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"inferential" Definitions
  1. relating to, involving, or resembling inference
  2. deduced or deducible by inference

237 Sentences With "inferential"

How to use inferential in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "inferential" and check conjugation/comparative form for "inferential". Mastering all the usages of "inferential" from sentence examples published by news publications.

The Obama administration readily agreed that the court's proposal of inferential notification could work.
However, putting plumage on the adult T. rex is still considered by some to be an inferential leap.
While the enjoyable and rare photographic documentation showing artist parties and friendships over the years, it remains inferential evidence for the exhibition's thesis.
The result is an inferential impeachment case without the testimony of witnesses with possible direct knowledge of quid pro quo over Ukrainian aid.
And then there are sometimes just glaring errors, like inferential errors, statistical errors that somehow get through by people who know better and by editors who know better.
And here, there is some odd inferential behavior, like the fact that Energy Transfer did not extensively consult with its transactional counsel, Wachtell Lipton Rosen & Katz, on the tax issues.
And resorting to inferential excess, Kilcullen contends that President Obama's failure to punish Bashar al-Assad's use of chemical weapons in Syria encouraged Vladimir Putin's land grab in Ukraine and saber-rattling over the Baltic States.
U.S. District Judge J. Paul Oetken rejected the "inferential leap" Integro asked him to make and denied the firm's bid for an injunction blocking him and ten other former employees from soliciting Integro's clients or using its confidential information.
"It's a wonderful gift to be able to listen to an author or illustrator read a book that they've created," says Molly Collins, who teaches at Vanderbilt's Peabody College of Education and researches preschool children's vocabulary acquisition and inferential thinking during storybook reading.
Her argument was inferential: Had the jurors at the trial known at the time that judges and prosecutors had questioned Mr. Scarcella's tactics, it might have provided them, she wrote, "with a different context to evaluate" Mr. Moses' claim that Mr. Scarcella had coerced him.
He says Near has a (patented) technique based on machine learning algorithms and other inferential AI technology, which it uses to accurately merge all of these details together to create individual profiles, all without ever attaching a name or real identifiers of any kind to that profile.
Inferential confusion, i.e. “mistaking an imagined possibility for a real probability”, becomes pathological when the individual “crosses over from the real into the imaginary treating the imagined possibility as if it were real”. Several studies on inferential confusion and OCD have shown that inferential confusion is involved in OCD.
Inferential confusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the inferential confusion questionnaire. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 43, 293-308. In this model, individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder are hypothesized to put a greater emphasis on an imagined possibility than on what can be perceived with the senses, and to confuse the imagined possibility with reality (inferential confusion).Aardema, F., O'Connor, K. P., Emmelkamp, P. M., Marchand, A., & Todorov, C. (2005). Inferential confusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the inferential confusion questionnaire. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 43, 293-308. According to inference-based therapy, obsessional thinking occurs when the person replaces reality and real probabilities with imagined possibilities; the obsession is hypothesize to concern a doubt about a possible state of affairs.
Further, the most widely used measure fails to incorporate an inferential support.
Brain-inspired artificial intelligence still lacks advanced cognitive ability and inferential learning ability.
The inferential is then viewed as one of the moods, and the dubitative - as a renarrative inferential, whose dubitative meaning, albeit more frequent, is only secondary. Another view is presented by Gerdzhikov – in his treatment there are two distinctive features involved - subjectivity and renarrativity. The indicative is unmarked for both, while the inferential is marked for subjectivity, the renarrative for renarrativity, and the dubitative for both subjectivity and renarrativity.
Investigating action understanding: inferential processes versus motor simulation. Current Biology 17, 24, 2117-2121.
It is a widely recommended practice for scientists to report an effect size for an inferential test.
It is through cognizing similarity and dissimilarity that we arrive at knowledge of pervasion as required for inferential knowledge.
A simple non-inferential passage is a type of nonargument characterized by the lack of a claim that anything is being proved. Simple non-inferential passages include warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports. Simple non-inferential passages are nonarguments because while the statements involved may be premises, conclusions or both, the statements do not serve to infer a conclusion or support one another. This is distinct from a logical fallacy, which indicates an error in reasoning.
In ordinary computer programming, the programmer keeps the program's intended results in mind and painstakingly constructs a computer program to achieve those results. Inferential programming refers to (still mostly hypothetical) techniques and technologies enabling the inverse. Inferential programming would allow the programmer to describe the intended result to the computer using a metaphor such as a fitness function, a test specification, or a logical specification and then the computer would construct its own program to meet the supplied criteria. During the 1980s, approaches to achieve inferential programming mostly revolved around techniques for logical inference.
If used with the perfective suffix, this makes an inferential or conditional past -'ss-keyss -eotget/-atget "should have, would have, must have." If used with the remote past suffix it makes an inferential or conditional remote past -'ss-ess-keyss -eosseotget/-asseotget, though this is rare. Because this infix is occasionally used for a conditional, or inferential tense, depending on context it is sometimes called irrealis. Etymologically, the future suffix is the result of the merger of a resultative verb ending -key and the existential root iss , via vowel absorption, as mentioned above.
The inferential mood (abbreviated or ) is used to report a nonwitnessed event without confirming it, but the same forms also function as admiratives in the Balkan languages (namely Albanian, Bulgarian, Macedonian and Turkish) in which they occur. The inferential mood is used in some languages such as Turkish to convey information about events which were not directly observed or were inferred by the speaker. When referring to Balkan languages, it is often called renarrative mood; when referring to Estonian, it is called oblique mood. The inferential is usually impossible to be distinguishably translated into English.
The inferential mood (abbreviated or ) is used to report a nonwitnessed event without confirming it, but the same forms also function as admiratives in the Balkan languages in which they occur. The inferential mood is used in some languages such as Turkish to convey information about events that were not directly observed or were inferred by the speaker. When referring to Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, it is often called renarrative mood; when referring to Estonian, it is called oblique mood. The inferential is usually impossible to distinguish when translated into English.
The remaining four follow from the former propositions and seem to be constructed on the first inferential schemata of traditional logic.
In statistics education literature, the term "informal" is used to distinguish informal inferential reasoning from a formal method of statistical inference.
For this to occur, the following must be true:Hayes (1982), p 146, 153. #The inferential sign must be a property of the subject of the inference. That is, there exists in the subject of inference a property, which is different from the inferable property and which is furthermore evident to the person drawing the inference; this second property may serve as an inferential sign in case it has two further characteristics. #The inferential sign must be known to occur in at least one locus, other than the subject of inference, in which the inferable property occurs.
Inferential analysis analyses a sample from complete data to compare the difference between treatment groups. Multiple conclusions are constructed by selecting different samples. Inferential analysis can provide evidence that, with a certain percentage of confidence, there is a relationship between two variables. It is adopted that the sample will be different to the population, thus, we further accept a degree of uncertainty.
The imagined possibility seems so credible that individuals live this possibility as if it were true, and experience physiological reactions, feelings of anxiety, and compulsions that are congruent with the imagined scenario and become immersed in the obsessional doubt.Aardema, F., O'Connor, K. P., Emmelkamp, P. M., Marchand, A., & Todorov, C. (2005). Inferential confusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the inferential confusion questionnaire.
227 Bowers stated similarly that the editor's task is to "approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy."quoted in Tanselle 1976, p.
Flow conditioning ensures that the “real world” environment closely resembles the “laboratory” environment for proper performance of inferential flowmeters like orifice, turbine, coriolis, ultrasonic etc.
Williams makes a distinction between inferential justification and non- inferential justification. He postulates that considering something in some way and seeing it that way are two different things. According to him, we can not confide in our epistemic beliefs unless they are justified independently of something else that we also believe. Therefore, our basic beliefs must be in an autonomous class of justified beliefs.
Statistics is the study of how to collate and interpret numerical information from data. It is the science of learning from data and communicating uncertainty. There are two branches in statistics: ‘Descriptive statistics’’ and ‘’ Inferential statistics Descriptive statistics involves methods of organizing, picturing and summarizing information from data. Inferential statistics involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions about the Population.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. According to Fodor, a module falls somewhere between the behaviorist and cognitivist views of lower-level processes. Behaviorists tried to replace the mind with reflexes, which are, according to Fodor, encapsulated (cognitively impenetrable or unaffected by other cognitive domains) and non-inferential (straight pathways with no information added). Low level processes are unlike reflexes in that they can be inferential.
If it were necessary to make the distinction, then the English constructions "he must have gone" or "he is said to have gone" would partly translate the inferential.
If it were necessary to make the distinction, then the English constructions "he must have gone" or "he is said to have gone" would partly translate the inferential.
Hypotheses are formulated to compare in a statistical hypothesis test. In the domain of inferential statistics two rival hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive power.
If it were necessary to make the distinction, then the English constructions "he must have gone" or "he is said to have gone" would partly translate the inferential.
The narrow content of a representation is determined by properties intrinsic to it or its possessor, such as its syntactic structure or its intramental computational or inferential role.
A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information, while descriptive statistics (in the mass noun sense) is the process of using and analysing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics) by its aim to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. This generally means that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, is not developed on the basis of probability theory, and are frequently non-parametric statistics. Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inferential statistics, descriptive statistics are generally also presented.
However, the terminology is not ultimately important, so long as one keeps in mind the relevant differences between these two views. Generally speaking, rationalist ethical intuitionism models the acquisition of such non- inferential moral knowledge on a priori, non-empirical knowledge, such as knowledge of mathematical truths; whereas moral sense theory models the acquisition of such non-inferential moral knowledge on empirical knowledge, such as knowledge of the colors of objects (see moral sense theory).
From the beginning of the 1980s, Fodor adhered to a causal notion of mental content and of meaning. This idea of content contrasts sharply with the inferential role semantics to which he subscribed earlier in his career. Fodor criticizes inferential role semantics (IRS) because its commitment to an extreme form of holism excludes the possibility of a true naturalization of the mental. But naturalization must include an explanation of content in atomistic and causal terms.
Pervasion by its absence is the cause of hindrance (pratibandhaka) to inferential knowledge which in turn is the cause of pervasion. Even though both grasp their objects directly, in savikalpa its contents become objects of reflective awareness which is not the case in nirvikalpa. Contradiction occurs only when one epistemic state is blocked by a pratibandhaka. Gangesa has defined inferential knowledge as the cognition generated by cognition of a property belonging to a locus and qualified by a pervasion.
The causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the direct-access view and the inferential view.
Parker-Rhodes also co-authored papers with Needham on the "theory of clumps" in relation to information retrieval and computational linguistics. He wrote a book on language structure and the logic of descriptions, Inferential Semantics, published in 1978.Inferential Semantics, Humanities Press (1978) The work analyzes sentences and longer passages into mathematical lattices (the kind in Lattice Theory, not crystal lattices) which are semantic networks. These are inferred not only from sentence syntax but also from grammatical focus and sometimes prosody.
'I have done' etc.), but often in an inferential or reportative sense ('apparently I had done' etc.), similar to the perfect tense in Turkish.Lazard (1985); cf. Johanson & Utas (2000), p. 218; Simeonova & Zareikar (2015).
Thus, a compromise with vagueness or indefiniteness is, on this view, effectively a compromise with error - an error of conceptualization, an error in the inferential system, or an error in physically carrying out a task.
Combined with the imperfective past it is used to indicate the conditional, and with the perfective past to indicate the inferential. If the future particle precedes the present perfect form, a future perfect form results.
There are sixteen moods, which include the imperative, hortative, optative, conjunctive, necessitative, interrogative, probabilitative, obligative, potential, and inferential. For example, the verb below is inflected for subjunctive mood, first person singular agreement, and past tense.
A loosely associated statement is a type of simple non-inferential passage wherein statements about a general subject are juxtaposed but make no inferential claim. As a rhetorical device, loosely associated statements may be intended by the speaker to infer a claim or conclusion, but because they lack a coherent logical structure any such interpretation is subjective as loosely associated statements prove nothing and attempt no obvious conclusion. Loosely associated statements can be said to serve no obvious purpose, such as illustration or explanation.
It is only through mental construction and inferential thinking that we err in the interpretation of perceptual particulars.Hayes (1982), p 139. Dignaga also wrote on language and meaning. His "apoha" (exclusion) theory of meaning was widely influential.
The inferential mood is used to report unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is no doubt as to the veracity of the statement (for example, if it were on the news), but simply the fact that the speaker was not personally present at the event forces them to use this mood. In the Balkan languages, the same forms used for the inferential mood also function as admiratives. When referring to Balkan languages, it is often called renarrative mood; when referring to Estonian, it is called oblique mood.
In statistics education, informal inferential reasoning (also called informal inference) refers to the process of making a generalization based on data (samples) about a wider universe (population/process) while taking into account uncertainty without using the formal statistical procedure or methods (e.g. P-values, t-test, hypothesis testing, significance test). Like formal statistical inference, the purpose of informal inferential reasoning is to draw conclusions about a wider universe (population/process) from data (sample). However, it is to be contrasted with formal statistical inference that formal statistical procedure or methods are not necessarily used.
The traditional interpretation is that in addition to the four moods (наклонения ) shared by most other European languages – indicative (изявително, ) imperative (повелително ), subjunctive ( ) and conditional (условно, ) – in Bulgarian there is one more to describe a general category of unwitnessed events – the inferential (преизказно ) mood. However, most contemporary Bulgarian linguists usually exclude the subjunctive mood and the inferential mood from the list of Bulgarian moods (thus placing the number of Bulgarian moods at a total of 3: indicative, imperative and conditional)Зидарова, Ваня (2007). Български език. Теоретичен курс с практикум, pp.
The inferential is usually impossible to be distinguishably translated into English. For instance, indicative Bulgarian той отиде (toy otide) and Turkish o gitti will be translated the same as inferential той отишъл (toy otishal) and o gitmiş — with the English indicative he went.[1] Using the first pair, however, implies very strongly that the speaker either witnessed the event or is very sure that it took place. The second pair implies either that the speaker did not in fact witness it take place, that it occurred in the remote past or that there is considerable doubt as to whether it actually happened.
A warning is a type of simple non-inferential passage that serves to alert a person to any sort of potential danger. This can be as simple as a road sign indicating falling rock or a janitorial sign indicating a wet, slippery floor.
A piece of advice is a type of simple non-inferential passage that recommends some future action or course of conduct. A mechanic recommending regular oil changes or a doctor recommending that a patient refrain from smoking are examples of pieces of advice.
A cognitive approach to the treatment of primary inferences in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 13, 359-75. Later the model was extended to inferential confusion, where inverse inference leads to distrust of the senses and investment in remote possibility.
Like univariate analysis, bivariate analysis can be descriptive or inferential. It is the analysis of the relationship between the two variables. Bivariate analysis is a simple (two variable) special case of multivariate analysis (where multiple relations between multiple variables are examined simultaneously).
There are three indices of retouch that offer significant inferential power in determining the amount of mass lost in the process of retouching. Despite particular weaknesses associated with each method, the following methods have been shown to be the most robust, versatile, sensitive, and comprehensive.
The Romans called the vegetable carduus (hence the name cardoon). Further improvement in the cultivated form appears to have taken place in the medieval period in Muslim Spain and the Maghreb, although the evidence is inferential only.Watson, Andrew. Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world.
Syntactic awareness is engaged when an individual engages in mental operations to do with structural aspects of language. This involves the application of inferential and pragmatic rules. This may be measured through the use of correction tasks for sentences that contain word order violations.
Statistical analysis involves the collection, analyses and presentation of data to decipher trends and patterns. It is common in research, industry and government to enhance the scientific aspects of the decision that needs to be made. It consists of descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.
Recent research suggests that these processes participate in general intelligence together with processing potentials and the general inferential processes used by the specialized thought domains described above.Demetriou, A., & Kazi, S. (2006). Self- awareness in g (with processing efficiency and reasoning). Intelligence, 34, 297-317.
Vyapti is known by the joint method of agreement in presence and agreement in absence based on repeated observation aided by favourable hypothetical reasoning. Doubt about vyapti and certainty of the absence of vyapti act as hindrances to inferential knowledge; the certainty about vyapti is the cause of inferential knowledge. Jain philosophy recognizes inference ("anumana") as a valid means of knowledge. They consider induction ("tarka") to be the knowledge of the invariable concomitance (vyapti) of the middle term with the major term in the three periods of time, arising from the observation of their co-presence and co-absence, and vyapti to be of two kinds, "anvayavyapti" and "vyatirekavyapti".
A loosely associated statement is a type of simple non-inferential passage wherein statements about a general subject are juxtaposed but make no inferential claim. As a rhetorical device, loosely associated statements may be intended by the speaker to infer a claim or conclusion, but because they lack a coherent logical structure any such interpretation is subjective as loosely associated statements prove nothing and attempt no obvious conclusion. Loosely associated statements can be said to serve no obvious purpose, such as illustration or explanation. Included statements can be premises, conclusions or both, and both true or false, but missing from the passage is a claim that any one statement supports another.
Univariate analysis is perhaps the simplest form of statistical analysis. Like other forms of statistics, it can be inferential or descriptive. The key fact is that only one variable is involved. Univariate analysis can yield misleading results in cases in which multivariate analysis is more appropriate.
Aardema, F., Wu, K.D., Careau, Y., O'Connor, K., Julien, D., Dennie, S., 2010. The expanded version of the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire: Further development and validation in clinical and non-clinical samples. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 32, 448-462.Del Borrello, L., & O'Connor, K. (2014).
P. Oxy. 29, one of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, a textbook used for millennia to teach proof-writing techniques. The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5. A mathematical proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement, showing that the stated assumptions logically guarantee the conclusion.
Evolutionary educational psychology is the study of the relation between inherent folk knowledge and abilities and accompanying inferential and attributional biases as these influence academic learning in evolutionarily novel cultural contexts, such as schools and the industrial workplace. The fundamental premises and principles of this discipline are presented below.
Sometimes, even though we are aware that the person's behavior is constrained by situational factors, we still commit the fundamental attribution error. This is because we do not take into account behavioral and situational information simultaneously to characterize the dispositions of the actor.Gilbert, D. T. (2002). Inferential correction.
Stevens (1946) argued that, because the assumption of equal distance between categories does not hold for ordinal data, the use of means and standard deviations for description of ordinal distributions and of inferential statistics based on means and standard deviations was not appropriate. Instead, positional measures like the median and percentiles, in addition to descriptive statistics appropriate for nominal data (number of cases, mode, contingency correlation), should be used. Nonparametric methods have been proposed as the most appropriate procedures for inferential statistics involving ordinal data, especially those developed for the analysis of ranked measurements. However, use of parametric statistics for ordinal data may be permissible with certain caveats to take advantage of the greater range of available statistical procedures.
Trairūpya (Sanskrit; English: "the triple-character of inferential sign") is a conceptual tool of Buddhist logic. The Trairūpya, ‘three conditions’, is oft accredited to Dignaga (c. 480-540 CE) though is now understood to have originated with his teacher Vasubandhu (fl. 4th century) in the Vāda- vidhi,Anacker, Stefan (2005, rev.ed.).
The role of obsessive beliefs and inferential confusion in predicting treatment outcomes for different subtypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 7, 43-66.O'Connor, K., Aardema, F., Bouthillier, D., Fournier, S., Guay, S., Robillard, S., Pelissier, M.-C., Landry, P., Todorov, C., Tremblay, M., Pitre, D. (2005).
The exam is offered every year in May.Mulekar (2004), p. 8 Students are not expected to memorize any formulas; rather, a list of common statistical formulas related to descriptive statistics, probability, and inferential statistics is provided. Moreover, tables for the normal, Student's t and chi-squared distributions are given as well.
The family originally came to Gaza from Turkey in the early 20th century and as a result their name is also spelled using current Turkish orthography as Doğmuş, pronounced "Doe-moosh", which means "born" using the inferential or dubitative past tense. Other possible spellings are Dogmosh, Dugmash, Dagmoush, Dughmush, Dogmush, Durmush and Dormush.
Nonparametric statistics are values calculated from data in a way that is not based on parameterized families of probability distributions. They include both descriptive and inferential statistics. The typical parameters are the mean, variance, etc. Unlike parametric statistics, nonparametric statistics make no assumptions about the probability distributions of the variables being assessed.
A performance domain is a construct of all the essential behaviors that should be exhibited by someone on specific job to achieve the goals set by the organization.Binning, J.F., & Barrett, G.V. (1989). Validity of personnel decisions: A conceptual analysis of the inferential and evidential bases. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 474-494.
1937 Aptitudes and Aptitude Testing. New York: Harper. 1938a Halo: Its Prevalence and Nature in Estimates of Objective Traits and in Inferential Trait-judgments. Psychological Bulletin 35:641–642. 1938b Testing in Vocational Guidance. Education 58:539–544. 1939 A National Perspective on Testing and Guidance. Educational Record 20 (Supplement):137–150.
Simulated example of a psychometric function, showing how the proportion of correct detections may increase with increasing luminance of the stimulus. A psychometric function is an inferential model applied in detection and discrimination tasks. It models the relationship between a given feature of a physical stimulus, e.g. velocity, duration, brightness, weight etc.
Bulgarian verbs are inflected not only for aspect, tense and modality, but also for evidentiality, that is, the source of the information conveyed by them. There is a four-way distinction between the unmarked (indicative) forms, which imply that the speaker was a witness of the event or knows it as a general fact; the inferential, which signals general non-witness information or one based on inference; the renarrative, which indicates that the information was reported to the speaker by someone else; and the dubitative, which is used for reported information if the speaker doubts its veracity. This can be illustrated with the four possible ways of rendering in Bulgarian the English sentence 'The dog ate the fish' (here denotes the aorist active participle): Indicative: : Inferential: : Renarrative: : Dubitative: : On a theoretical level, there are alternatives to treating those forms as the four members of a single evidential category. Kutsarov, for example, posits a separate category, which he terms 'type of utterance' (вид на изказването), proper to which is only the distinction between forms expressing speaker's own statements (indicative, inferential), and forms that retell statements of another (renarrative, dubitative).
He also introduced the Trairūpya (triple inferential sign). The Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' (pramana):Matilal, Bimal Krishna (author), Ganeri, Jonardon (editor) & (Tiwari, Heeraman)(1998). The Character of Logic in India. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press.
As various studies indicate, changes in body composition, perceptions of physical attractiveness, and overall body condition provide inferential support for the claim that body image is related to an individual's self-esteem and perceived worth.Melnick, M. J., & Mookerjee, S. (1991). Effects of advanced weight-training on body cathexis and self-esteem. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72(3), 1335-1345.
Some statistics was then taught in grade school, "So a degree of statistical literacy will be universal in the future...". More recently, expectations have been higher. "'Statistical Literacy' is the ability to understand and critically evaluate statistical results that permeate our lives...". Those statistical results often originate from inferential methods which reached college statistics textbooks in about 1940.
It may contrast with inferential mood. Reference is sometimes made to a "generic mood", for making general statements about a particular class of things; this may be considered to be an aspect rather than a mood. See gnomic aspect. For other grammatical features which may be considered to mark distinct realis moods, see Evidentiality, Sensory evidential mood, and Mirativity.
There is some empirical support for main premises of inference-based therapy regarding the role of inductive reasoning processes, the imagination, and inferential confusion.Julien, D., O’Connor, K. P., & Aardema, F. (2016). The Inference- Based Approach to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Systematic Review of its Etiological Model, Treatment Efficacy, and Model of Change. Journal of Affective Disorders, 202, 187-196.
In his early work, Boghossian was a trenchant critic of naturalistic theories of content. Much of his later work, including his book Fear of Knowledge, criticizes various forms of relativism, especially epistemic relativism, which claims that knowledge and reason are fundamentally cultural or subjective rather than objective. In his article 'Blind Reasoning', Boghossian argues that we are blind to our reasons for justifying our methods of inference (the epitome of a method of inference is taken to be modus ponens.) Rejecting both Simple Inferential Externalism for its inconsistency and Simple Inferential Internalism because it is difficult to accept, he opts for a third and new form of "rational insight". This paper, in conjunction with an ongoing correspondence between Boghossian and Crispin Wright, is part of a project to defend against epistemic relativism.
Chess Notes Archives #3551 Hubert Phillips: www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter05.html He wrote over 100 crime stories. He composed thousands of puzzles, both mathematical and inferential, and about 6000 crosswords. He wrote on bridge for the News Chronicle as 'Nine-spot', as well as being (by his own testimony) the chief leader writer for the paper for several years during World War Two.
Based on that learning, she and her owner and trainer Pilley continued her training, demonstrating her ability to understand sentences with multiple elements of grammar and to learn new behaviors by imitation. Chaser could also learn new words by "inferential reasoning by exclusion", that is, inferring the name of a new object by excluding objects whose names she already knew.
The wide range of research techniques, such as personal interviews, focus groups, mystery shopping, hall tests, exit polls, expert surveys, telephone interviews and others, is used. The methods include both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis, and sample building programs. Surveys based on a representative sampling are conducted every week on 1,600 people from 140 places throughout the 42 regions of Russia.
A report is a type of simple non-inferential passage wherein the statements serve to convey knowledge. The above is considered a report because it informs the reader without making any sort of claim, ethical or otherwise. However, the statements being made could be seen as a set of premises, and with the addition of a conclusion it would be considered an argument.
177–180 and don't consider them to be moods but view them as verbial morphosyntactic constructs or separate gramemes of the verb class. The possible existence of a few other moods has been discussed in the literature. Most Bulgarian school grammars teach the traditional view of 4 Bulgarian moods (as described above, but excluding the subjunctive and including the inferential).
The analytical-rational system is that of conscious thought. It is slow, logical, and a much more recent evolutionary development. The rational system is what allows us to engage in many of the behaviors that we consider to be uniquely human, such as abstract thought and the use of language. It is an inferential system that operates through reason and demands large amounts of cognitive resources.
Virtual sensing techniques,Virtual sensing techniques and their applications also called soft sensing,A systematic approach for soft sensor development proxy sensing, inferential sensing, or surrogate sensing, are used to provide feasible and economical alternatives to costly or impractical physical measurement instrument. A virtual sensing system uses information available from other measurements and process parameters to calculate an estimate of the quantity of interest.
As Daniel Gilbert has pointed out, "Helmholtz presaged many current thinkers not only by postulating the existence of such [unconscious inferential] operations, but also by describing their general features".Gilbert 1989, p. 189. At the same time, he added, it is "probably fair to say that Helmholtz's ideas about the social inference process have exerted no impact whatsoever on social psychology".Gilbert 1989, p. 191.
Both NISP and MNI are likely only ordinals scale measurements, which means at best they can only give an ordered series of taxonomic abundance, i.e. "Taxon A is more numerous than Taxon B." NISP should not be used when calculating a sample size for inferential statistics, because it will inflate the statistical significance.Marshall & Pilgram (1993) Thus in these situations MNI should be used instead.
This is an inferential statement as opposed to "The car in front of the house is red," which is an assertion that can be assented to because it can stand on its own. There are three types of inferences: formal, informal and natural. Formal inference is logic in the deductive sense. For Newman, logic is indeed extremely useful especially in science and in society.
In statistics, Levene's test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances for a variable calculated for two or more groups. Some common statistical procedures assume that variances of the populations from which different samples are drawn are equal. Levene's test assesses this assumption. It tests the null hypothesis that the population variances are equal (called homogeneity of variance or homoscedasticity).
Parker, 6–7. The riots in the Midlands were caused by hunger because of the enclosure of common land. For these reasons, R.B. Parker suggests "late 1608 ... to early 1609" as the likeliest date of composition, while Lee Bliss suggests composition by late 1608, and the first public performances in "late December 1609 or February 1610". Parker acknowledges that the evidence is "scanty ... and mostly inferential".
Some contributions in this direction are Jaakko Hintikka's interrogative model and Andrzej Wiśniewski's inferential erotetic logic (IEL). In the interrogative model, questioning is seen as game played between two parties. One of these parties may be reality. In 2011 Anna Brożek published The Theory of Questions which started with philosophical context (ontology, epistemology), then use in human intercourse, with a consideration of cognition and answers.
Most statistical tests (particularly inferential statistics) involve assumptions about the data that make the analysis suitable for testing a hypothesis. Violating the assumptions of statistical tests can lead to incorrect inferences about the cause-effect relationship. The robustness of a test indicates how sensitive it is to violations. Violations of assumptions may make tests more or less likely to make type I or II errors.
The Naiyayikas (the Nyaya scholars) also accepted four valid means (pramaṇa) of obtaining valid knowledge (pramana) - perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), comparison (upamāna) and word/testimony of reliable sources (śabda). The systematic discussions of the Nyaya school influenced the Medieval Buddhist philosophers who developed their own theories of inferential reasoning and epistemic warrant (pramana). The Nyaya became one of the main opponents of the Buddhists.
Wilcoxon entered a research career, working at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research from 1925 to 1941. He then moved to the Atlas Powder Company, where he designed and directed the Control Laboratory, before joining the American Cyanamid Company in 1943. During this time he developed an interest in inferential statistics through the study of R. A. Fisher's 1925 text, Statistical Methods for Research Workers.
In the Elementary Level SSAT the reading section consists of seven short, grade-level-appropriate passages, each with four multiple-choice questions. These passages may include prose and poetry, fiction and nonfiction, from diverse cultures. Students are asked to locate information and find meaning by skimming and close reading. They are also asked to demonstrate literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension of a variety of printed materials.
Category data looked like strings (e.g., a column headed "sex" would have entries of "male" and "female", but these were coded by the application as integers). Category data were used to perform inferential statistical tests such as t tests, ANOVAs, and chi square tests. To calculate statistics, a user clicked on particular column headings, designating them as an x value and one or more y values.
Colognian has indicative and conjunctive moods, and there are also imperative and energetic mood, inferential and renarrative, none of which is completely developed. The aspects of Colognian conjugation include unitary-episodic, continuous, habitual-enduring, and gnomic. In Colognian, grammatical tense can be present tense, preterite tense or past tense, simple perfect or present perfect, past perfect tense, completed past perfect tense, simple future tense, or perfect future tense.
The partition of sums of squares is a concept that permeates much of inferential statistics and descriptive statistics. More properly, it is the partitioning of sums of squared deviations or errors. Mathematically, the sum of squared deviations is an unscaled, or unadjusted measure of dispersion (also called variability). When scaled for the number of degrees of freedom, it estimates the variance, or spread of the observations about their mean value.
Bulgarian verbs are the most complicated part of Bulgarian grammar, especially when compared with other Slavic languages. Bulgarian verbs are inflected for person, number and sometimes gender. They also have lexical aspect (perfective and imperfective), voice, nine tenses, three moods,These are the indicative, the imperative and the conditional. Additionally, the inferential is treated as a fourth mood by those linguists who do not include it within the evidential system (e.g.
Another version—what one might call the empiricist version—of ethical intuitionism models non-inferential ethical knowledge on sense perception. This version involves what is often called a "moral sense". According to moral sense theorists, certain moral truths are known via this moral sense simply on the basis of experience, not inference. One way to understand the moral sense is to draw an analogy between it and other kinds of senses.
Fodor starts with some criticisms of so- called standard realism. This view is characterized, according to Fodor, by two distinct assertions. One of these regards the internal structure of mental states and asserts that such states are non-relational. The other concerns the semantic theory of mental content and asserts that there is an isomorphism between the causal roles of such contents and the inferential web of beliefs.
A commonly asked question in inferential statistics is whether the parameter is included within a confidence interval. The only way to answer this question is for a census to be conducted. Referring to the example given above, the probability that the population proportion is in the range of the confidence interval is either 1 or 0. That is, the parameter is included in the interval range or it is not.
Corresponding to each of the past tenses, Persian has a set of perfect tenses. These tenses are not only used in the ordinary perfect sense ('he has done X', 'he has sometimes done X') but also in colloquial Persian in an inferential or reported sense ('it appears that he did X'),Boyle (1966), Windfuhr (1979), p.90; Windfuhr (1980), p.281; Lazard (1985); Estaji & Bubenik (2007); Simeonova & Zareikar (2015).
In inferential statistics, there exists a mantra 'correlation does not equal causation.' Just because rain and wet grounds do have a positive correlation (they tend to happen together), without more information it would be impossible to know whether or not it was in fact the rain which caused the ground to become wet, so the positive correlation is insufficient for causation. A dump truck could well have come by and dumped out a truckload of water onto the ground, or a man could have dropped his water, or any number of other possible antecedents could be responsible for causing the conclusion that the ground is in fact wet to be true. In this way, ascertaining cause and effect relations is quite hard and arguably impossible barring some variable uncertain degree of confidence in some specific possible cause in relation to all other uncontrolled for potentially equally or unequally probable but still possible causes (some non-100% degree of confidence, known as a confidence interval in inferential statistics).
This project is developed at length in his influential 1994 book Making It Explicit, and more briefly in Articulating Reasons: An Introduction to Inferentialism (2000); a chapter of that latter work, "Semantic Inferentialism and Logical Expressivism", outlines the main themes of representationalism (the tradition of basing semantics on the concept of representation) vs. inferentialism (the conviction for an expression to be meaningful is to be governed by a certain kind of inferential rules) and inferentialism's relationship to logical expressivism (the conviction that "logic is expressive in the sense that it makes explicit or codifies certain aspects of the inferential structure of our discursive practice").James Lindsey David Brown, "Propositions and Nondescriptivism in Metaethics", MPhil thesis, University College London, 2016, p. 51. Brandom has also published a collection of essays on the history of philosophy, Tales of the Mighty Dead (2002), a critical and historical sketch of what he calls the "philosophy of intentionality".
Tirrell has written a large number of peer-reviewed papers, contributed to a number of anthologies, and written several encyclopedia articles. Much of the body of Tirrell's work focuses on hate speech, especially the practical effects of linguistic practices in shaping the social conditions that make genocide and other significant acts of oppression possible. Tirrell's hate speech research is distinctive in its emphasis on the inferential power of the racial epithet, holding that its power to license socially damaging inferences is more significant and more insidious) than the performative action of hurling it. Tirrell uses the tools of inferential role semantics to explain what is at issue between those who think certain deeply derogatory terms (especially racist derogations that enact oppression) should be banned (she calls them ‘Absolutists’), and those who think the terms can safely be used by members of the groups who are targeted by such words (she calls these ‘Reclaimers’).
Mathematical formulas or models (known as algorithms), may be applied to the data in order to identify relationships among the variables; for example, using correlation or causation. In general terms, models may be developed to evaluate a specific variable based on other variable(s) contained within the dataset, with some residual error depending on the implemented model's accuracy (e.g., Data = Model + Error). Inferential statistics, includes utilizing techniques that measure the relationships between particular variables.
Cuba's national anthem "La Bayamesa (El Himno de Bayamo)" dates to 1868, but many new songs were generated by the revolution. The key focus is on the rural people.Music and Marx: ideas, practice, politics - Page 216 Karl Marx, Regula Qureshi - 2002 "The key term or trope in the identity discourse of Central American revolutionary music is el pueblo. Inclusive, positive, respectful, empowering and democratic are all inferential in the music's articulation of "the people.
However, use of a nonlinear transformation requires caution. The influences of the data values will change, as will the error structure of the model and the interpretation of any inferential results. These may not be desired effects. On the other hand, depending on what the largest source of error is, a nonlinear transformation may distribute the errors in a Gaussian fashion, so the choice to perform a nonlinear transformation must be informed by modeling considerations.
The act of conditioning on the marginal success rate from a 2×2 table can be shown to ignore some information in the data about the unknown odds ratio. The argument that the marginal totals are (almost) ancillary implies that the appropriate likelihood function for making inferences about this odds ratio should be conditioned on the marginal success rate. Whether this lost information is important for inferential purposes is the essence of the controversy.
Brandom's work is heavily influenced by that of Wilfrid Sellars, Richard Rorty, Michael Dummett and his Pittsburgh colleague John McDowell. He also draws heavily on the works of Immanuel Kant, G. W. F. Hegel, Gottlob Frege, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is best known for his investigations of linguistic meanings, or semantics. He advocates the view that the meaning of an expression is fixed by how it is used in inferences (see inferential role semantics).
At the end of this stage, before the reader becomes an expert reader, many processes are starting to become automatic. This increasing automaticity frees up cognitive resources so that the reader can reflect on meaning. With the decoding process almost automatic by this point, the brain learns to integrate more metaphorical, inferential, analogical, background and experiential knowledge with every newly won millisecond. This stage in learning to read often will last until early adulthood.
People will be negatively affected if they don't live up to their personal standards. Various environmental cues and situations induce awareness of the self, such as mirrors, an audience, or being videotaped or recorded. These cues also increase accuracy of personal memory. In one of Demetriou's neo- Piagetian theories of cognitive development, self-awareness develops systematically from birth through the life span and it is a major factor for the development of general inferential processes.
Further, the account allows for the open- endedness of metaphor without succumbing to the view that metaphor is non- cognitive. In later work, Tirrell decisively undermines the view that metaphor should be understood as elliptical simile (“Reductive and Non-Reductive Simile Theories of Metaphor”(J. Phil, 1991). Her work brings inferential role semantics, as developed in the Pittsburgh School, to bear on alternative theories of metaphor, and shows the importance of interpretive practices.
There have been three principal excavations at the site: first in 1906 and 1909, then in 1951 and 1952, and finally in 2008. The dearth of dateable finds meant that, until the early part of the 21st century, the dating of the site was largely inferential. Each excavation has revealed a little more about the site, with modern techniques enabling archaeologists to date the earliest known occupation of the fort to within 200 years.
A characteristic of Turkish which is shared by neighboring languages such as Bulgarian and Persian is that the perfect tense suffix (in Turkish -miş-, -müş-, -mış-, or -muş-) often has an inferential meaning, e.g. geliyormuşum "it would seem (they say) that I am coming". Verbs also have a number of participial forms, which Turkish makes much use of. Clauses which begin with "who" or "because" in English are generally translated by means of participial phrases in Turkish.
By tracing the causal process from the independent variable of interest to the dependent variable, it may be possible to rule out potentially intervening variables in imperfectly matched cases. This can create a stronger basis for attributing causal significance to the remaining independent variables. Two limits to process-tracing is the problem of infinite regress and problem of degrees of freedom. One advantage to process-tracing over quantitative methods is that process-tracing provides inferential leverage.
Caregivers learn, understand and then practice observational and inferential skills regarding their children's attachment behaviors and their own caregiving responses. To capitalize on this user-friendly system in the intervention, therapists developed the "shark music" tool. During the video feedback clips, intense music (shark music) is played when there is problematic behavior exhibited by the caregiver or child. The music is meant to noticeably point out triggering behavior for the caregivers of the group to witness.
In his early epistemological system, which he called Radical Conventionalism, Ajdukiewicz analyzed any language as a set of expressions or sentences, with inferential rules of meaning that specify the relation of one expression to another, or to external data. There are three kinds of rules: Axiomatic, Deductive, and Empirical. Following the rules, one can map all knowable sentences of a language. However, some languages' vocabularies can produce disconnected sentences, which are only partly mapped by the meaning rules.
Cause and effect may also be understood probabilistically, via inferential statistics. A common example taught in introductory logic is a conditional statement such that that 'the ground is wet.' Often the specific example is presented as a statement, 'If it rained, then the ground is wet' or something along this line. And often the fact that such a conditional statement is in fact true even when the antecedent (that it rained) is false generates some controversy.
These relations are extensively discussed in the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development. During senescence, RT deteriorates (as does fluid intelligence), and this deterioration is systematically associated with changes in many other cognitive processes, such as executive functions, working memory, and inferential processes. In the theory of Andreas Demetriou, one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, change in speed of processing with age, as indicated by decreasing RT, is one of the pivotal factors of cognitive development.
As with other educational research (and the social sciences in general), mathematics education research depends on both quantitative and qualitative studies. Quantitative research includes studies that use inferential statistics to answer specific questions, such as whether a certain teaching method gives significantly better results than the status quo. The best quantitative studies involve randomized trials where students or classes are randomly assigned different methods to test their effects. They depend on large samples to obtain statistically significant results.
This result means that physicists have used the wrong transformation of probability laws to represent time reversal, and the popular claims that quantum mechanics is time reversal invariant are invalid. Watanabe's argument has not been accepted by physicists or philosophers however. The assumption that quantum mechanics is time symmetric on the basis of invalid conventional proofs is almost universal in the literature on time in physics to this day. He developed the Double Inferential Vector Formalism (DIVF),Watanabe, Satosi.
Two different interpretations of probability (based on objective evidence and subjective degrees of belief) have long existed. Gauss and Laplace could have debated alternatives more than 200 years ago. Two competing schools of statistics have developed as a consequence. Classical inferential statistics was largely developed in the second quarter of the 20th century, much of it in reaction to the (Bayesian) probability of the time which utilized the controversial principle of indifference to establish prior probabilities.
Meadowbrook is known for academic rigor, and the curriculum encompasses language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, foreign language, and technology. In addition there is a focus on global education and social-emotional learning. As students progress through the grades, there is an emphasis on inferential thinking and sophisticated approaches to discussion, writing, and reading comprehension. Students are also given more choice as to which arts and athletics courses they take once they reach the Middle School.
The ability to distinguish between colors allows an organism to quickly and easily recognize danger since many brightly colored plants and animals pose some kind of threat, usually harboring some kind of toxin. Color also serves as an inferential cue that can prime both the motor actionSchmidt, T.: The finger in flight: Real-time motor control by visually masked color stimuli. In: Psychological Science, Nr. 13, 2002, S. 112-118. and interpretation of a persuasive message.
Critics have suggested that Cosmides and Tooby use untested evolutionary assumptions to eliminate rival reasoning theories and that their conclusions contain inferential errors. Davies et al., for example, have argued that Cosmides and Tooby did not succeed in eliminating the general- purpose theory because the adapted Wason selection task they used tested only one specific aspect of deductive reasoning and failed to examine other general-purpose reasoning mechanisms (e.g., reasoning based on syllogistic logic, predicate logic, modal logic, and inductive logic etc.).
To use an oversimplified example, the hypothesis Job satisfaction reduces job turnover is one way to connect (or frame) two concepts – job satisfaction and job turnover. The process of moving from the idea job satisfaction to the set of questionnaire items that form a job satisfaction scale is operationalization. Operationalization uses a different logic when testing a formal (quantitative) hypothesis and testing working hypothesis (qualitative). For formal hypotheses the concepts are represented empirically (or operationalized) as numeric variables and tested using inferential statistics.
The following generation established the tools of classical inferential statistics (significance testing, hypothesis testing and confidence intervals) all based on frequentist probability. Alternatively, Jacob Bernoulli (AKA James or Jacques) understood the concept of frequentist probability and published a critical proof (the weak law of large numbers) posthumously in 1713. He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without Bayes theorem). Bernoulli provided a classical example of drawing many black and white pebbles from an urn (with replacement).
The first subtest, Vocabulary, consists of 80 multiple- choice items, each with five response options. The words were drawn from high school and college textbooks and vary in difficulty. The second subtest, Comprehension, requires examinees to read five short passages (also drawn from high school and college textbooks) and to respond to 38 multiple-choice questions about the contents of these passages. Approximately half of these items relate to specific factual content, while the other half are more inferential in nature.
The site cannot be directly connected with any ruler, since the few finds from the site did not include any inscriptions. An inferential assignment to Shepseskare is based on the location of the site in the necropolis. Because of the proximity of the area to the Pyramid of Sahure and the Sun temple of Userkaf, Verner suggested that Shepseskare belonged to the same branch of the royal family as these two rulers. The chronological position of Shepseskare is not entirely clear.
Hurlbert reported "pseudoreplication" in 48% of the studies he examined, that used inferential statistics. Several studies examining scientific papers published up to 2016 similarly found about half of the papers were suspected of pseudoreplication. When time and resources limit the number of experimental units, and unit effects cannot be eliminated statistically by testing over the unit variance, it is important to use other sources of information to evaluate the degree to which an F-ratio is confounded by unit effects.
"Modularity", in Buller, David J. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology. The MIT Press. pp. 127 - 201 Other critics suggest that there is little empirical support in favor of the domain-specific theory beyond performance on the Wason selection task, a task critics state is too limited in scope to test all relevant aspects of reasoning. Moreover, critics argue that Cosmides and Tooby's conclusions contain several inferential errors and that the authors use untested evolutionary assumptions to eliminate rival reasoning theories.
Meanings such as "not", "be able", "must" and "if", which are expressed as separate words in most other languages, are usually expressed with verbal suffixes in Turkmen. A characteristic of Turkmen which is shared by neighboring languages such as Persian is that the perfect tense suffix (in Turkmen miş-, -myş-) often has an inferential meaning, e.g. gelýärmiş "it would seem (they say) that he/she is coming". Verbs also have a number of participial forms, which Turkmen makes much use of.
The inferential view of TOTs claims that TOTs aren't completely inaccessible, but arise from clues about the target that the rememberer can piece together. This is to say that the rememberer infers their knowledge of the target word, and the imminence of retrieval depends upon the information that they are able to access about the target word from their memory. These views disregard the presence of the target word in memory as having an effect on creating tip of the tongue states.
In strict definition, ASM differs from APM in two critical ways. # APM focuses exclusively on the performance of an instance of an application, ignoring the complex set of interdependencies that may exist behind that application in the data center. ASM specifically mandates that each application or infrastructure software, operating system, hardware platform, and transactional "hop" be discretely measurable, even if that measurement is inferential. This is critical to ASM's requirement to be able to isolate the source of service- impacting conditions.
Hayes (1982), p 1. This topic of svārthānumāna (reasoning, literally "inference for oneself") is the subject of chapter two of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya while the topic of the third chapter is about demonstration (parārthānumāna, literally "inference for others"), that is, how one communicates one's inferences through proper argument.Hayes (1982), p 132-33. According to Richard Hayes, in Dignāga's system, to obtain knowledge that a property (the "inferable property", sadhya) is inherent in a "subject of inference" (paksa) it must be derived through an inferential sign (linga).
He also argues that it is necessary to presuppose that the epistemic agent possesses empirical knowledge of particular truths in order to make assumptions about the epistemic state of cognitive states that are independent of inference. However, Sellars reasons, because presupposition is inferential, empirical knowledge, regardless of being non-inferentially acquired, is nevertheless epistemically dependent if based on the presupposition that the epistemic agent possesses other pertinent empirical knowledge. Therefore, he concludes that cognitions that are organized propositionally do not qualify as “the given”.
Richie called it "one of the most perfect movies in the history of Japanese cinema" and especially praised the beauty and morality of the film's opening and closing shots. Richie analyzed how the film starts with "a long panorama" and shots spanning from a lake to the shore and the village. He judged the ending's "upward tilting panorama" from the grave to above to reflect the beginning. Bosley Crowther, in The New York Times, wrote that the film had "a strangely obscure, inferential, almost studiedly perplexing quality".
These are indirect inferential methods of detecting mineralisation, as the commodity being sought is not directly conductive, or not sufficiently conductive to be measurable. EM surveys are also used in unexploded ordnance, archaeological, and geotechnical investigations. Regional EM surveys are conducted via airborne methods, using either fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter-borne EM rigs. Surface EM methods are based mostly on Transient EM methods using surface loops with a surface receiver, or a downhole tool lowered into a borehole which transects a body of mineralisation.
SIPTA, Compiègne, France. They characterize the inferential uncertainty about the estimate in the form of a collection of focal intervals (or sets), each with associated confidence (probability) mass. This collection can be depicted as a p-box and can project the confidence interpretation through probability bounds analysis. Unlike traditional confidence intervals which cannot usually be propagated through mathematical calculations, c-boxes can be used in calculations in ways that preserve the ability to obtain arbitrary confidence intervals for the results.Ferson, S., J O’Rawe and M. Balch. 2014.
Beyond documentary types of work are studies that attempt to provide an understanding of why customers have the perceptions they do and what may be done to change those perceptions. While models-based studies also provide snapshots of customer attitudes, the results of these studies are more powerful because they present the firm with recommendations on how to improve customer satisfaction. Frequently, these studies also provide firms with a prioritization of the various recommended actions. Inferential studies can also be conducted as tracking studies.
Barbey used lesion mapping to study Vietnam veterans who had suffered brain trauma. He was able to record diagnostic images of their brains and relate this anatomical data to their documented problems, creating a "brain atlas" linking cognitive functions to neural organization. He has suggested a framework called “structured event complex theory” that describes the inferential architecture of the prefrontal cortex. His research group examines the effects of physical fitness, nutrition and cognitive neuroscience interventions (including TDCS) on brain health and intelligence across the human lifespan.
In the research, Twitter was regarded as an onion with multiple privacy layers. The research found out that there were significant differences at the descriptive and inferential levels among the multiple dimensions of private information, including daily lives, social identity, competence, socio-economic status, and health. Private information regarding daily lives and entertainment was disclosed easily and located at the outermost layer of the disclosure onion. In contrast, health- related private information was concealed and located within the innermost layer of the disclosure onion.
For Fodor, this formal notion of thought processes also has the advantage of highlighting the parallels between the causal role of symbols and the contents which they express. In his view, syntax plays the role of mediation between the causal role of the symbols and their contents. The semantic relations between symbols can be "imitated" by their syntactic relations. The inferential relations which connect the contents of two symbols can be imitated by the formal syntax rules which regulate the derivation of one symbol from another.
Basic and Applied Social Psychology (BASP) is a bi-monthly psychology journal published by Taylor & Francis. The journal emphasizes the publication of empirical research articles but also publishes literature reviews, criticism, and methodological or theoretical statements spanning the entire range of social psychological issues. In 2015, the journal banned p-values (and related inferential statistics such as confidence intervals) as evidence in papers accepted by the journal, replacing hypothesis testing with "strong descriptive statistics, including effect sizes" on the grounds that "the state of the art [for hypothesis testing] remains uncertain".
They are found in the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the tropical waters of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. The first holotype was collected in 1929 by Guy Coburn Robson and became a key factor in distinguishing between O. joubini and the closely related Octopus mercatoris (or in some cases, an unidentified species referred to as Octopus sp. X). Much of the information about O. joubini was obtained through laboratory studies of captive specimens and what little is known about their behavior in a natural environment is inferential.
Heuristics are efficient rules, or computational shortcuts, for producing a judgment or decision. The intuitive statistician metaphor of cognition led to a shift in focus for many psychologists, away from emotional or motivational principles and toward computational or inferential principles. Empirical studies investigating these principles have led some to conclude that human cognition, for example, has built-in and systematic errors in inference, or cognitive biases. As a result, cognitive psychologists have largely adopted the view that intuitive judgments, generalizations, and numerical or probabilistic calculations are systematically biased.
Explaining Culture: A Naturalistic Approach. Blackwell. There is no necessary contradiction between evolutionary psychology and DIT, but evolutionary psychologists argue that the psychology implicit in many DIT models is too simple; evolved programs have a rich inferential structure not captured by the idea of a "content bias". They also argue that some of the phenomena DIT models attribute to cultural evolution are cases of "evoked culture"—situations in which different evolved programs are activated in different places, in response to cues in the environment.Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L., (1992) Psychological foundations of culture.
This is taken to indicate that other domains, including one's beliefs, cannot influence such processes. Fodor arrives at the conclusion that such processes are inferential like higher order processes and encapsulated in the same sense as reflexes. Although he argued for the modularity of "lower level" cognitive processes in Modularity of Mind he also argued that higher level cognitive processes are not modular since they have dissimilar properties. The Mind Doesn't Work That Way, a reaction to Steven Pinker's How the Mind Works, is devoted to this subject.
In 2007, Rivera-Medina became an instructor at UPRRP of graduate studies in advanced statistics, design methods, inferential statistics applied to psychology, and the theory and methods for the evaluation of intervention and research programs. Starting in September 2008, she works as a statistician and methodologist at the Institute for Psychological Research in the faculty of social sciences at UPRRP. She advises and directs faculty, and graduate and undergraduate students in their statistical strategy analysis. In 2015, she was an invited professor of quantitative research and applied psychology at Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.
Some use the term "ethical intuitionism" in moral philosophy to refer to the general position that we have some non-inferential moral knowledge (see Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006a and 2006b)—that is, basic moral knowledge that is not inferred from or based on any proposition. However, it is important to distinguish between empiricist versus rationalist models of this. Some, thus, reserve the term "ethical intuitionism" for the rationalist model and the term "moral sense theory" for the empiricist model (see Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006b, pp. 184–186, especially fn. 4).
The rationalist version of ethical intuitionism models ethical intuitions on a priori, non-empirically-based intuitions of truths, such as basic truths of mathematics. Take for example the belief that two minus one is one. This piece of knowledge is often thought to be non- inferential in that it is not grounded in or justified by some other proposition or claim. Rather, one who understands the relevant concepts involved in the proposition that two minus one is one has what one might call an "intuition" of the truth of the proposition.
The idea of a priori knowledge is that it is based on intuition or rational insights. Laurence BonJour says in his article "The Structure of Empirical Knowledge",BonJour, Laurence, 1985, The Structure of Empirical Knowledge, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. that a "rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp, apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is necessarily true." (3) Going back to the crow example, by Laurence BonJour's definition the reason you would believe in option A is because you have an immediate knowledge that a crow is a bird, without ever experiencing one.
Hume insists that the conclusions of the Enquiry will be very powerful if they can be shown to apply to animals and not just humans. He believed that animals were able to infer the relation between cause and effect in the same way that humans do: through learned expectations. (Hume 1974:384) He also notes that this "inferential" ability that animals have is not through reason, but custom alone. Hume concludes that there is an innate faculty of instincts which both beasts and humans share, namely, the ability to reason experimentally (through custom).
Sources of evidentiality inflected in definite nouns include observational, inferential, and quotative. However, Lowe (1999) states that there are few corpus examples of the simultaneous use of time and evidentiality suffixes in definite nouns. In the following sentence examples from Lowe (1999), one can see how suffixes are used to distinguish between a bone-like manioc root that was seen recently, and one that was seen in the past: wa3lin3-su3-n3ti2 manioc- CL:BONE.LIKE-OBSERVATIONAL.RECENT.PAST.GIVEN ‘The manioc root that both you and I saw recently.’ wa3lin3-su3-ait3ta3li2 manioc-CL:BONE.
Courts should avoid granting inferential, incremental steps like these, Burger cautioned, in one of the most frequently quoted sections of the case: It did not matter that, unlike the claimant in Thirty-seven Photographs, Paladini insisted that the materials were for private personal use. "To allow such a claim would be not unlike compelling the Government to permit importation of prohibited or controlled drugs for private consumption as long as such drugs are not for public distribution or sale." In one of the other cases, United States v. Orito,United States v.
Error management theory asserts that evolved mind-reading agencies will be biased to produce more of one type of inferential error than another. These mind-reading biases have been further researched in terms of the mating world. Error management theory provides a clear explanation for the discovery that men have a tendency to perceive women as having greater sexual interest in them than is present, if they smile or touch them, and females have a tendency to underplay a man's interest in them, even if it is quite strong. This is based on commitment scepticism.
The addressee uses the information contained in the utterance together with his expectations about its relevance, his real-world knowledge, as well as sensory input, to infer conclusions about what the communicator wanted to convey. Typically, more conclusions can be drawn if the utterance contains information that is related to what the addressee already knows or believes. In this inference process, the "literal meaning" of the utterance is just one piece of evidence among others. Sperber and Wilson sum up these properties of verbal communication by calling it ostensive-inferential communication.
There are a wide range of objectives that you can use with this strategy. Basically any skill that pertains to the text can be employed. Examples of the different types of skills that the directed listening activity can be used to enhance are: literal information such as, sequencing and recalling facts, inferential responses such as, interpreting the feelings of characters, making predictions, relating story events to real- life experiences and visualizing, or critical responses such as, evaluating and problem solving. The strategy can also be used with various genres and story structures.
The expression res ipsa loquitur is not a doctrine but a "mode of inferential reasoning" and applies only to accidents of unknown cause. Res ipsa loquitur comes into play where an accident of unknown cause is one that would not normally happen without negligence on the part of the defendant in control of the object or activity which injured the plaintiff or damaged his property. In such a situation the court is able to infer negligence on the defendant's part unless he offers an acceptable explanation consistent with his having taken reasonable care.
For example, Robert E. Lee thought the pope was "the only sovereign... in Europe who recognized our poor Confederacy". In fact, no diplomatic relations or recognitions were extended in either direction. In his dispatch to Richmond, Mann claimed a great diplomatic achievement for himself; he believed the letter was "a positive recognition of our Government". Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin told Mann it was "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition.
According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988.Hoffecker, J., Scott, J., Excavations In Eastern Europe Reveal Ancient Human Lifestyles, University of Colorado at Boulder News Archive, March 21, 2002, colorado.
In probability theory and statistics, the chi-square distribution (also chi- squared or ) with degrees of freedom is the distribution of a sum of the squares of independent standard normal random variables. The chi-square distribution is a special case of the gamma distribution and is one of the most widely used probability distributions in inferential statistics, notably in hypothesis testing and in construction of confidence intervals.NIST (2006). Engineering Statistics Handbook – Chi-Squared Distribution This distribution is sometimes called the central chi-square distribution, a special case of the more general noncentral chi-square distribution.
Per Russell, all foundational knowledge is by acquaintance, and all non-foundational (inferential) knowledge is developed from acquaintance relations. Russell's famous description of acquaintance is as follows: ::We shall say that we have acquaintance with anything of which we are directly aware, without the intermediary of any process of inference or any knowledge of truths. Thus in the presence of my table I am acquainted with the sense-data that make up the appearance of my table—its colour, shape, hardness, smoothness, etc.; all these are things of which I am immediately conscious when I am seeing and touching my table.
Loubser and Rabie "Defining dolus eventualis" 416. The subjective test takes account only of the state of mind of the accused, the issue being whether the accused himself foresaw the consequences of his act. The test may be satisfied by inferential reasoning: that is to say, if it can be reasoned that, in the particular circumstances, the accused "ought to have foreseen" the consequences, and thus "must have foreseen," and therefore, by inference, "did foresee" them. In S v Sigwahla, Holmes JA expressed the degree of proof in the following terms: > Subjective foresight, like any other factual issue, may be proved by > inference.
Peirce drew on the methodological implications of the four incapacities—no genuine introspection, no intuition in the sense of non-inferential cognition, no thought but in signs, and no conception of the absolutely incognizable—to attack philosophical Cartesianism, of which he said that: 1\. "It teaches that philosophy must begin in universal doubt" – when, instead, we start with preconceptions, "prejudices [...] which it does not occur to us can be questioned", though we may find reason to question them later. "Let us not pretend to doubt in philosophy what we do not doubt in our hearts." 2\.
Influence diagrams are hierarchical and can be defined either in terms of their structure or in greater detail in terms of the functional and numerical relation between diagram elements. An ID that is consistently defined at all levels--structure, function, and number--is a well-defined mathematical representation and is referred to as a well-formed influence diagram (WFID). WFIDs can be evaluated using reversal and removal operations to yield answers to a large class of probabilistic, inferential, and decision questions. More recent techniques have been developed by artificial intelligence researchers concerning Bayesian network inference (belief propagation).
Gentzen's main work was on the foundations of mathematics, in proof theory, specifically natural deduction and the sequent calculus. His cut-elimination theorem is the cornerstone of proof-theoretic semantics, and some philosophical remarks in his "Investigations into Logical Deduction", together with Ludwig Wittgenstein's later work, constitute the starting point for inferential role semantics. One of Gentzen's papers had a second publication in the ideological Deutsche Mathematik that was founded by Ludwig Bieberbach who promoted "Aryan" mathematics.Dipl.Math. Walter Tydecks, Neuere Geschichte der Mathematik in Deutschland (in German) Gentzen proved the consistency of the Peano axioms in a paper published in 1936.
In The Language War, Lakoff introduced the idea that frames create meanings. She quotes that language (either verbal or nonverbal) and experiences is a “body of knowledge that is evoked in order to provide an inferential base for the understanding of an utterance.” (Levinson, 1983) Frames are ideas that shape expectations and create focuses that are to be seen as truth and common sense. When someone decides to adopt a frame, that person will believe everything within the frame is genuine, and that what she or he learns within the frame becomes what she or he believes is common sense.
It was published in the Journal of Archaeological Science. In their paper, Redmond and Eren concluded that the distance between the site of the flint in Indiana and the Paleo Crossing site provides "strong inferential material evidence that the fast expansion of the Clovis culture across the continent occurred as a result of a geographically widespread hunter-gatherer social network." In addition, they believe that the people at Paleo Crossing probably traveled more than 500 kilometers, because hunter-gatherers don't travel in a straight line. Based on topography, they may have traveled , or more than if they followed rivers.
Individuals report a feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found. While many aspects of the tip-of-the- tongue state remain unclear, there are two major competing explanations for its occurrence, the direct-access view and the inferential view. Emotion and the strength of the emotional ties to what is trying to be remembered can also have an impact on the TOT phenomenon. The stronger the emotional ties, the longer it takes to retrieve the item from memory.
Subjective foresight is established by a process of inferential reasoning. Kgomo AJA, writing for a unanimous court,Para 39. approved the following dictum from S v Van Wyk:1992 (1) SACR 147 (Nm). > All the relevant facts which bear on the accused's state of mind and > intention must be cumulatively assessed and a conclusion reached as to > whether an inference beyond reasonable doubt can be drawn from these facts > that the accused actually considered it a reasonable possibility that the > deceased could die from the assault but, reckless as to such fatal > possibility, embarked on or persisted with the assault.
Historical evidence of male miners or businessmen in the 19th Century Central Otago goldfields is readily available in literature by and about the experiences of inhabitants at the various gold strikes. Census statistics and photographs are also available, all of which provide inferential evidence about the labour roles in these communities. This in turn provides information about labour and social roles within the community. Such information includes that of the ownership and management of stores and hotels, such as the bank and gold office at Maori Point (Bank of New Zealand) in the 1860s, managed by G. M. Ross.
Some of the fallacies described above may be committed in the context of measurement. Where mathematical fallacies are subtle mistakes in reasoning leading to invalid mathematical proofs, measurement fallacies are unwarranted inferential leaps involved in the extrapolation of raw data to a measurement-based value claim. The ancient Greek Sophist Protagoras was one of the first thinkers to propose that humans can generate reliable measurements through his "human-measure" principle and the practice of dissoi logoi (arguing multiple sides of an issue). This history helps explain why measurement fallacies are informed by informal logic and argumentation theory.
In 1994, Gelfand was presented with a dataset that he had previously not encountered: scallop catches on the Atlantic Ocean. Intrigued by the challenges associated with analyzing data with structured spatial correlation, Gelfand, along with colleagues Sudipto Banerjee and Brad Carlin, created an inferential paradigm for analyzing spatial data. Gelfand’s contributions to spatial statistics include spatially-varying coefficient models, linear models of coregionalization for multivariate spatial processes, predictive processes for analysis of large spatial data and non-parametric approaches to the analysis of spatial data. Gelfand's research in spatial statistics spans application areas of ecology, disease and the environment.
Each formal system uses primitive symbols (which collectively form an alphabet) to finitely construct a formal language from a set of axioms through inferential rules of formation. The system thus consists of valid formulas built up through finite combinations of the primitive symbols—combinations that are formed from the axioms in accordance with the stated rules.Encyclopædia Britannica, Formal system definition, 2007. More formally, this can be expressed as the following: # A finite set of symbols, known as the alphabet, which concatenate formulas, so that a formula is just a finite string of symbols taken from the alphabet.
What sample size is necessary for this population? What sampling method to use?- examples: Probability Sampling:- (cluster sampling, stratified sampling, simple random sampling, multistage sampling, systematic sampling) & Nonprobability sampling:- (Convenience Sampling, Judgement Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling, Snowball Sampling, etc. ) # Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts # Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw data so it is compatible with statistical techniques and with the objectives of the research - examples: assigning numbers, consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy variables, scale transformations, scale standardization # Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential techniques (see below) on the raw data.
For coherence theories in general, the assessment of meaning and truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.Immanuel Kant, for instance, assembled a controversial but quite coherent system in the early 19th century, whose validity of meaning and usefulness continues to be debated even today.
The cricket match that Rosemary Hall hosted in Wallingford in 1893 against Mrs. Hazen's School of Pelham Manor, N.Y., has been described as "the first interscholastic girls sporting event in American history."Tom Melville, The Tented Field: A History of Cricket in America (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Press, 1998), p. 114 (Girls intramural sports had, of course, existed, but the Rosemary cricket match is the earliest discoverable extramural item.) The dating to 1893 occurs in the official history of Choate, published in 1997. Other discussions of the event give an inferential date of 1895 or earlier, referencing newspaper articles in 1896 that imply a well-established rivalry.
In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis is a general statement or default position that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena, or no association among groups. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis—and thus concluding that there are grounds for believing that there is a relationship between two phenomena (e.g. that a potential treatment has a measurable effect)—is a central task in the modern practice of science; the field of statistics gives precise criteria for rejecting a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally assumed to be true until evidence indicates otherwise. In statistics, it is often denoted H0 (read “H-nought”, "H-null", "H-oh", or "H-zero").
Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore (direct detection), or in some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or inferential detection). The most direct method of detection of ore via magnetism involves detecting iron ore mineralisation via mapping magnetic anomalies associated with banded iron formations which usually contain magnetite in some proportion. Skarn mineralisation, which often contains magnetite, can also be detected though the ore minerals themselves would be non-magnetic. Similarly, magnetite, hematite and often pyrrhotite are common minerals associated with hydrothermal alteration, and this alteration can be detected to provide an inference that some mineralising hydrothermal event has affected the rocks.
An archaeologist searches for evidence of glass objects among ruins Archaeology is the study of humanity through the inferential analysis of material culture to ultimately gain an understanding of the daily lives of past cultures and the overarching trend of human history. An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of the artifacts from a specific time and place, most often that has no written record. These physical artifacts are then used to make inferences about the ephemeral aspects of culture and history. With more recent societies, written histories, oral traditions, and direct observations may also be available to supplement the study of material culture.
The experience of causing an event alters the subjective experience of their timing. For instance, actions are perceived as temporally shifted towards their effects when they are performed volitionally, but not when involuntarily evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation (Haggard, Clark, and Kalogeras 2002). This distortion of the perceived interval between movement and effect is known as intentional binding and is considered an implicit measure of the sense of agency. Moore, Wegner, and Haggard (2009) show that supraliminal priming affects intentional binding. This effect contains an inferential ‘‘postdictive” component, because the effect shifts the perceived time of action, even when the probability of the effect's occurrence is low (Moore and Haggard, 2008).
Toulmin argumentation can be diagrammed as a conclusion established, more or less, on the basis of a fact supported by a warrant (with backing), and a possible rebuttal. Arguing that absolutism lacks practical value, Toulmin aimed to develop a different type of argument, called practical arguments (also known as substantial arguments). In contrast to absolutists' theoretical arguments, Toulmin's practical argument is intended to focus on the justificatory function of argumentation, as opposed to the inferential function of theoretical arguments. Whereas theoretical arguments make inferences based on a set of principles to arrive at a claim, practical arguments first find a claim of interest, and then provide justification for it.
Controls tended to infer a wider range of cultural meanings with little replicated content (for example: "Go with the flow" or "Everyone should have equal opportunity"). Only the subjects with autism—who lack the degree of inferential capacity normally associated with aspects of theory of mind—came close to functioning as "meme machines." In his book The Robot's Rebellion, Keith Stanovich uses the memes and memeplex concepts to describe a program of cognitive reform that he refers to as a "rebellion." Specifically, Stanovich argues that the use of memes as a descriptor for cultural units is beneficial because it serves to emphasize transmission and acquisition properties that parallel the study of epidemiology.
A Diamond DA42 light aircraft, modified for aerial survey with a nose-mounted boom containing a magnetometer at its tip Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore (direct detection), or in some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or inferential detection). This includes iron ore, magnetite, hematite, and often pyrrhotite. Developed countries such as Australia, Canada and USA invest heavily in systematic airborne magnetic surveys of their respective continents and surrounding oceans, to assist with map geology and in the discovery of mineral deposits. Such aeromag surveys are typically undertaken with 400 m line spacing at 100 m elevation, with readings every 10 meters or more.
Retrocausality is associated with the Double Inferential state-Vector Formalism (DIVF), later known as the two-state vector formalism (TSVF) in quantum mechanics, where the present is characterised by quantum states of the past and the future taken in combination. Time runs left to right in this Feynman diagram of electron–positron annihilation. When interpreted to include retrocausality, the electron (marked e−) was not destroyed, instead becoming the positron (e+) and moving backward in time. Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory, proposed by John Archibald Wheeler and Richard Feynman, uses retrocausality and a temporal form of destructive interference to explain the absence of a type of converging concentric wave suggested by certain solutions to Maxwell's equations.
In contrast to the general-purpose mechanistic view, some researchers advocate both domain-specific information structures and similarly specialized inferential mechanisms. For example, while humans do not usually excel at conditional probability calculations, the use of conditional probability calculations are central to parsing speech sounds into comprehensible syllables, a relatively straightforward and intuitive skill emerging as early as 8 months. Infants also appear to be good at tracking not only spatiotemporal states of objects, but at tracking properties of objects, and these cognitive systems appear to be developmentally distinct. This has been interpreted as domain specific toolkits of inference, each of which corresponds to separate types of information and has applications to concept learning.
Dogs have demonstrated episodic-like memory by recalling past events that included the complex actions of humans. In a 2019 study, a correlation has been shown between the size of the dog and the functions of memory and self-control, with larger dogs performing significantly better than smaller dogs in these functions. However, in the study brain size did not predict a dog's ability to follow human pointing gestures, nor was it associated with their inferential and physical reasoning abilities. A 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that various animals, including pigs, pigeons and chimpanzees, are able to remember the what, where and when of an event, which dogs cannot do.
Little is known for certain of Josquin's early life. Much is inferential and speculative, though numerous clues have emerged from his works and the writings of contemporary composers, theorists, and writers of the next several generations. Josquin was born in the area controlled by the Dukes of Burgundy, and was possibly born either in Hainaut (modern-day Belgium), or immediately across the border in modern-day France, since several times in his life he was classified legally as a Frenchman (for instance, when he made his will). Josquin was long mistaken for a man with a similar name, Josquin de Kessalia, born around the year 1440, who sang in Milan from 1459 to 1474, dying in 1498.
In his 1993 book Inductive Inference and Its Natural Ground (MIT Press, 1993) Kornblith argues that inductive knowledge is possible by virtue of a fit between our innate psychological capacities and the causal structure of the world. Following Boyd, Kornblith takes the causal structure in question to be a structure of natural kinds, i.e., of homeostatically clustered properties. Such natural kinds provide a natural ground for inductive inference by virtue of the fact that our innate inferential tendencies (as revealed by empirical psychology) are structured in a way that assumes a world of natural kinds, and, thereby, tend to provide us with accurate beliefs about the world in an environment populated by such natural kinds.
A possible solution to such requirements is the slit pass, also called split pass, which divides an incoming bar in two or more subparts, thus virtually increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported by Lambiase. Another solution for reducing the number of passes in the rolling mills is the employment of automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase and Langella. subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based on Artificial Intelligence and particularly an integrated system including an inferential engine based on Genetic Algorithms a knowledge database based on an Artificial Neural Network trained by a parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically design rolling mills.
Walter Seymour Allward's Veritas (Truth) outside Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Canada For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.Immanuel Kant, for instance, assembled a controversial but quite coherent system in the early 19th century, whose validity and usefulness continues to be debated even today.
Random sampling is a related, but distinct process. Random sampling is recruiting participants in a way that they represent a larger population. Because most basic statistical tests require the hypothesis of an independent randomly sampled population, random assignment is the desired assignment method because it provides control for all attributes of the members of the samples—in contrast to matching on only one or more variables—and provides the mathematical basis for estimating the likelihood of group equivalence for characteristics one is interested in, both for pretreatment checks on equivalence and the evaluation of post treatment results using inferential statistics. More advanced statistical modeling can be used to adapt the inference to the sampling method.
These, in turn, open the way for the enhancement of working memory capacity, which subsequently opens the way for development in inferential processes, and the development of the various specialized domains through the reorganization of domain-specific skills, strategies, and knowledge and the acquisition of new ones. There are top-down effects as well. That is, general inference patterns, such as implication (if ... then inferences), or disjunction (either ... or inferences), are constructed by mapping domain-specific inference patterns onto each other through the hypercognitive process of metarepresentation. Metarepresentation is the primary top-down mechanism of cognitive change which looks for, codifies, and typifies similarities between mental experiences (past or present) to enhance understanding and problem-solving efficiency.
The colored ball paradigm in these experiments did not distinguish the possibilities of infants' inferences based on quantity vs. proportion, which was addressed in follow-up research where 12-month-old infants seemed to understand proportions, basing probabilistic judgments - motivated by preferences for the more probable outcomes - on initial evidence of the proportions in their available options. Critics of the effectiveness of looking-time tasks allowed infants to search for preferred objects in single-sample probability tasks, supporting the notion that infants can infer probabilities of single events when given a small or large initial sample size. The researchers involved in these findings have argued that humans possess some statistically structured, inferential system during preverbal stages of development and prior to formal education.
The people named were a mélange: "some famous, some obscure, some he knew personally and others he did not." Orwell commented in New Leader in 1947: > The important thing to do with these people – and it is extremely difficult, > since one has only inferential evidence – is to sort them out and determine > which of them is honest and which is not. There is, for instance, a whole > group of M.P.s in the British Parliament ([Denis Nowell] Pritt, [Konni] > Zilliacus, etc.) who are commonly nicknamed "the cryptos". They have > undoubtedly done a great deal of mischief, especially in confusing public > opinion about the nature of the puppet regimes in Eastern Europe; but one > ought not hurriedly to assume that they all hold the same opinions.
Clarke was a friend of the Hoskings, chosen by them in 1842 to be one of two trustees to protect Martha's interests in the Macquarie Field estate. He had by 1836 built a suite of houses in Pitt Street for Samuel Terry that was inherited by Martha in 1838. But evidence in support of Clarke (as architect of Macquarie Field House) is entirely inferential, whereas the words of John Hosking himself, retrieved from a stack of court papers after 170 years, now make it almost certain that the architect of this house was Hume.Jack, 2015, 8 The present Macquarie Field House was built some to the south-east (of Meehan's Castle) in the early 1840s, but the houses co-existed for over a century.
Wegner's account is a leading example of a postdictive or inferential account of the attribution of self-agency. On this type of view, the feeling of self-agency emerges entirely from post hoc inference and does not track or emerge from anything directly related to the actual causation of the action. Computational models of motor control, by contrast, hypothesize that the sense of agency for a given action arises most directly from internal motor representations associated with generating the movement. An internal forward model based on efference copy, for example, can predict the sensory consequences of a motor command and compare them with the actual sensory state after that action has been initiated (Blakemore, Wolpert and Frith, 2000, 2002; Haggard, 2005).
Synofzik, Vosgerau and Newen (2008) review findings on comparator models and argue that they cannot account for either a feeling of agency or a judgment of agency. Their multifactorial model separates feeling from judgment and discusses the conceptual level of processing that is added to the latter. Their discussion concerns explicit judgments of agency, however, which may differ from results obtained using implicit measures (e.g., Engbert, Wohlschläger and Haggard 2008). Moore, Lagnado, Deal and Haggard (2009) investigated whether statistical contingency alone could explain both predictive and inferential ‘‘postdictive” intentional binding effects. Both predictive and ‘postdictive' shifts in the time of action perception depended on strong contingency between the action and effect, suggesting that the experience of agency involves causal learning based on statistical contingency.
Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014) pp 257-70. A letter that Pius IX wrote to Jefferson Davis in December 1863, addressing him as the "Praesidi foederatorum Americae regionum" (President of an American regional federation), was not seen as recognition of the Confederate States of America, even by Confederate officials: Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin interpreted it as "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition.Doyle, 265-66. Pius IX elevated Archbishop John McCloskey of New York as the first American to the College of Cardinals on 15 March 1875.
Peirce argued that logic is the formal study of signs in the broadest sense, not only signs that are artificial, linguistic, or symbolic, but also signs that are semblances or are indexical such as reactions. Peirce held that "all this universe is perfused with signs, if it is not composed exclusively of signs",Peirce, C.S., CP 5.448 footnote, from "The Basis of Pragmaticism" in 1906. along with their representational and inferential relations. He argued that, since all thought takes time, all thought is in signs: > To say, therefore, that thought cannot happen in an instant, but requires a > time, is but another way of saying that every thought must be interpreted in > another, or that all thought is in signs.
Schellenberg's work has centered around developing a comprehensive account of the epistemological and phenomenological role of perception. Her view shows how the epistemic force of experience is grounded in employing perceptual capacities that we possess by virtue of being perceivers Schellenberg has also developed an account of the nature of perceptual content that suggests a new way to understand singular modes of presentation, arguing that perceptual experience is at root both relational and representational. In addition to her main areas of interest, Schellenberg has also written papers on topics such as inferential semantics, the philosophy of Gottlob Frege, and imagination. Much of Schellenberg's work to- date has focused on reconciling apparently contradictory viewpoints on topics in the philosophy of mind.
Associative group analysis (AGA) is an inferential approach to analyze people's mental representations, focusing on subjective meanings and images to assess similarities and differences across cultures and belief systems. Culture can be regarded as "a group-specific cognitive organization or world view composed of the mosaic elements of meanings 2\. Szalay, L. B., Maday, B. C., Blacking, J., Bock, B., Fischer, J. L., Frisch, J. A., Healey, A., Hoppal, M., Laosa, L. M., Swartz, J. D., Maranda, P., Powesland, P. F., Voight, V. (1973) "Verbal associations in the analysis of subjective culture [and comments and reply]", Current Anthropology, 14 (1/2), pp. 33-50.". A language, as a communication tool in daily life, contains culturally specific meanings for people who use it.
For instance, indicative Bulgarian (') and Turkish ' translates the same as inferential (') and ' — with the English indicative he went.For a more precise rendering, it would be possible to also translate these as "he reportedly went" or "he is said to have gone" (or even "apparently, he went") although, clearly, these long constructions would be impractical in an entire text composed in this tense. Using the first pair, however, implies very strongly that the speaker either witnessed the event or is very sure that it took place. The second pair implies either that the speaker did not in fact witness it taking place, that it occurred in the remote past, or that there is considerable doubt as to whether it actually happened.
Then the user used the application's menus to choose descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. For example, a user's spreadsheet might contain columns for names of a participant in a survey (a string), sex (a category variable), IQ (integer), and years using a PC (real). By designating number of years using a PC as an x variable and IQ as a y variable, the user could then choose from a menu to perform a regression. The user then had to choose from another menu how to view the regression in a separate window, either as a table, in which case the regression equation and ANOVA were displayed, or as a scattergram, in which case a graph of the data and the regression line were shown.
Other researchers have been exploring the development of informal inferential reasoning as a way to use these methods to build a better understanding of statistical inference. (8–22 in PDF.) Another recent direction is addressing the big data sets that are increasingly affecting or being contributed to in our daily lives. Statistician Rob Gould, creator of Data Cycle, The Musical dinner and theatre spectacular, outlines many of these types of data and encourages teachers to find ways to use the data and address issues around big data. According to Gould, curricula focused on big data will address issues of sampling, prediction, visualization, data cleaning, and the underlying processes that generate data, rather than traditionally emphasized methods of making statistical inferences such as hypothesis testing.
The letter was indeed used in propaganda, but Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin told Mann it was "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition.Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014) pp 257–270. Nevertheless, the Confederacy was seen internationally as a serious attempt at nationhood, and European governments sent military observers, both official and unofficial, to assess whether there had been a de facto establishment of independence. These observers included Arthur Lyon Fremantle of the British Coldstream Guards, who entered the Confederacy via Mexico, Fitzgerald Ross of the Austrian Hussars, and Justus Scheibert of the Prussian Army.
This can be demonstrated by poverty of the stimulus argument, which posits that children do not only learn language from their environment, but are innately programmed with low-level processes that help them seek and learn language. The proximate stimulus, that which is initially received by the brain (such as the 2D image received by the retina), cannot account for the resulting output (for example, our 3D perception of the world), thus necessitating some form of computation. In contrast, cognitivists saw lower level processes as continuous with higher level processes, being inferential and cognitively penetrable (influenced by other cognitive domains, such as beliefs). The latter has been shown to be untrue in some cases, such as the Müller-Lyer illusion, which can persist despite a person's awareness of their existence.
After subjects were identified, both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the three samples were conducted, and graphic representations of the data were constructed and marked for relevant traits. Descriptive statistical comparisons were made for the entire dataset as well as for the foreign and prostitute subgroups. Inferential statistics were also used to determine whether the distributions for age and the time it took for a field worker to locate a nominee (speed) were significant and whether the respective snowballs were drawn from populations with the same distributions. The second question was seen as especially appropriate for and "ascending" sampling strategy because it cannot be assumed that each snowball is drawn from the same population when only an "imperfect sampling frame" composed of a "special list" compiled by nominees, is available.
For instance, indicative Bulgarian той отиде (toy otide) and Turkish o gitti will be translated the same as inferential той отишъл (toy otishal) and o gitmiş—with the English indicative he went.For a more precise rendering, it would be possible to also translate these as "he reportedly went" or "he is said to have gone" (or even "apparently, he went") although, clearly, these long constructions would be impractical in an entire text composed in this tense. Using the first pair, however, implies very strongly that the speaker either witnessed the event or is very sure that it took place. The second pair implies either that the speaker did not in fact witness it take place, that it occurred in the remote past or that there is considerable doubt as to whether it actually happened.
However, the effects of ambient water and hydrostatic pressure on silicic volcanic eruptions in subaqueous settings are not entirely understood because deep marine eruptions are not directly observed and studied. Because of this, information of recent deep-water volcanic eruptions are still incomplete and limited. The conclusions of the studies of subaqueous volcanoes in Japan determine that clear evidence for eruption and/or emplacement of pyroclastic flows continue to be determined from the examination of these deposits although inferential evidence such as grain morphology, sorting and grading can be used to identify and document ancient subaqueous volcanic deposits. The University of California, Santa Barbara will continue to conduct further research which may be able to provide further information on styles of subaqueous volcanic eruptions and/or flow characteristics of volcanic deposits.
Florida Center for Reading Research,The Florida Center for Reading Research is a "Florida State University Center." citing two studies that support the product noted both the lack of available books in a school's library and the lack of assessment of "inferential or critical thinking skills" as weaknesses of the software. Their guide also noted a number of strengths of the software, including its ability to motivate students and provide immediate results on students' reading habits and progress. Renaissance Learning, the product's developer, has stated that its intended purpose is to assess whether or not a student has read a book, not to assess higher order thinking skills, to teach or otherwise replace curriculum, to supersede the role of the teacher, or to provide extrinsic reward.Abstract of a 1997 report, originally published by The Institute for Academic Excellence, Inc.
In the UK, their prior existence is implied by the Public Health Act 1875 which banned their use in new developments. Inferential evidence of their earlier use can also be drawn from the text of a German architect, Rudolf Eberstadt, that explains their purpose and utility: > We have, in our medieval towns, showing very commendable methods of cutting > up the land. I ought to mention here that to keep traffic out of residential > streets is necessary not only in the general interest of the population, > but, above all, for the sake of the children, whose health (amongst the > working classes) is mainly dependent on the opportunity of moving about in > close connection with their dwelling places, without the danger of being run > over. In the earlier periods, traffic was excluded from residential streets > simply by gates or by employing the cul-de-sac.
Tsongkhapa was also critical of the Shengtong view of Dolpopa, which he saw as dangerously absolutist and hence outside the middle way. Tsongkhapa identified two major flaws in interpretations of Madhyamika, under-negation (of svabhava or own essence), which could lead to Absolutism, and over-negation, which could lead to Nihilism. Tsongkhapa's solution to this dilemma was the promotion of the use of inferential reasoning only within the conventional realm of the two truths framework, allowing for the use of reason for ethics, conventional monastic rules and promoting a conventional epistemic realism,Garfield, Jay; Edelglass, William; The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, p. 220 while holding that, from the view of ultimate truth (paramarthika satya), all things (including Buddha nature and Nirvana) are empty of inherent existence (svabhava), and that true enlightenment is this realization of emptiness.
The methods by which one can elucidate the structure of a molecule include spectroscopies such as nuclear magnetic resonance (proton and carbon-13 NMR), various methods of mass spectrometry (to give overall molecular mass, as well as fragment masses), and x-ray crystallography when applicable. The last technique can produce three-dimensional models at atomic- scale resolution, as long as crystals are available. When a molecule has an unpaired electron spin in a functional group of its structure, ENDOR and electron-spin resonance spectroscopes may also be performed. Techniques such as absorption spectroscopy and the vibrational spectroscopies, infrared and Raman, provide, respectively, important supporting information about the numbers and adjacencies of multiple bonds, and about the types of functional groups (whose internal bonding gives vibrational signatures); further inferential studies that give insight into the contributing electronic structure of molecules include cyclic voltammetry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
The origins of the madrigal are obscure, and debated, with one school of thought seeing it as a secular mutation of the conductus of the ars antiqua, and another seeing it as deriving from 13th-century secular monophonic song with an improvised accompaniment. Little Italian music from the 13th century has survived, so links between medieval forms such as the conductus and troubadour song and the music of the trecento are largely inferential. The origin of the name (which appears in early sources as madriale, matricale, madregal, and marigalis) is also unclear; two possibilities are derivation from materialis (in contrast to formalis), designating a poem without a definite form, or from matrix, meaning mother, either as in a song in the mother tongue or music used for Mother Church. The earliest stage in the development of the madrigal is seen in the Rossi Codex, a collection of music from ca.
The subject of the parson's "tale" (or rather, treatise) is penitence. It may thus be taken as containing inferential criticism of the behaviour and character of humanity detectable in all the other pilgrims, knight included.Terry Jones, Chaucer's Knight, Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary (1980) presents an argument that clearly brings the knight, like all the rest of common humanity, into the parson's ambit of worldly sinner in need of penitence, which would also seem sustainable from the point of view of the parson's thesis and perspective. Chaucer himself claims to be swayed by the plea for penitence, since he follows the Parson's Tale with a Retraction (the conceit which appears to have been the intended close to the entire cycle) in which he personally asks forgiveness for any offences he may have caused and (perhaps) for ever having deigned to write works of worldly vanitee at all (line 1085).
This theory endorses previous research on accessing information, but adds a procedural component in specifying that the motivation to achieve directional goals will also influence which rules (procedural structures such as inferential rules) and which beliefs are accessed to guide the search for information. In this model the beliefs and rule structures are instrumental in directing which information will be obtained to support the desired conclusion. In comparison, Milton Lodge and Charles Taber (2000) introduce an empirically supported model in which affect is intricately tied to cognition, and information processing is biased toward support for positions that the individual already holds. This model has three components: # On-line processing in which when called on to make an evaluation, people instantly draw on stored information which is marked with affect; # Affect is automatically activated along with the cognitive node to which it is tied; # A "heuristic mechanism" for evaluating new information triggers a reflection on "How do I feel?" about this topic.
Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote: "Prine is described as surrealistic and/or political even though the passion of his literalness is matched only by that of his detachment: inferential leaps and tall songs do not a dreamscape make, and Prine offers neither program nor protest." Writing for Allmusic, critic Jim Smith wrote of the album "Sympathy takes a back seat to cynicism here, and while that strips the record of some depth, Prine's irreverence is consistently thrilling, making this one of his best. It's not as uniformly brilliant as the debut, but it did steer his music in a new direction — where that record is often hallmarked for its rich sensitivity, Sweet Revenge established cynicism as Prine's dominant voice once and for all. In 1993, David Fricke opined that the album marks "a swing back to the expansive textures of John Prine but with a harder edge, born of Prine's own increased confidence.
In survey research, it is common to make multiple efforts to contact each individual in the sample, often sending letters to attempt to persuade those who have decided not to participate to change their minds. However, such techniques can either help or hurt in terms of reducing the negative inferential effects of missing data, because the kind of people who are willing to be persuaded to participate after initially refusing or not being home are likely to be significantly different from the kinds of people who will still refuse or remain unreachable after additional effort. In situations where missing values are likely to occur, the researcher is often advised on planning to use methods of data analysis methods that are robust to missingness. An analysis is robust when we are confident that mild to moderate violations of the technique's key assumptions will produce little or no bias, or distortion in the conclusions drawn about the population.
Virtually all of the facts integral to the poem beyond the matter of genre are widely open to dispute. The obscurity of the narrative background of the story has led some critics to suggest that the narrative may have been one familiar to its original listeners, at some point when this particular rendition was conceived, such that much of the matter of the story was omitted in favour of a focus on the emotional drive of the lament. Constructing a coherent narrative from the text requires a good deal of inferential conjecture, but a commentary on various elements of the text is provided here nonetheless. The Wife's Lament, even more so than Wulf and Eadwacer, vividly conflates the theme of mourning over a departed or deceased leader of the people (as may be found in The Wanderer) with the theme of mourning over a departed or deceased lover (as portrayed in Wulf and Eadwacer).
The effectiveness of pen interfaces on a student’s ability to learn is one of Oviatt’s major areas of research. In 2012 she co-authored a paper on “The impact of interface affordances on human ideation, problem solving, and inferential reasoning” which found that student who used a pen used 56% more diagrams, symbols and other pictorial representations compared to those who used a keyboard. This corresponded to a 38.5% increase in these students' ability to express scientific ideas. The researchers found that digital pen inputs allowed students even more accuracy when it came to their diagrams, and further reduced the number of vague generalizations students had to make while taking notes. In another paper entitled “Toward High-Performance Communications Interfaces for Science Problem Solving”, Oviatt and her co-author Adrienne Cohen found that low- performing students performed better using of a pen and paper compared with a tablet and pen, graphical interface, or digital paper and pen.
Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart offered related theories of perception rooted in Scottish Common Sense Realism. According to Nicholas Wolterstorff of Yale University, Reid's philosophy can be non-contentiously reduced to four basic precepts: :"(1) The objects of acts of perception are external objects-That is, mind-independent spatially-located entities; : (2) The necessary and sufficient condition for perceiving an external object is that the object cause in one a conception thereof and an immediate (non- inferential) belief about it; : (3) We human beings are so made that, in perception, the external object causes a conception of, and an immediate belief about, itself, by way of causing a sensation which in turn causes ('suggests') the conception and immediate belief; : (4) The sensation may cause, and often does in fact cause, the conception and belief without one's being sufficiently attentive to the sensation for a belief about it to be formed in one." Dugald Stewart's theory of perception acknowledges a great influence from Reid whose philosophy he termed "fundamental laws of belief.".Townsend, Dabney (April 2007).
It includes guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide In 2016, Colorado Department of Education updated their Elementary Teacher Literacy Standards with a comprehensive outline including standards for development in the areas Phonology; Phonics and Word Recognition; Fluent Automatic Reading; Vocabulary; Text Comprehension; and Handwriting, Spelling, and Written Expression.
By doing so, Korotayev releases the Murdockian spell that lingers over the comparative approach in anthropology, and goes on to demonstrate the powerful effects of world religious communities — dating from what Jaspers calls the "Axial Age" (800–200 BCE) – on the preservation and differentiation of distinctive social and political structures in Eurasia. His introduction and conclusion suggest that an objectivist natural history approach to human history, in which subjective factors are of local importance but fade out in terms of lasting effects over generations, is a valid approach to the "pre-Axial" condition of human societies, while a subjectivist history of consciousness is a necessary complement to the "post-Axial" condition. Korotayev succeeds in placing these two complementary approaches in context and showing their linkages in terms of how subjective and religious factors play out in human history alongside objective factors such as demography and ecology, each informing the other. He shows how it is impossible to arrive at valid inferential results from comparative approaches without an integration of the two, a situation he aptly calls "Galton's opportunity" for those are of century-old critiques of the comparative method.
In psychology, agents are goal-directed entities that are able to monitor their environment to select and perform efficient means-ends actions that are available in a given situation to achieve an intended goal. Agency, therefore, implies the ability to perceive and to change the environment of the agent, but crucially, it also entails intentionality to represent the goal-state in the future, equifinal variability to be able to achieve the intended goal- state with different actions in different contexts, and rationality of actions in relation to their goal to produce the most efficient action available. Cognitive scientists and psychologists thoroughly investigated agency attribution in humans and non-human animals, since social cognitive mechanisms as communication, social learning, imitation or theory of mind presupposes the ability to identify agents and differentiate them from inanimate objects. This ability has also assumed to have a major effect on inferential and predictive processes of the observers of agents, because agentive entities are expected to perform autonomous behavior based on their current and previous knowledge and intentions, while inanimate objects are supposed to react to external physical forces.

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