the previous marker.van Gelderen, Elly. (2011). The Linguistic Cycle: Language Change and the Language Faculty.
Patterns are given as sequence of lower-case grammatical elements, with the central element of the pattern in upper case. The elements are either labels for grammatical categories ('v' for verb, 'n' for noun group, 'prep' for preposition) or actual lexical items (for example specific prepositions).
Noun adjuncts were traditionally mostly singular (e.g. "trouser press") except when there were lexical restrictions (e.g. "arms race"), but there is a recent trend towards more use of plural ones. Many of these can also be or were originally interpreted and spelled as plural possessives (e.g.
The word "pioneer" originates with the Middle French pionnier (originally, a foot soldier, or soldier involved in digging trenches), from the same root as peon or pawn.Philip Durkin, "Lexical borrowing, 5.1 Basic concepts and terminology" in The Oxford Guide to Etymology (2011), ch. 5, p. 134, 138.
Nyole (also Olunyole, Lunyole, Lunyore, Nyoole, Nyore, Olunyore) is a Bantu language spoken by the Luhya people in Vihiga District, Kenya. There is 61% lexical similarity with a related but different Nyole dialect in Uganda. The Nyore people border the Luo, Maragoli and Kisa Luhya tribes.
Lexical tones are the tones of individual words - or the lack of tones, since quite a large number of words in Chichewa (including over a third of nouns and most verbs in their basic form) are toneless and pronounced with all their syllables on a low pitch.
In theoretical linguistics, two-word set phrases are said to arise during the generative formation of English nouns. A certain stricter notion of set phrases, more in line with the concept of a lexical item, provides an important underpinning for the formulation of meaning–text theory.
Civil also published several contributions on the texts from Ebla. His main monographs include: The Farmer's Instructions: A Sumerian Agricultural Manual (Sabadell, 1994); The Early Dynastic Practical Vocabulary A (Archaic HAR-ra A) (Rome, 2008); and The Lexical texts in the Schøyen Collection (Bethesda, Md., 2010).
In linguistics, a lexeme is a unit of lexical meaning. Similarly, Wikidata's lexemes are items with a structure that makes them more suitable to store lexicographical data. Besides storing the language to which the lexeme refers, they have a section for forms and a section for senses.
Kangeyar was a Shaivite poet and ascetic who appears to have lived during 14th century. born in a Sengunthar Kaikola Mudaliar family of Tondaimandalam. He wrote Urichol Nigandu, a lexical work which is familiar to scholars. This lexicon was mentioned by Andipulavar in his Asiriya Nigandu.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andoke-Urekena, Arawak, Maku, Tukano, and Yaruro language families due to contact. Meléndez-Lozano (2014:212)Meléndez-Lozano, M. A. (2014). Préstamos arawak (achagua, piapoco y piapocoachagua) a la familia lingüística guahibo (sikuani). LIAMES, 14:173-218.
These affected grammar, syntax, sentence structure, and also included a wide variety of new lexical items, which were either based on older forms or borrowed from other languages, especially Aramaic, Greek and Latin.Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Hebreeuwse taal. §1. Oud-Hebreeuws en Midden-Hebreeuws".
A core theme of Icelandic language ideologies is grammatical, orthographic and lexical purism for Icelandic. This is evident in general language discourses, in polls, and in other investigations into Icelandic language attitudes.Kristinsson, Ari Páll. 2018. National language policy and planning in Iceland – aims and institutional activities.
246 of Ghil'ad Zuckermann (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of "Lexical Engineering" in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237-258.
According to their research, this typicality effect may indicate an inability to efficiently select a correct lexical-semantic representation. They suggest that selection inhibition becomes impaired beginning at the level of semantics rather than the later levels of production like the original failure of inhibition hypothesis suggests.
Most Timoric languages are separated into east and west because of the island's conflicted colonial history beginning in the early 16th century.Hull, Geoffrey. 1998. "The basic lexical affinities of Timor's Austronesian languages: a preliminary investigation."Studies in Languages and Cultures of East Timor 1:97-202.
St. Thaddeus Monastery, or "Kara Kelissa", West Azarbaijan province. Believed by some to have been first built in 66 AD by Saint Jude. Part of the UNESCO's "Armenian Monastic Ensemble" of Iran. Iranian Parthian and Persian had a massive lexical and vocabulary impact on Armenian language.
Twendi is a Mambiloid language belonging to the Mambila group. Speakers consider Twendi to be a dialect of Kwanja, but lexical evidence from a variety of Mambiloid languages, especially Kabri, indicates its affinity to the Manmbila group.Blench, R. M. (1993). An outline classification of the Mambiloid languages.
It is estimated that Dholuo has 90% lexical similarity with Lep Alur (Alur), 83% with Lep Achol (Acholi), 81% with Lango, and 93% with Dhopadhola (Adhola). However, these are often counted as separate languages despite common ethnic origins due to linguistic shift occasioned by geographical movement.
The Bulgarian Sense-annotated Corpus (BulSemCor) () is a structured corpus of Bulgarian texts in which each lexical item is assigned a sense tag. BulSemCor was created by the Department of Computational LinguisticsDepartment of Computational Linguistics at the Institute for Bulgarian Language of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
Mutual exclusivity is a word learning constraint that involves the tendency to assign one label/name, and in turn avoid assigning a second label, to a single object.Clark, E. V. (2009). Lexical meaning. In E. L. Bavin (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Child Language (pp. 283-300).
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 476-506. They wanted to include every known personality dimension in their investigation, and thus began with the largest existing compilation of personality traits (Allport and Odbert, 1936).Allport, G.W., & Odbert, H.S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study.
Ramirez et al. (2015) notes that Kariri languages display some lexical similarities with Cariban languages. Similarities with Katembri (also known as Kariri of Mirandela or Kaimbé) may be due to either a Kariri superstratum or substratum in Katembri.Ramirez, H., Vegini, V., & França, M. C. V. de. (2015).
Dennis Butler Fry (3 November 1907 – 21 March 1983) was a British linguist and Professor of Experimental Phonetics at University College London. Through experiments he conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, Fry demonstrated that lexical stress correlated with loudness, pitch, and length of the affected vowel.
Dov-Ber (or Beryl)The Yiddish name דוב-בער Dov-Ber literally means "bear-bear", traceable back to the Hebrew word דב dov "bear" and the German word Bär "bear". See p. 130 of Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan.
Zeno Vendler (December 22, 1921 - January 13, 2004) was an American philosopher of language, and a founding member and former director of the Department of Philosophy at the University of Calgary. His work on lexical aspect, quantifiers, and nominalization has been influential in the field of linguistics.
Tree growth can take place in three ways: through computational rules, lexical input and pragmatic enrichment. Computational rules involve an input and an output. These are considered to be universally available across languages. Given the right input the corresponding computational rule can – although need not – apply.
She was awarded Masaryk University Silver Medal for her contribution to the development of Slovak Studies in the Czech Republic. Mira is working mainly in the fields of lexical semantics, word formation, lexicography, syntax and sociolinguistics. Currently, she deals with Czech- Slovak communication and language contact.
It is a technique widely used in natural language processing. It is similar to the concept of lexical analysis for computer languages. Under the name "shallow structure hypothesis", it is also used as an explanation for why second language learners often fail to parse complex sentences correctly.
Most current models in word recognition assume that bilingual lexical access is nonselective, which also take into account the demands of task and context-dependence of processing.A flow chart representation of the BIA+ model for bilingual language processing including the word identification and task/decision subsystems.
The jocular Singlish word paktorlogy refers to the "science of going on a date with someone", see p. 106 in Ghil'ad Zuckermann (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). .
Indeed, Wang and Lien discovered that the Teochew phenomenon was the result of borrowing from the local literary reading tradition. They present a revised model that distinguishes between the initial "actuation" of a sound change by language contact or internal factors, and its "implementation" by lexical diffusion.
In Wei et al. combine lexical chains and WordNet to extract a set of semantically related words from texts and use them for clustering. Their approach uses an ontological hierarchical structure to provide a more accurate assessment of similarity between terms during the word sense disambiguation task.
Collaborating with Malcolm Ross and Meredith Osmond on a six volume series using lexical comparisons to reconstruct the culture and environment of Proto-Oceanic speakers; completing dictionaries of Kalam (Papua New Guinea) and Wayan (Western Fiji); collaborating with Ian Saem Majnep on a book on Kalam ethnobotany.
Locative constructions in Marquesan follow this pattern (elements in parentheses are optional): Preposition - (Modifier) - lexical head - (Directional) - (Demonstrative) - (Modifier) - Possessive Attribute/Attributive Noun Phrases Gabriele H. Cablitz (2006), p. 282 For example: : Gabriele H. Cablitz (2006), p. 284 This locative syntactic pattern is common among Polynesian languages.
Despite being an excellent source of lexical information, the BNC can only really be used to study a limited set of grammatical patterns, particularly those which have distinctive lexical correlates. While it is easy enough to find all the occurrences of "enjoy", and to sort them according to the part- of-speech category of the following word, it requires additional work to find all cases of verbs followed by a gerund, since the SARA index of the BNC does not include part-of-speech categories such as "all verbs" or "all V-ing forms". Some lexical correlates are also too ambiguous to allow them to be used in queries: any search for restrictive relative clauses would provide the user with irrelevant data, given the number of other uses of wh-pronouns and of that in the language (not to mention the impossibility of identifying relative clauses with pronoun deletion, as in "the man I saw"). Particular semantic and pragmatic categories (doubt, cognisance, disagreements, summaries, etc.) are difficult to locate for the same reason.
Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.James Mercanton (1967). Les heures de James Joyce.
Thus, the roots of motion verbs convey the lexical information of manner of movement, e.g. walking, crawling, running, whereas prefixes denote path, e.g. motion in and out of space.Nesset (2008) applied Leonard Talmy's (1985, 2000) terms "manner" and "path" to her image schema for Russian verbs of motion.
Language use is vigorous among both adults and children, with people in some areas monolingual. Sandawe has two dialects, northwest and southeast. Differences include speaking speed, vowel dropping, some word taboo, and minor lexical and grammatical differences. Some Alagwa have shifted to Sandawe, and are considered a Sandawe clan.
In programming languages, a closure, also lexical closure or function closure, is a technique for implementing lexically scoped name binding in a language with first-class functions. Operationally, a closure is a record storing a function together with an environment.Sussman and Steele. "Scheme: An interpreter for extended lambda calculus".
When the initial, outermost override's context terminates, the thread-local key is deleted, exposing the global version of the variable once again to that thread. With referential transparency the dynamic scope is restricted to the argument stack of the current function only, and coincides with the lexical scope.
The Java Wikipedia Library (JWPL)Reference publication: Zesch, Müller, Gurevych: Extracting Lexical Semantic Knowledge from Wikipedia and Wiktionary, Proceedings of LREC 2008. was also developed at UKP Lab. It is a Java-based application programming interface for Wikipedia and allows programmatic access to all information contained in Wikipedia.
In SBCG, phrasal signs are licensed by correspondence to the mother of some licit construct of the grammar. A construct is a local tree with signs at its nodes. Combinatorial constructions define classes of constructs. Lexical class constructions describe combinatoric and other properties common to a group of lexemes.
Blench argues that the lexical similarities between Kman and Zakhring are borrowings, and that Zakhring had borrowed heavily from Kman and Tibetic, and then later borrowed from Naga languages and Jingpho as well. Regardless, they are not closely related to the Northern Mishmi also known as Digaro languages.
Repetition priming, also called direct priming, is a form of positive priming. When a stimulus is experienced, it is also primed. This means that later experiences of the stimulus will be processed more quickly by the brain. This effect has been found on words in the lexical decision task.
The lexical categories that a given grammar assumes will likely vary from this list. Certainly numerous subcategories can be acknowledged. For instance, one can view pronouns as a subtype of noun, and verbs can be divided into finite verbs and non-finite verbs (e.g. gerund, infinitive, participle, etc.).
In most languages, the pitch or pitch contour in which a syllable is pronounced conveys shades of meaning such as emphasis or surprise, or distinguishes a statement from a question. In tonal languages, however, the pitch affects the basic lexical meaning (e.g. "cat" vs. "dog") or grammatical meaning (e.g.
Dutton (1971) said Bauwaki was a link to the Yareban languages. It has greater lexical similarity with Aneme Wake (Yareban) than the closest Mailuan language, Domu. Usher (2020) classifies Mailuan, Bauwaki and Yareban together. Magi shows evidence of language shift from an Oceanic language in many Oceanic words.
Utkuhiksalik has been analysed as a subdialect of Natsilik within the Western Canadian Inuktun (Inuvialuktun) dialect continuum. While Utkuhiksalik has much in common with the other Natsilik subdialects, the Utkuhiksalingmiut and the Natsilingmiut were historically distinct groups. Today there are still lexical and phonological differences between Utkuhiksalik and Natsilik.
All languages are able to specify the quantity of referents. They may do so by lexical means with words such as English a few, some, one, two, five hundred. However, not every language has a grammatical category of number. Grammatical number is expressed by morphological or syntactic means.
It is a feature of English that reduced vowels frequently alternate with full vowels: a given word or morpheme may be pronounced with a reduced vowel in some instances and a full vowel in other instances, usually depending on the degree of stress (lexical or prosodic) given to it.
Language resource management - Lexical markup framework (LMF; ISO 24613:2008), is the ISO International Organization for Standardization ISO/TC37 standard for natural language processing (NLP) and machine-readable dictionary (MRD) lexicons. The scope is standardization of principles and methods relating to language resources in the contexts of multilingual communication.
Landsberger was an eminent and groundbreaking scholar, editing many important lexical texts and conducting fundamental linguistic studies. He passed on a Germanic academic tradition that continues today in many countries via his students. He was also known for particularly black humor and a love of cigars and beer.
He worked at UZEI, among other things, in the dictionaries of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics. He also studied the formation of lexicon and taught courses on the subject. Finally, he is the author of the systematization work carried out in UZEI around the writing and pronunciation of lexical loans.
Pausing or its lack contributes to the perception of word groups, or chunks. Examples include the phrase, phraseme, constituent or interjection. Chunks commonly highlight lexical items or fixed expression idioms. Chunking prosody is present on any complete utterance and may correspond to a syntactic category, but not necessarily.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Yanomami, Arawak, Nadahup, Puinave-Kak, Bora-Muinane, and Choko language families due to contact. Meléndez-Lozano (2014)Meléndez-Lozano, M. A. (2014). Préstamos arawak (achagua, piapoco y piapocoachagua) a la familia lingüística guahibo (sikuani). LIAMES, 14:173-218.
Is Aroid Nilo-Saharan or Afro-Asiatic? Some evidences from phonological, lexical and morphological reconstructions. Paper presented at the Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, May 22–24, 2013, Cologne, Germany. argues that Aroid ( South Omotic) has a "Nilo-Saharan origin" and had become strongly influenced by other "Omotic" language groups.
Batuley (Gwatle lir) is a language spoken on the Aru Islands of eastern Indonesia. It is close to Mariri; Hughes (1987) estimates that around 80% of lexical items are shared. The language's name comes from the Gwatle island (Batuley in Indonesian), which the Batuley consider their homeland (Daigle (2015)).
The Yolmo language shares high lexical similarities with Sherpa and Tibetan. It is traditionally transcribed in the Sambhoti (Tibetan) script, but many modern academics use the Devanagari script as well. The Yolmo language is also very closely related to Kagate, another language of the Kyirong-Kagate language sub-group.
Reading this text fluently, intrinsic motivation is recovered, whilst the lexical route storage is expanded with the necessary accurate context, semantics, and syntactical information. The curriculum consists of 195 lessons, grouped in 45 groups covering non-fictional subjects. A typical child requires 18 months to complete the curriculum.
Rejang has five different dialects. Speakers of each dialects are able to communicate with one another, in spite of lexical and phonological differences. The five dialects of Rejangs are Musi (Musai), Lebong, Kebanagung, Rawas (Awes), and Pesisir. Among all dialects, Awes dialect is the hardest for other dialects speakers.
The Yiddish name דוב-בער Dov-Ber literally means "bear-bear", traceable back to the Hebrew word דב dov "bear" and the German word Bär "bear".Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. / It is thus an example of a bilingual tautological name.
In some cases there are major differences in how different people use the same word;E Reiter and S Sripada (2002). Human Variation and Lexical Choice. Computational Linguistics 28:545-553. for example, some people use by evening to mean 6PM and others use it to mean midnight.
Poula has several suffix nominalisers, but has no prefix nominaliser. Most nominalisers indicate an early stage of grammaticalisation. This is because, most nom- inalisers still retain their lexical meaning, and may occur before nominals too. Except the converb -ni, nominalisers are developed due to elision of the nominaliser -zy.
A serial model of language production divides the process into several stages. For example, there may be one stage for determining pronunciation and a stage for determining lexical content. The serial model does not allow overlap of these stages, so they may only be completed one at a time.
Results will vary depending upon the dictionary used. This technique can also be performed on other lexical classes, such as verbs. ; Snowball : A poem in which each line is a single word, and each successive word is one letter longer. ; Lipogram : Writing that excludes one or more letters.
Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic analysis to forensics. Forensic analysis investigates the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also used their expertise in the framework of criminal cases.
For example, a semantic field of love can be created with lexical choices such as adore, admire, and care. Grammar/syntax is another feature of language in general but also utterances, and pragmatics means that when utterances are spoken or written the meaning is not literal, as in sarcasm.
Many researchers believe that it is more a part of the Southern dialect region as it shares many components with it. Others believe that it is its own dialect with results coming from differing lexical variables. Appalachian English does include many similar grammatical components as the Midland dialect.
In 2002, after many years of work, a new revised edition appeared with the title La Nova Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto (The New PIV), also dubbed PIV2 or PIV2002. Its chief editor was Michel Duc-Goninaz. PIV2002 (much like PIV2005) includes 16,780 words and 46,890 lexical units.Blahuš, Marek.
Inkawasi-Kañaris is a variety of Quechua spoken in the districts of Incahuasi and Cañaris, Ferreñafe in the Peruvian region of Lambayeque. Inkawasi-Kañaris Quechua belongs to Quechua II, subgroup Cajamarca–Cañaris (Quechua II a, Yunkay) and is closest to Cajamarca Quechua, with which it has 94% lexical similarity.
A semantic approach to a given problem is motivated by the notion that an utterance is composed of many semantic units (compositionality). Each of these units plays a role in the overall meaning of an utterance.Dalrymple, Mary. Semantics and Syntax in Lexical Functional Grammar: The Resource Logic Approach.
Ferreira, V. (2005). Estúdio Lexical da Língua Matis: Subsídios para um Dicionário Bilíngüe (Doctoral thesis, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2000). Campinas: UNICAMP/IEL. Rogério Vicente Ferreira, a researcher at the Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, has also produced a number of key texts regarding the Matis language.
Attested syllable shapes for stem-initial syllables include (C)CV(C), with certain restrictions on where some consonants (such as glides and nasals) can appear within those syllables. Very few words begin with vowels in Mungbam; these are primarily restricted to lexical nouns, some pronouns, and some grammatical particles.
While it is accessible to human users via a web browser, its primary use is in automatic text analysis and artificial intelligence applications. WordNet was first created in the English languageG. A. Miller, R. Beckwith, C. D. Fellbaum, D. Gross, K. Miller. 1990. WordNet: An online lexical database. Int.
Jat is a town and taluka headquarters in Miraj subdivision of Sangli district in southern Maharashtra. It is often spelled as "Jath" according to South Indian lexical nomenclature. Jat is one of the largest tehsils in Maharashtra state. Demographically, it has historically been a part of Man Desh.
A recursive transition network for "fancy nouns". Note that recursion is created by the nodes labelled "Fancy noun". A recursive transition network ("RTN") is a graph theoretical schematic used to represent the rules of a context-free grammar. RTNs have application to programming languages, natural language and lexical analysis.
Instead, multiple migrations of various pre-Austronesian peoples and languages from the Chinese mainland that were related but distinct came together to form what we now know as Austronesian in Taiwan. Hence, Blench considers the single- migration model to be inconsistent with both the archaeological and linguistic (lexical) evidence.
Ellis's symbol was a turned , rather than a mid dot as shown here, and so aligned with the top dot of a colon . The tone marks align more evenly when typeset this way. before a word indicated prosodic or contrastive stress. After a syllable it indicated lexical stress.
In Ladefoged's approach, our examples are transcribed phonemically as cóunterintélligence , with two stressed syllables, and cóunterfoil , with one. In citation form, or at the end of a prosodic unit (marked ), extra stress appears from the utterance that is not inherent in the words themselves: cóunterin _tél_ ligence and _cóun_ terfoil . To determine where the actual lexical stress is in a word, one may try pronouncing the word in a phrase, with other words before and after it and without any pauses between them, to eliminate the effects of tonic stress: in the còunterintèlligence commúnity, for example, one can hear secondary (that is, lexical) stress on two syllables of counterintelligence, as the primary (tonic) stress has shifted to community.
In addition to the above many maps carry one or more (graphical) bar scales. For example, some modern British maps have three bar scales, one each for kilometres, miles and nautical miles. A lexical scale in a language known to the user may be easier to visualise than a ratio: if the scale is an inch to two miles and the map user can see two villages that are about two inches apart on the map, then it is easy to work out that the villages are about four miles apart on the ground. A lexical scale may cause problems if it expressed in a language that the user does not understand or in obsolete or ill-defined units.
While some languages, such as Japanese and Hungarian, have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet the demands of modernization, other languages, such as Hindi and Arabic, have failed to do so. Such expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of linguistic purism often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process of word formation or from extensive borrowing from another language. While Hungarian has almost exclusively used language- internal processes to coin new words, Japanese has borrowed extensively from English to derive new words as part of its modernization.
Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole or to be preserved invariant from the substrate language in the creole through a process of relexification: the substrate language replaces the native lexical items with lexical material from the superstrate language while retaining the native grammatical categories.See the article on relexification for a discussion of the controversy surrounding the retaining of substrate grammatical features through relexification. The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways.
For instance, the expression "snow is white" is true if and only if snow is, in fact, white. Lexical units can be understood as holding meaning either by virtue of set of things they may apply to (called the "extension" of the word), or in terms of the common properties that hold between these things (called its "intension"). The intension provides an interlocutor with the necessary and sufficient conditions that let a thing qualify as a member of some lexical unit's extension. Roughly, propositional functions are those abstract instructions that guide the interpreter in taking the free variables in an open sentence and filling them in, resulting in a correct understanding of the sentence as a whole.
Bhotia, Sherpa, Thakali, Gurung, Kirant, Rai, Limbu, Nepal Bhasa, Pahari, Tamang (note that Kulu Rodu (Kulung) territories are mistakenly marked as Tamu/Gurung territories in this map) Tamang (Devanagari: तामाङ; tāmāṅ) is a term used to collectively refer to a dialect cluster spoken mainly in Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal (Mainly Darjeeling Districts - पश्चिम बङ्गाल राज्यको दार्जीलिङ जिल्लाको बिभिन्न भूभाग), some parts of Assam and North East Region. It comprises Eastern Tamang, Northwestern Tamang, Southwestern Tamang, Eastern Gorkha Tamang, and Western Tamang. Lexical similarity between Eastern Tamang (which is regarded as the most prominent) and other Tamang languages varies between 81% to 63%. For comparison, lexical similarity between Spanish and Portuguese, is estimated at 89%.
Borrowing from Italian occurred most frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries, due largely to the influence of the Italian Renaissance. With the development of the Spanish Empire in the New World came lexical borrowing from indigenous languages of the Americas, especially vocabulary dealing with flora, fauna, and cultural concepts unique to the Americas. Borrowing from English has become especially strong, beginning in the 20th century, with words borrowed from many fields of activity, including sports, technology, and commerce. The incorporation into Spanish of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church.
Thus, logical formalization is important for thinking about existence, just as the issues of human existence are essential for understanding thinking and logic. This conception of philosophy owes the hardly unorthodox intersections that Cabrera did in his studies of logic, connecting Saul Kripke with Martin Heidegger, Immanuel Kant with John Austin, and Ludwig Wittgenstein with Jean- Paul Sartre. Cabrera's work has the expectation of allying the formal instruments to the existential contents of life. The critique to the alleged empty generality of logic goes in this direction as well as the proposal of a lexical logic of predicative connections, in an attempt to lend to lexical analysis a formal dimension, but loaded with content.
Over the years, several linguists have suggested a link between Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan, probably starting with Westermann's comparative work on the "Sudanic" family in which 'Eastern Sudanic' (now classified as Nilo-Saharan) and 'Western Sudanic' (now classified as Niger–Congo) were united. Gregersen (1972) proposed that Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan be united into a larger phylum, which he termed Kongo–Saharan. His evidence was mainly based on the uncertainty in the classification of Songhay, morphological resemblances, and lexical similarities. A more recent proponent was Roger Blench (1995), who puts forward phonological, morphological and lexical evidence for uniting Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan in a Niger–Saharan phylum, with special affinity between Niger–Congo and Central Sudanic.
Parse tree of Python code with inset tokenization The syntax of textual programming languages is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus–Naur form (for grammatical structure) to inductively specify syntactic categories (nonterminals) and terminal symbols. Syntactic categories are defined by rules called productions, which specify the values that belong to a particular syntactic category. Terminal symbols are the concrete characters or strings of characters (for example keywords such as define, if, let, or void) from which syntactically valid programs are constructed. A language can have different equivalent grammars, such as equivalent regular expressions (at the lexical levels), or different phrase rules which generate the same language.
It also provides framing/grounding, anaphora resolution, head- word identification, lexical chunking, part-of-speech identification, and tagging, including entity, date, money, gender, etc. tagging. It includes a compatibility mode to generate dependency output compatible with the Stanford parser,The Stanford Parser: A statistical parser and Penn TreebankThe Penn Treebank Project -compatible POS tagging. Link Grammar has also been employed for information extraction of biomedical textsSampo Pyysalo, Tapio Salakoski, Sophie Aubin and Adeline Nazarenko, "Lexical Adaptation of Link Grammar to the Biomedical Sublanguage: a Comparative Evaluation of Three Approaches", BMC Bioinformatics 7(Suppl 3):S2 (2006). and events described in news articles, as well as experimental machine translation systems from English to German, Turkish, Indonesian.
The term substrate with reference to Proto- Germanic refers to lexical items and phonological elements that do not appear to be descended from Proto-Indo-European. The substrate theory postulates that the elements came from an earlier population that stayed amongst the Indo- Europeans and was influential enough to bring over some elements of its own language. The theory of a non-Indo-European substrate was first proposed by Sigmund Feist, who estimated that about a third of all Proto-Germanic lexical items came from the substrate. Theo Vennemann has hypothesized a Basque substrate and a Semitic superstrate in Germanic; however, his speculations, too, are generally rejected by specialists in the relevant fields.
The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis is a subset of the Lexicalist hypothesis, which states that morphology and syntax do not interact, with the result (among others) that some syntactic operations cannot access word-internal structures. This theory appears to have no single source from which it originates. There is no person that coins the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis, nor does there seem to be any singular definition; and yet, many linguists make referrals, amendments and challenges to this nebulously and unofficially defined concept, potentially posing problems for this theory's falsifiability. The hypothesis seems to come about from the consensus that there is a phenomenon that generally, and cross-linguistically, significantly prevents or limits the interaction between syntax and morphology.
Syntactic gemination is the normal native pronunciation in Tuscany, Central Italy (both stress-induced and lexical) and Southern Italy (only lexical), including Sicily and Corsica. In Northern Italy speakers use it inconsistently because the feature is not present in the dialectal substratum and is not usually shown in the written language unless a single word is produced by the fusion of two constituent words: "chi sa"-> chissà ('who knows' in the sense of 'goodness knows'). It is not taught in normative grammar programmes in Italian schools, so many speakers are not consciously aware of its existence. Those northern speakers who do not acquire it naturally often do not try to adopt the feature.
Sir Francis Galton Sir Francis Galton was one of the first scientists to apply the lexical hypothesis to the study of personality, stating: Despite Galton's early ventures into the lexical study of personality, over two decades passed before English-language scholars continued his work. A 1910 study by G. E. Partridge listed approximately 750 English adjectives used to describe mental states, while a 1926 study of Webster's New International Dictionary by M. L. Perkins provided an estimate of 3,000 such terms. These early explorations and estimates were not limited to the English-speaking world, with philosopher and psychologist Ludwig Klages stating in 1929 that the German language contains approximately 4,000 words to describe inner states.
This book also helped outline his subject community's cultural beliefs and practices in more detail than previously available. In Lexical Reconstruction: The Case of the Proto-Athapaskan Kinship System Aberle defines the focus of his study on kinship systems in relation to proto-language which could have existed as far back as 1500 years in Western Canada, Alaska, Southwestern United States, and within Oklahoma: Lexical Reconstruction consisted of over twenty years of collaboration with linguist Isidore Dyen. During this study, Aberle contributed his cultural knowledge of Athapaskan communities and linguist Dyen contributed his linguistic skills to reconstruct historical kinship patterns of these communities. They also looked at the origins of matriliny in these cultures.
This route doesn't enable reading of nonwords (example 'zuce'). There is still no conclusive evidence whether the lexical route functions as a direct pathway going from visual word recognition straight to speech production, or a less direct pathway going from visual word recognition to semantic processing and finally to speech production.
Cun (Chinese: 村話; meaning "village language/speech") is a Hlai language of Hainan Island. Lexical similarity with standard Hlai is 40%. The language has approximately 80,000 speakers, 47,200 of which are monolingual. Cun is a tonal language with 10 tones, used depending on whether a syllable is checked or unchecked.
The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (or Lexicalist hypothesis) and so were long thought impossible. However, evidence from the Udi language suggests that they exist. Endoclitics are also found in PashtoCraig A. Kopris & Anthony R. Davis (AppTek, Inc.
The [+ATR] feature spreads from right to left, so a [+ATR] suffix will cause the vowels in a [-ATR] stem to become [+ATR]. Tennet uses [ATR] to mark lexical and grammatical distinctions.Randal (1995:10) Any of the ten vowels may be lengthened. In the orthography, vowels are doubled to show length.
In phrase structure grammars, the phrasal categories (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, etc.) are also syntactic categories. Dependency grammars, however, do not acknowledge phrasal categories (at least not in the traditional sense). Word classes considered as syntactic categories may be called lexical categories, as distinct from phrasal categories.
Indian Marwari [rwr] in Rajasthan shares a 50%–65% lexical similarity with Hindi (this is based on a Swadesh 210 word list comparison). It has many cognate words with Hindi. Notable phonetic correspondences include /s/ in Hindi with /h/ in Marwari. For example, /sona/ 'gold' (Hindi) and /hono/ 'gold' (Marwari).
It also provided a Spanish monolingual dictionary and bilingual dictionaries between English and several languages. , it was updated every three months. In 2014, OUP launched Oxford Global Languages, an initiative to build lexical resources (bilingual dictionaries) of the world's languages, starting with Zulu and Northern Sotho online dictionaries released in 2015.
', finally, is used in the progressive aspect. The verb "to go" is irregular in Kriol, especially when set in the future progressive. It does not use the progressive marker ' but is exchanged by the morpheme and '. In past tense, this is similar: instead of employing ', it uses the lexical item '.
This, and the initial rise, are part of the prosody of the phrase, not lexical accent, and are larger in scope than the phonological word. That is, within the overall pitch-contour of the phrase there may be more than one phonological word, and thus potentially more than one accent.
Disinterestedness was a prominent feature of his character; he refused to accept any remuneration for his services. His wife, by means of a small business, provided their meager subsistence. The name Zvi Hirsh is a bilingual tautological name in Yiddish.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew.
Minimal recursion semantics (MRS) is a framework for computational semantics. It can be implemented in typed feature structure formalisms such as head- driven phrase structure grammar and lexical functional grammar. It is suitable for computational language parsing and natural language generation.Copestake, A., Flickinger, D. P., Sag, I. A., & Pollard, C. (2005).
Eskayan is a "sophisticated encryption" of the Cebuano language. It shows no lexical similarity to any of the indigenous languages of the Philippines, apart from a very few Cebuano words. Grammatically, however, it is Cebuano.Cristina J Martinez Gahum ug Gubat: A Study of Eskayan Texts, Symbolic Subversion and Cultural Constructivity.
"Hebraism" may also refer to a lexical item with Hebrew etymology, i.e. that (ultimately) derives from Hebrew."Hebraism," Merriam- Webster online. For example, the English word stiff-necked, meaning "stubborn", is a calque of Greek σκληροτράχηλος, which is a calque of Hebrew קשה עורף qeshēh ʿōref "hard of neck; stubborn".
Gogo has about 50% lexical similarity with Hehe and Sangu (both Bena–Kinga languages (G.60), 48% with Kimbu and 45% with Nilamba. These last two are both in Guthrie's Zone F. Gogo is spoken by both Christians and Muslims and is a major language of the Anglican Church of Tanzania.
The distinctiveness of North of Superior is reflected in a small number of "grammatical features and substantial lexical features."Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, p. 45 North of Superior is in the southern group of Ojibwe dialects, but also contains a mixture of Ojibwe northern dialect features.Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp.
Blust (1991) notes that the central and southern Philippines has low linguistic diversity. Based on exclusively shared lexical innovations, he posits a Greater Central Philippine subgroup that puts together the Central Philippine branch with South Mangyan, Palawan, Danao, Manobo, Subanon and Gorontalo–Mongondow languages, the latter found in northern Sulawesi.
Lexicalized tree-adjoining grammars (LTAG) are a variant of TAG in which each elementary tree (initial or auxiliary) is associated with a lexical item. A lexicalized grammar for English has been developed by the XTAG Research Group of the Institute for Research in Cognitive Science at the University of Pennsylvania.
Online access There are currently 9,000 native speakers of Baleesi, 5,000 in South Sudan and in Ethiopia; almost all of these are monolingual. Yigezu (2005)Yigezu, Moges. 2005. “Convergence of Baale: A Southwest Surmic Language to the Southeast Surmic group, lexical evidence.” APAL (Annual Publication in African Linguistics) 3: 49-66.
In using the lexical module, an individual accesses a "mental dictionary" of words. The nonlexical module is comparable to the phonological route and uses knowledge of spelling and graphemes to create phonemes to name words and nonwords. The absent nonlexical module in deep dyslexics explains why patients cannot name nonwords.
Translation Theory and Contrastive Text Linguistics, University of Exeter Press. (see translation), and to find lexical equivalents in the process of compiling bilingual dictionaries, as illustrated by Heltai (1988)Heltai, P. (1988) "Contrastive analysis of terminological systems and bilingual technical dictionaries", International Journal of Lexicography Vol. 1(1) pp. 32-40.
Later editions have come out with several volumes and an appendix, as well as a digital edition. In 1991 it received the Cross of Saint George. The Great Catalan Encyclopedia gained popularity and sold well, causing the encyclopedia to expand to include a broader series of historical, geographical, and lexical issues.
Since some Telugus from Srikakulum and Vijayanagar have migrated to these areas centuries back and other come for business. Languages include Bhatri, which falls within the Odia language group but only shares about 60% lexical similarity with Oriya, spoken by about 600 000; and Bhunjia, spoken by approximately 7000 Bhunjia Adivasis.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Jivaro, Maku, Mura-Matanawi, Puinave-Nadahup, Taruma, Tupi, Yanomami, and Arawak language families due to contact. This suggests that Katukinan and the language families with which it was in contact with had been earlier spoken within a central Amazon interaction sphere.
For example, the modern Levantine Arabic term for artichoke is أرضي شوكي (ʔarḍī shawkī). This literally means "earthy thorny", and is an Arabicisation (through phono- semantic matching) of the English word artichoke or other European terms like it.Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan.
BlenchBlench, Roger. Segment reversal in Kuliak and its relationship to Nilo-Saharan. notes that Kuliak languages do not have extensive internal diversity and clearly had a relatively recent common ancestor. There are many monosyllabic VC (vowel + consonant) lexical roots in Kuliak languages, which is typologically unusual among Nilo-Saharan languages.
A comparative word list of Daatsʼiin, Northern Gumuz, and Southern Gumuz is available in Ahland & Kelly (2014).Ahland, Colleen and Eliza Kelly. 2014. Daatsʼíin-Gumuz Comparative Word list. Of the other Gumuz languages, Daatsʼíin has the greatest lexical similarity to Southern Gumuz, but the two groups communicate in Arabic or Amharic.
Ustnie istorii tatoyazichnikh armyan o sobitiyakh nachala 20 veka. (in Russian). There are traces of an Armenian phonological, lexical, grammatical and calque substratum in the dialect of Tat-speaking Armenians. There are also Armenian affricates (ծ, ց, ձ) in words of Iranian origin, which do not exist in the Tat language.
To him was attributed the compilation of the book Commentari regi. A great innovation of his concerned criminal law on voluntary and non voluntary crimes. Some scholars argue on lexical grounds that in this period some leges regiae showed a Sabine influence. Successor Tullus Hostilius is traditionally called the warrior king.
In addition to SoyBase, objects identified by exact lexical matches to the query term, the tool also uses a soybean-specific ontology to identify biologically-related SoyBase objects. Some SoyBase sequence data and annotations are available through an InterMine instance (SoyMine), which is a collaboration with the Legume Information System Project.
The contour HLH always surfaces as HꜜHH ~ HHꜜH (depending on the consonant–vowel structure that it associates to). This is a postlexical process that occurs wherever the context permits, within words and across word boundaries. There is lexical L tone spreading in the verb phrase and the associative noun phrase.
Bankon (Abo, Abaw, Bo, Bon) is a Bantu language spoken in the Moungo department of the Littoral Province of southwestern Cameroon. It has a lexical similarity of 86% with Rombi which is spoken in the nearby Meme department of Southwest Province. Bankon is the endonym. Abo is an administrative name.
Other actors or actresses cannot utter the non-lexical filler proverbs like "Chithada kalli viragu odaika ponalam kathala mullu kothoda kuthidichan" (When a lazy girl is forced to go for the work of cutting the firewood she may complain that aloe vera thorns poked her in a bunch) like she could.
Do children 'DRM' like adults? False memory production in children. Developmental Psychology, 44, 169–181. Similarly, another study found that information processing differences at encoding between children and adults result in a lower rate of false recall among children due to an inability to activate lexical connections in word lists.
Linguistics description might aim to achieve one or more of the following goals: # A description of the phonology of the language in question. # A description of the morphology of words belonging to that language. # A description of the syntax of well-formed sentences of that language. # A description of lexical derivation.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Trumai, Arawak, Kandoshi, Muniche, Barbakoa, Cholon-Hibito, Kechua, Mapudungun, Kanichana, and Kunza language families due to contact. Jolkesky (2016) also suggests that similarities with Amazonian languages may be due to the early migration of Mochica speakers down the Marañón and Solimões.
Shana Poplack's model of code-switching is an influential theory of the grammar of code-switching. In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The free-morpheme constraint stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing.
975), Scheuern in Neubeuern (Skira, 11th century) and perhaps Scheuring (Sciringen, 1150). These names are believed to designate these villages as Scirian, and it is proposed that the Scirii probably mediated the transfer of a few East Germanic lexical items to the Bavarian language, which otherwise shows no East Germanic influence.
Core signing populations are found in Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey, with a number of smaller cities containing signing communities. Some regional variation is found (80%-90% lexical similarity across the country according to Faurot et al. 2001). Variation is high between age group and people of completely different religious backgrounds.
Davis, C. J. (1999). The self- organising lexical acquisition and recognition (SOLAR) model of visual word recognition (Doctoral dissertation). University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. The first letter in the word has the highest level of activation and so on until the last word has the lowest level of activation.
Jules Ronjat has sought to characterize Occitan with 19 principal, generalizable criteria. Of those, 11 are phonetic, five morphologic, one syntactic, and two lexical. For example, close rounded vowels are rare or absent in Occitan. This characteristic often carries through to an Occitan speaker's French, leading to a distinctive méridional accent.

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