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254 Sentences With "fold belt"

How to use fold belt in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "fold belt" and check conjugation/comparative form for "fold belt". Mastering all the usages of "fold belt" from sentence examples published by news publications.

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Both areas lie in the Perdido fold belt, like Trion.
Earlier, China Offshore Oil also won the first block auctioned in the Perdido Fold Belt.
The fields on offer are concentrated in three areas, including the prolific Perdido Fold Belt.
The block is located in the productive Perdido Fold Belt which straddles the U.S.-Mexico maritime border.
Pemex said production could reach 300,000 barrels per day in its Perdido Fold Belt developments by 2025.
Winning bidder: Pemex - Block 9173 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 730 square miles (1,891 sq km).
RESULTS: No bidders - Block 4123 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 796 square miles (2,062 sq km).
RESULTS: No bidders - Block 9 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 776 square miles (2,009 sq km).
The Trion light oil field is located in the Perdido Fold Belt just south of Mexico's maritime border with the United States.
Winning bidder: Shell, Qatar Petroleum - Block 7 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 760 square miles (1,968 sq km).
The Trion light oil field is located in the Perdido Fold Belt, which lies just south of Mexico's maritime border with the United States.
The company's first joint venture covers its Trion deep water block in the Perdido Fold Belt near Mexico's maritime border with the United States.
Winning bidder: Shell, Qatar Petroleum consortium - Block 4 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 23 square miles (1,900 sq km).
Winning bidder: Shell, Qatar Petroleum consortium - Block 5 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 1,055 square miles (2,733 sq km).
Trion is located at a depth of 2,500 meters (8,202 feet) in the Gulf's Perdido Fold Belt just south of Mexico's maritime border with the United States.
Trion, located some 8,430 feet (2,570 meters) below the surface, lies just south of the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt.
Winning bidder: Shell, Pemex consortium Losing bidders: China Offshore - Block 3 is located in the Perdido Fold Belt and covers some 796 square miles (2,062 sq km).
Mexico's first deepwater oil auction last December included blocks from the Perdido Fold Belt straddling the U.S.-Mexico maritime border, and the Salina basin further to the south.
The area is located in the Perdido Fold Belt, a prolific deepwater basin where producers on the U.S. side of the Gulf tap some 2 million barrels every day.
Nobilis-Maximino sits near the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in the productive Perdido Fold Belt, and is estimated to contain reserves of about 502 million barrels of mostly light crude.
All of the fields are in the country's territorial waters in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Perdido Fold Belt and the Salina basin along the southern rim of the Gulf.
Four of the blocks straddle the maritime border with the United States in the Perdido Fold Belt where oil majors on the U.S. side, including Royal Dutch Shell and BP, have drilled dozens of commercially successful wells.
Trion is located near the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in the Perdido Fold Belt of the Gulf of Mexico, containing estimated reserves of 485 million barrels of oil and located some 8,430 feet (2,570 meters) below the surface.
CGG has been mapping Mexican rock formations for 30 years, mostly as a Pemex contractor, having acquired all of the company's data for its Perdido Fold Belt acreage, where five potentially lucrative projects are up for grabs on Monday.
The potentially-lucrative project lies just south of Mexico's maritime border with the United States in the Perdido Fold Belt, where dozens of successful projects have been developed on the U.S. side of the same basin in recent decades.
Global oil majors are expected to bid in the December auction to help Pemex develop the Trion light oil field in the Perdido Fold Belt, a key stage in the government's drive to open up Mexico's oil industry to private investment.
Four of the 10 blocks up for grabs straddle the maritime border with the United States in the Perdido Fold Belt where oil majors on the U.S. side, including Royal Dutch Shell and BP, have drilled dozens of commercially successful wells.
MEXICO CITY (Reuters) - Mexico awarded a consortium comprised by Total and ExxonMobil the second block tendered from the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt off the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in a historic deep water oil and gas auction on Monday.
MEXICO CITY, Dec 5 (Reuters) - Mexico awarded China Offshore Oil Corporation the fourth block tendered from the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt off the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in a historic deep water oil and gas auction on Monday.
France's Total also made three winning bids, teaming up with U.S. major ExxonMobil in the Perdido Fold Belt close to the U.S.-Mexico maritime border for one and with Norway's Statoil and BP for two blocks in the Salina Basin further south.
"Presumably, the (Nobilis-Maximino) contract will be identical to the Trion contract," said Zepeda, referring to the deal inked between Pemex and Australia's BHP Billiton to develop the nearby Trion deepwater project, also located in the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt.
MEXICO CITY (Reuters) - Mexico awarded a consortium of Chevron, Pemex and Inpex Corporation the third block tendered from the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt off the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in a historic deep water oil and gas auction on Monday.
The so-called 2.4 auctions will offer 30 areas, of which 10 are in the Cordilleras Mexicanas deepwater basin, 10 others in the Salina Basin, nine in the Perdido Fold Belt off the U.S.-Mexico maritime border and one more in the Yucatan platform.
MEXICO CITY, Dec 5 (Reuters) - Mexico awarded a consortium of Chevron, Pemex and Inpex Corporation the third block tendered from the Gulf of Mexico's Perdido Fold Belt off the U.S.-Mexico maritime border in a historic deep water oil and gas auction on Monday.
Almost 1.2 billion of those were areas rich in most-valuable light and super light crude secured by China Offshore, a unit of the Chinese giant CNOOC, in the Perdido Fold Belt, where output on the U.S. side of the formation has been booming for years.
Both wells are expected to yield light or super light crude, and are within the Mexican extension of the Perdido Fold Belt, which has proved highly productive in adjacent U.S. waters but has represented a major challenge for Pemex due to its lack of specialized expertise.
The pipelines from Great White field on the U.S. side of the Perdido Fold Belt, the world's second-deepest oil and gas production hub, are operated by U.S.-based Williams Cos as part of its 1,370-mile (2,200-km) network of gas and crude lines in the Gulf of Mexico.
The following details the blocks up for grabs, the companies and consortia pre-qualified and registered to bid, the process by which winners are determined and previous deepwater auction winners: * Among the deepwater contractual areas in the auction, 9 blocks are located in the Perdido Fold Belt that straddles the U.S.-Mexico maritime border.
The Delamerian Fold Belt is mainly composed of Neoproterozoic- Cambrian rocks and was deformed in the Late Cambrian Delamerian Orogeny whereas the Lachlan Fold Belt contains mainly Cambrian-Devonian rocks with the main deformations occurring in the late Ordovician to early Carboniferous interval. The first regional deformation to affect the Lachlan Fold Belt was the Benambran Orogeny, about 450 MYA, after the Delamerian Orogeny. Granites comprise 20% of the total exposed area of the Lachlan Fold Belt and fall within an age range of 440 to 350 MYA. Volcanics associated with the granites are also widespread and cover an additional 5%.
Badger Mountain is a member of the Yakima Fold Belt, a series of topographical folds (or wrinkles) raised from tectonic compression. The Yakima Fold Belt extends from Interstate 90 near Vantage, Washington to the Columbia River near Wallula, Washington. The Yakima Fold Belt is a portion of the larger Olympic-Wallowa Lineament, which extends from near Port Angeles, Washington into northeastern Oregon.Field Trip Guide to the Columbia River Basalt Group Retrieved 31 May 2015.
A graben underlies nearly the entire Yakima Fold Belt and has been subsiding since Eocene time, and continues to sink at a slow rate. A 2011 report found aeromagnetic, gravity, and paleoseismic evidence that the Yakima Fold Belt is linked to active Puget Sound faults.
The Central Tablelands region of New South Wales lies largely within the Lachlan Fold Belt tectonic zone.
It also has exploration for gold in the Lachlan Fold Belt at Woolgarlo, 10 km west of Yass.
The North Queensland Orogen is also denotated by the North Lachlan Orogen. The northernmost part is called the Hodgekinson Fold Belt.
The Groenland (Dutch for "Greenland") is a small mountain range in the Western Cape, South Africa, and forms part of the Cape Fold Belt.
During the Palaeozoic the central part of the southern margin, EWM together with the Sierra de la Ventana (Argentina) and the Cape Fold Belt (South Africa), was a passive margin.
At the present time the fold belt is about 1000 km wide. However the original width was 2000 to 3000 km wide, with the excess size absorbed by folding and thrusting.
The Yenisey Fold Belt is a fold belt in Russia that divides the Siberian craton from the West Siberian basin, extending about , with NW-SE strike. This belt is divided into northern and southern regions by the Angara fault which has left slip. Much of the rock was formed by Neoproterozoic accretion. North of the fault, the area is made up of thrust sheets divided into three primarily Neoproterozoic terranes, the East Angara, Central Angara and the Isakov.
The Frenchman Hills are hills in Grant County, Washington, United States of America. The high point is . They are an anticlinal fold in the northeastern part of the larger Yakima Fold Belt.
On the northeast this is bounded by The Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Betic Fold mountain chain. These two fold chains are part of the Alpine belt. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Fold belt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the Iberian Chain and the Catalan Coastal Ranges.
Blocks of older crust consisting of Neoproterozoic-Cambrian rocks, such as the Selwyn Block in central Victoria, were deformed during the late Cambrian Tyennan Orogeny prior to being incorporated into the Lachlan Fold Belt.
Map of the Western Cape, showing the main Cape Fold Mountain ranges. The Cape Fold belt is not part of the Great Escarpment shown in blue: the Roggeveld, Nuweveld and Sneeuberg "mountains". They are geographically and geologically distinct from the Cape Fold Mountains. The remaining named mountain ranges, to the south and southwest of the Escarpment, are all part of the Cape Fold Belt, which extends to the east as far as Port Elizabeth, about 150 km beyond the right-hand edge of the map.
The Canadian Rocky Mountain foreland thrust and fold belt is a northeastward tapering deformational belt consisting of Mesoproterozoic, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic strata. The Lewis thrust sheet is one of the major structures of the foreland thrust and fold belt extending over from Mount Kidd near Calgary, AB in the Southeast Canadian Cordillera to Steamboat Mountain, located west of Great Falls, Northwest Montana in the United States. The Lewis overthrust provides scientific insight into geologic processes happening in other parts of the world, like the Andes and the Himalaya Mountains.
Carabobo is one of the four fields in the Orinoco Oil Belt. Located on the southern border of the East Venezuela Basin, the Orinoco Oil Belt extends 375 miles along the Orinoco River in the eastern part of Venezuela. The East Venezuela Basin is a foreland basin south of a fold belt formed from the progressive collision of the Caribbean plate and the passive margin of northern South America. Thrust faults associated with the fold belt resulted in the burial of Cretaceous and possibly older source rocks into the thermal window for oil.
Rocks of the Karagwe–Ankolean Supergroup host most of the known nickel, copper, PGE, and tin mineralisation in Tanzania. This Supergroup forms part of the north trending Kibaran Fold Belt that extends from Zambia, through the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and NW Tanzania, into Uganda and to the west of Lake Victoria. Rift Valley has secured properties along the fold belt. The properties have received very little known modern exploration but have the key components needed to host accumulations of magmatic nickel sulfides such as for the Kabanga-style mineralisation.
Tessellated basalt rock platforms lie at the base of the cliff because The Gap is bordered to the south and west by an older sequence of largely low-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks of the Lachlan Fold Belt. Northwards these rocks pass into the Hunter Region sequence that is transitional between the Sydney Basin and New England Fold Belt. The Gap itself forms a sequence that continues offshore to the edge of the Sahul Shelf. The total maximum thickness of rock formations within the Sydney Basin are in depth ranges of .
Lebanon's tectonic history is closely related to the Levant Fracture System, a left-lateral strike-slip fault zone, separating the Arabian Plate from the African Plate. The intracontinental Palmyride foldbelt, with a maximum elevation of above sea level, is an important structural feature that dominates much of Lebanon and Syria, extending northeast towards the Euphrates Graben from the Levant Fracture System. The fold belt extends in total, with fold wavelengths of . The fold belt forms ridges and small depressions filled with clastic material from the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.
The hills rise from the east bank of the Columbia River between Moses Coulee and Frenchman Gap. They extend about to Ephrata and are part of the geological formation known as the Yakima Fold Belt, a group of anticlines. The next member of the fold belt is the roughly parallel Frenchman Hills to the south. Between the two ridges, Interstate 90 and Washington State Route 28 run through the Quincy Basin (the latter less than south of the Beezley Hills), a rich agricultural and vinicultural area (see Quincy-Columbia Basin Irrigation District).
Natural gas appears in rocks deposited in the Miocene and Pliocene by the paleo-Dnieper and pale-Dniester rivers, or in deep-water Oligocene-age rocks. Serious exploration began in 1999 with two deep-water wells, Limanköy-1 and Limanköy-2, drilled in Turkish waters. Next, the HPX (Hopa)-1 deepwater well targeted late Miocene sandstone units in Achara-Trialet fold belt (also known as the Gurian fold belt) along the Georgia-Turkey maritime border. Although geologists inferred that these rocks might have hydrocarbons that migrated from the Maykop Suite, the well was unsuccessful.
The process by which structures within fold-belt mountainous areas were formed, including thrusting, folding, and faulting in the outer and higher layers, and plastic folding, metamorphism, and plutonism in the inner and deeper layers. Adj: orogenic; orogenetic.
The Cape Fold belt formed during a major mountain-building episode as the continents collided to form Pangaea. Volcanic ash deposits in the Karoo basin indicate the presence of active subduction zones to the west and south as the South American and Antarctic plates crumple the Cape Supergroup and its underlying strata into the Cape Fold Belt Mountains. (after Compton 2004) The formation of the Cape Fold Belt is the result of a collision of tectonic plates that ended over 200 million years ago The accumulated strata of the Cape Supergroup and the older granites and Malmesbury group were raised and deformed by the pressure of the South American, Antarctic and African continental plates slowly moving together. The resulting fold mountains have been eroded to their present state over the ensuing period, and what exists today are the remnants of a much larger and higher mountain chain.
The sediments which accumulated in this shallow sea consolidated to form the Cape Supergroup of rocks, which form the Cape Fold Belt today.Compton, J.S. (2004).The Rocks and Mountains of Cape Town. p. 24-26. Double Storey Books, Cape Town.
The Groot Winterhoek Mountains are part of the Cape Fold Belt. They rise to a maximum height of just north of the town of Tulbagh as Groot Winterhoek peak. The Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area, operated by CapeNature, comprises a conservation area of 30,608 ha.
The species is only found on the southern slopes of the Cape Fold Belt from Swellendam to the Outeniqua Mountains, at elevations of up to over . It is a burrowing species inhabiting fynbos and forest fringes and does not require the presence of open water.
The Du Toitskloof Mountains (Dutoitsberge, United States National Geospatial- Intelligence Agency) are a range in the Cape Fold Belt in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The highest point is Du Toits Peak (Dutoitspiek, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) () which is the highest seaward facing peak in the Cape Fold Belt ranges, i.e. the highest peak in the Western Cape within direct sight of the ocean. Located between Paarl and Worcester in the south-west of South Africa, to the north-east of the provincial capital of Cape Town, the mountains form a formidable barrier between Cape Town and the rest of Africa.
The Kammanassie Mountains (Kammanassieberge in Afrikaans) are a mountain range in the Western Cape, South Africa. The highest peak is Mannetjiesberg at 1,955 metres above sea level and the mountain range is one of the prominent east- west trending ranges composing the southern branch of the Cape Fold Belt.
The Besa River Formation reaches a maximum thickness of in the foothills . The lower Besa River Formation is faulted and folded in the Northern Rockies. It occurs in the sub- surface in east-central British Columbia, in the folded Rocky Mountain Thrust Belt and southern Mackenzie Fold Belt.
It is also one of the longest, spanning some 230 km from south of Laingsburg in the west to between Willowmore and Uniondale in the east. Geologically, these mountains are part of the Cape Fold Belt. Much of the Swartberg is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
During the Mesoproterozoic Era, another rifting phase began.Deb, M., Talwar, A.K., Tewari, A., Banerjee, A.K., 1995. Bimodal volcanism in South Delhi fold belt: a suite of differentiated felsic lava at Jharivav, north Gujarat. In: Sinha-Roy, S., Gupta, K.R. (Eds.), Continental Crust of NW and Central India. Geol. Soc.
The mountains of the Cape Fold Belt are composed of rocks belonging to the Cape Supergroup, which is more extensive than the Fold Belt. The Supergroup is divided into several distinct Groups. The western and southern extents of the Supergroup have been folded into a series of longitudinal mountain ranges, by the collision of the Falkland Plateau into what would later become South Africa (see diagrams on the left). However, the entire suite in this region slopes downwards towards the north and east, so that the oldest rocks are exposed in the south and west, while the youngest members of the Supergroup are exposed in the north, where the entire Cape Supergroup dives beneath the Karoo rocks.
On western Eyre Peninsula, the Coulta Subdomain merges with the Nuyts Subdomain which is dominated by variably deformed ca. 1670–1610 Ma granitoids, mafics and felsic volcanics. Deformation is attributed to the Kalaran Orogeny which generated a major fold belt or shear zone, the Fowler Shear Zone, ca. 1600–1540 Ma.
The Sybella Batholith intruded the Western Fold Belt around 1670 Mya. Other batholiths are the Wonga, Williams, Naraku ranging from 1750 to 1490 Mya. The Murphy Province crosses over into the Northern Territory, consisting of the Murphy Metamorphics, the Nicholson Granite and Cliffdale Volcanics. It is from 1820 to 1730 Mya.
The Western Cape lies on the Cape Fold Belt, which is characterised by many thrust faults. Some of these thrust faults were reactivated during Cretaceous rifting as extensional faults, such as the Worcester Fault, which comes to the surface close to the epicentral area, but does not appear to be active.
Drilling in the Karoo has established that Cape Supergroup rocks are found below the surface up to approximately 150 km north of their northernmost exposure on the surface. The Cape Supergroup extends eastwards beyond the Fold Belt into the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal, where no folding took place.
Bokkeveld Group outcrops and exposures range from the Breede River Valley in the west to Port Alfred near Grahamstown in the east. The group displays lateral continuity throughout the length of the Cape Fold Belt. The Msikaba Formation rocks appear north-northeast of Port St. Johns in the Eastern Cape.
Conservation Genetics. The two species are, therefore, rarely seen in the same habitat. The quagga is closely related to Burchell's zebra, and appears also to have been confined to the plains. The mountain zebra occurred in the mountain regions of the Cape Fold Belt and along the southern portion of the Great Escarpment.
The Plateau fold belt consists of structurally complex Paleozoic strata which were thrust faulted over the younger evaporates. When the Appalachian mountains were formed, the plateau was lifted. Ridges and valleys all die down underneath the plateau. There are multiple valleys throughout the region which consist of exposed areas of limestone and shale.
Marine and Petroleum Geology, 4(3), 205–225.Trudgill, B. D., Fiduk, J. C., Rowan, M. G., Weimer, P., Gale, P. E., Korn, B. E., ... & Henage, L. F. (1995). The Geological Evolution and Petroleum Potential of the Deep Water Perdido Fold Belt, Alaminos Canyon, Northwestern Deep Gulf of Mexico.Roure, F., & Sassi, W. (1995).
The Enon Formation was formed along the southern section of South Africa during the break up of Gondwana when there was widespread erosion of rocks comprising the Cape Fold Belt. It is considered to be Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in age although more thorough dating needs to be undertaken. It provides important geological data on the change in landscape during the break-up of Gondwana in relation to the younger and softer formations - the Kirkwood and Sundays River - which overlie it, and because it is the oldest formation of the onshore post-Karoo Mesozoic deposits found in South Africa. Underlying strata are separated by unconformities in most locales expect where the Enon is underlain by deposits of the Cape Fold Belt.
In the area of Laguna del Maule, the subducting Nazca plate reaches a depth of and is 37million years old. During the Late Miocene, the convergence rate was higher than today and the Malargüe fold belt formed east of the main chain in response. The Moho is found at depths of beneath the volcanic field.
The evaporates are now important within Arabia for their role as cap rocks for oil and natural gas deposits, often housed in Oligocene and Miocene deposits. Deposition has continued since the Cretaceous, with periods of tectonic contraction, including one that is still slowly ongoing, resulting in the erosion of the Palmyride fold belt in Syria.
A geologic or geomorphic province is a spatial entity with common geologic or geomorphic attributes. A province may include a single dominant structural element such as a basin or a fold belt, or a number of contiguous related elements. Adjoining provinces may be similar in structure but be considered separate due to differing histories.
Price’s structural geology and tectonic mapping of the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains provided new insights on the evolution of the Cordilleran foreland thrust and fold belt in Canada. He has also researched the role of science in public policy development, nuclear fuel waste disposal, earth system science, and the human dimensions of global change.
Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geology; for example, in the Witwatersrand there is Pilanesberg, a mountain having a different orogeny from the main range and its subranges.Pilanesberg, South Africa Geologically, many ranges are part of the Cape Fold Belt system, a wide geological system that also includes the Drakensberg.
The mountains of the Cape Fold Belt form the southern and western boundaries of the Great Karoo. The other boundaries of the Great Karoo are arbitrary and ill-defined. To the north the Karoo grades into even more arid Bushmanland. To the north- east, the Orange River is often regarded as the boundary between Karoo and the Highveld.
The basin overlies the Lachlan Fold Belt and Late Carboniferous volcanoclastic sediments. The basin formed during extension in the Early Permian, with half-graben infilled with the Dalwood and Talaterang Groups. Foreland loading followed with the compression of the Currarong Orogen in the Early Permian.Crawford, E. A., Herbert, C., Taylor, G., Helby, R., Morgan, R. & Ferguson, J., 1980 – 15.
Up to 60% of bedrock beneath the Central African Republic dates to the Precambrian. Much of the country is situated in the Archean Congo Craton. The North Equatorial Fold Belt, Pan-African granulites and greenstone belts are found in the north and center of the country. Cretaceous sandstones span the west and central areas of the republic.
The Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB) or Lachlan Orogen is a geological subdivision of the east part of Australia. It is a zone of folded and faulted rocks of similar age. It dominates New South Wales and Victoria, also extending into Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory and Queensland. It was formed in the Middle Paleozoic from 450 to 340 Mya.
Three broad subdivisions of Lachlan Fold Belt are Western, Central and Eastern. The Western Lachlan, which lies in Victoria includes the Stawell and Melbourne Zones. The eastern boundary of the Western Lachlan is the Mount Wellington—Mount Useful Fault Zone (east of Melbourne). The Central Lachlan includes the Tabberabbera Zone and the Wagga- Omeo Metamorphic Belt.
The sediments which accumulated in this shallow sea consolidated to form the Cape Supergroup of rocks, which form the Cape Fold Belt today. This portion of Gondwana was probably located on the opposite side of the South Pole from Africa's present position,Jackson, A.A., Stone, P. (2008). "Bedrock Geology UK South". p. 6-7. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey. .
Today's continents into which this Supercontinent eventually broke up, are indicated in brown. A rift developed about 510 million years ago, separating Southern Africa from the Falkland Plateau. Flooding of the rift formed the Agulhas Sea. The sediments which accumulated in this shallow sea consolidated to form the Cape Supergroup of rocks, which form the Cape Fold Belt today.
Yakima Ridge is part of the Yakima Fold Belt of east-tending long ridges formed by the folding of Miocene Columbia River basalt flows. The Yakima River cut a water gap through Yakima Ridge at Selah Gap. The river cut through other ridges at locations including Umtanum Ridge Water Gap and Union Gap at Ahtanum Ridge.
Geologic Map of the Mahakam Delta showing thrust faulting, folding of Miocene strata, and the incision of the Mahakam River into the fold belt The most prominent geologic structure in the Kutai Basin is the Samarinda anticlinorium—Mahakam foldbelt, a series of NNE-SSW trending folds and faults in Miocene deltaic strata that parallel the modern coast line. The tightly folded, asymmetric, and thrust fault bound anticlines range from 2–5 km wide and 20–50 km long and separated by broad, open synclines. Onshore, the anticline crests are commonly eroded and breached, and the amount of erosion and structural complexity increase toward the west. A detached fold belt in the westernmost region of the anticlinorium transitions to thrust cored folds in the central region and simple symmetric/asymmetric structures in the easternmost offshore region.
Jump off Joe and the greater Horse Heaven Hills are anticlines within the Yakima Fold Belt. The belt is a series of fault lines extending throughout south-central Washington which are part of the larger Olympic-Wallowa Lineament. The lineament runs from Port Angeles to the Wallowa Mountains in northeastern Oregon.Field Trip Guide to the Columbia River Basalt Group Retrieved 31 May 2015.
Opening of Central and North Atlantic from 170 million years ago to the present. Middle figure shows Eurekan rifting between Greenland and the Labrador Peninsula 100 million years ago. Extending several hundred kilometres through Crozier Strait is the Crozier Strait Fault Zone. It lies within a north-trending anticline of the Cornwallis Fold Belt and appears to contain a downdropped fault block.
The project comprises a rare large-scale long outcropping potassium feldspar rich lava flow. Centrex has developed a process to convert potassium feldspar into potassium fertiliser products. It also has the Ardmore phosphate rock project 128 km south of Mount Isa in northwestern Queensland. Centrex also has active exploration for base metals at Goulburn in the Lachlan Fold Belt of New South Wales.
To the northwest of the rifts is the Siberian Craton, on the Eurasian Plate. The Sayan-Baikal and Mongolia-Okhotsk mobile belts are formations to the southeast of the rifts; beyond the Sayan- Baikal fold belt is the Amur Plate. Basins form along the rift. There are three basins in the area, the South Basin, Central Basin, and North Basin.
Geodetic studies of the Oregon Rotation show that Oregon is rotating about a point somewhat south of Lewiston, Idaho compressing the Yakima fold an average of 3 millimeters per year, and the Washington Pacific coast about 7 millimeters per year. Studies of the motion of the Yakima Fold Belt have been undertaken to evaluate seismic hazards at the Hanford Site.
The Kouga mountains are a mountain range on the border of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces in South Africa, stretching in an east–west direction. They are part of the Cape Fold Belt, beginning just east of Uniondale and stretching further eastwards. The range separates the Baviaanskloof (to which the Kouga Mountains run parallel) and Langkloof from each other.
The thickets grow on well-drained sandy soils in the wide valleys of the Great Fish, Sundays and Gamtoos River in the Eastern Cape and, extending further northwest, in the valleys of the Cape Fold Belt. Thicket is vulnerable to fire and to grazing so has always been restricted to valley areas where these are less of a threat than on open plains.
The Cape orogeny formed the Cape Fold Belt and the mountains that range along the Cape and the southern parts of South Africa. An additional geological formation, the Msikaba Formation, found north of Port St. Johns in the Eastern Cape is considered to correlate with the Witteberg Group of the Cape Supergroup.Truswell, J.F., 1977. The geological evolution of South Africa. Purnell.
An enlargeable topographic map of Azerbaijan. The Geology of Azerbaijan forms a constituent geological part of the Alpine fold belt. Sedimentary deposits embracing the southwestern parts of the Major and Minor Caucasus, including the intermountain Kur River trough, as well as the Mid- and South Caspian basins consist of diversity fold systems. The Earth's crust thickness in Azerbaijan varies in the range from 38 to 55 km.
The whole of the Lachlan Fold Belt became a back arc area with a new volcanic arc formed to the east in what is now the New England Orogen. Extension stretched the LFB forming rifts, and shelves, along with intrusion of granites and volcanism. This was the Tabberabberan Orogeny. Deformation happened in the west 450 to 395 Mya and in the east 400 to 380 Mya.
The South China Craton (also Yangtze Craton) is younger than the North China Craton and ranges in age from 2.5 to 0.8 billion years old. The South China Craton is divided into three parts, western, central and eastern. Unlike the North China Craton the South China Craton used to be part of Gondwana. The Cathaysia Fold Belt is attached to the Southeastern side of the Craton.
Double Storey Books, Cape Town. . It is this mountain that has given its name to the geological structure that occurs in the mountains throughout the Western Cape Schematic diagram of an approximate 100 km west-east (left to right) geological cross-section through the Cedarberg portion of the Cape Fold Belt (South Africa). The rocky layers (in different colors) belong to the Cape Supergroup.
The reserves consist of flat to gently undulating terrain at a slight elevation above the surrounding land. Ingalba Nature Reserve has the most varied topography, containing small drainage lines, and with elevations from 315m to 402m at Mt Wharrun. The other reserves are of slightly lower altitude. The landscape is characterised by a complex system of sedimentary, volcanic and igneous rocks of the Lachlan Fold Belt.
The Bokkeveld Group extends eastwards to Port Alfred (near Grahamstown), approximately 120 km beyond the eastern extent of the Cape Fold Belt. The bulk of the fossils found in the Cape Supergroup occur in the Bokkeveld mudstones. They include a variety of brachiopods, as well as trilobites, molluscs, echinoderms (including starfish, crinoids, and the extinct blastoids and cystoids), foraminifera and fish with jaws (placoderms).
Yakima Fold Belt (thin purple lines with black diamonds) in context of major regional geological structures. Pale green is extent of the Columbia River Basalts. Thickest purple line is the OWL, thickest orange line corresponds to the craton edge in the shaded-relief map above. The Klamath-Blue Mountain Lineament (KBML, approximate location, extends to coast) is the southern edge of the marine basalts of Siletzia.
Within S-type volcanics, cordierite occurs in place of clinopyroxene. The presence of these aluminous silicate minerals are commonly used as a means of initially classifying granites as “S-type”. Photomicrographs of these minerals in thin section from S-type granites of the Lachlan Fold Belt are shown in figure 2a and 2b. S-type granites can also contain aluminium-rich, iron and magnesium rich biotites.
The I-S line is an observed contact between I- and S-type granites in an igneous terrane. This contact is usually clearly defined; one example of this occurring is within the Lachlan fold belt of Australia. The I-S line is interpreted to be the location of a paleo-structure in the subsurface that separated the generation zones of the two different melts.
The onset of deformation of the Rocky Mountain fold and thrust belt was due to collisional tectonic forces that occurred on the west edge of the North American craton. This thrust and fold belt was uplifted east of the Canadian Cordillera and formed between the Middle Jurassic and Early Eocene within an easterly tapering wedge of Mesoproterozoic to early Cenozoic sedimentary rocks that were deposited in the Western Canada sedimentary basin. A profound unconformity separates the sedimentary cover from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic crystalline crust of North America. This thrust and fold belt has a thin skinned geometry as indicated by the array of thrust faults that interleave and overlap along strike and cut across strata at low to moderate angle that flatten with depth, repeat the same Cambrian to Triassic stratigraphy from thrust sheet to thrust sheet, and merge into a common basal décollement, the Rocky Mountain basal décollement.
Geology of the Cape Peninsula – Cape Fold Belt The degree to which the original Cape Fold mountains (formed during the Carboniferous and early Permian Periods) have been eroded is attested to by the fact that the 1 km high Table Mountain on the Cape Peninsula is a syncline mountain, meaning that it formed part of the bottom of a valley when the Cape Supergroup was initially folded. The anticline, or highest elevation of the fold between Table Mountain and the Hottentots-Holland Mountains (1.2 to 1.6 km elevation), on the opposite side of the isthmus connecting the Peninsula to the Mainland, has been eroded away. The Malmesbury shale and granite basement on which this anticline mountain rested also formed an anticline; but being composed of much softer rocks, readily eroded into a 50 km wide flat plain, (now covered with dune sands) called the "Cape Flats". The Cape Fold Belt (i.e.
The tectonic origin of the fold belt has been attributed to a number of geodynamic processes. One explanation for the detachment folding is directly related to basement inversion along the rift stage normal faults, producing folding above a detachment surface in an underlying over-pressured shale. Another is the inversion of delta top grabben systems. These syn-depositional faults form in conjunction with delta toe thrust faults due to differential loading.
The Riviersonderend Mountains are a mountain range in the Cape Fold Belt of the Western Cape province of South Africa. They run east to west from Riviersonderend to Villiersdorp, separating the Breede River Valley from the Overberg region. They are composed of Table Mountain Sandstone and attain a maximum height near McGregor and Riviersonderend as Pilaarkop (). The ranges are rich in fynbos flora and experience a typical Mediterranean climate.
The Palaeozoic basement is traversed by thrust faults more or less parallel to the north–south structural grain. The largest faults separate rocks with different ages and structural histories, and subdivide Victoria into three main structural rankings consisting of twofold belts (Delamerian and Lachlan), two terranes in the Lachlan Fold Belt (Whitelaw and Benambra), and ten structural zones (Glenelg, Grampians-Stavely, Stawell, Bendigo, Melbourne, Tabberabbera, Omeo, Deddick, Kuark, Mallacoota).
Brian Jones and Ian G. Hunter, The Oligocene-Miocene Bluff Formation on Grand Cayman, Caribbean Journal of Science, Vol. 25, No. 1-2, 71-85, 1989 It is used as a semi-precious stone. In New South Wales, Australia, pockets of later-deposited beds (usually reddish) are widespread in the Silurian-Devonian limestones. These are thus far reported only from the Lachlan Fold Belt portion of the Tasman orogenic zone.
The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif. On the northeast this is bounded by The Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Betic Foldchain. These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
Seweweekspoortpiek (Afrikaans for ‘Seven Weeks Defile Peak’) is a peak in the Western Cape, South Africa. It is the highest mountain in the Cape Fold Belt and the highest point in the Western Cape province. Along with its western neighbour, Du Toits Peak, it qualifies as an Ultra and these are the only two in the country. It is located in the Klein Swartberg range, close to the Seweweekspoort mountain pass.
Narooma is located on the Narooma Terrane which used to be separated by thousands of kilometres from the Australian coast. It travelled to the west and attached itself to the side of the Lachlan Fold Belt which became part of Australia. The rock found near Narooma includes the Narooma Chert dating from Cambrian times, and turbidites. There are also the remains of a submarine volcano with pillow lava.
View from Manastash Ridge facing towards Ellensburg, Washington with Cascade Range in the background. Manastash Ridge is a long anticline mountain ridge located in central Washington state in the United States. Manastash Ridge runs mostly west-to-east in Kittitas and Yakima counties, for approximately 50 miles. The ridge is part of the Yakima Fold Belt of east-tending long ridges formed by the folding of Miocene Columbia River basalt flows.
Biotite compositions from S-type granites are more aluminous than those of I-type granites consistent with the higher ASI index of S-type Granites. Figure 2b. Plane polarized light photomicrograph showing garnet and biotite in sample CV-126 from the mafic S-type Strathbogie Granite, Australia. Figures 3a and 3b are photomicrographs of thin sections of sample CC-1 from the Cooma Granodiorite, Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia.
One of the pioneers in research on the Variscan fold belt was the German geologist Franz Kossmat, establishing a still valid division of the European Variscides in 1927. The other direction, Hercynian, for the direction of the Harz Mountains in Germany, saw a similar shift in meaning. Today, Hercynian is often used as a synonym for Variscan but is somewhat less used than the latter.Google search on December 29, 2007: ca.
In fact, they form the coastline, either sloping steeply directly into the sea, or are separated from it by a relatively narrow coastal plain. The Falkland Mountain range had probably eroded into relative insignificance by the mid-Jurassic Period, and started drifting to the south-west soon after Gondwana began to break up 150 million years ago, leaving the Cape Fold Belt to edge the southern portion of the newly formed African continent. Even though the mountains are very old by Andean and Alpine standards, they remain steep and rugged due to their quartzitic sandstone geology (see below) making them very resistant to weathering. The famous Table Mountain forms part of the Cape Fold Belt, being made up of the local lowest (oldest) strata of the Cape Supergroup, composed predominantly of quartzitic sandstone which forms the impressive, almost vertical cliffs which characterize the mountain and the rest of the range which constitutes the backbone of the Cape Peninsula.
Amongst these granitoids are deep-seated, rather diffuse, intrusive bodies associated with migmatites, yet also typical, well-defined plutons often rising into the cores of anticlines within the Variscan fold-belt. The main magmatism perdured from 310–270 million years (late Pennsylvanian and early Permian cooling ages). A good example for the main magmatism is the 280 million years old Maladeta granodiorite. Also of importance was late-stage fracturing under brittle conditions.
The purpose of the pilot plant is to conduct research, not to capture all the emissions from the power station.Coal-generated captured in Australia – a first (Media Release) Further government projects in this area led to many geo-technical studies that review gas and liquid migration, trapping and leakage. While the Gippsland area has been described as a basin margin, this is somewhat vague. The area defines a major fold belt onshore and offshore.
The first railways at the Cape were privately owned. The Cape Town Railway and Dock Company started construction from Cape Town in 1859, reaching Eerste River by 1862 and Wellington by 1863. Meanwhile, by 1864, the Wynberg Railway Company had connected Cape Town and Wynberg. For the moment, railway development at the Cape did not continue eastwards beyond Wellington because of the barrier presented by the mountains of the Cape Fold Belt.
The Pensacola Mountains were originally continuous with the Ventana Mountains near Bahía Blanca in Argentina, Cape Fold Belt in South Africa, the Ellsworth Mountains (West Antarctica) and the Hunter-Bowen orogeny in eastern Australia. The Ordovician- Devonian Neptune Group rests unconformably on a Cambrian succession, and is overlain disconformably by the Dover Sandstone of the Beacon Supergroup. Within the Neptune Group is the Brown Ridge Conglomerate, Elliott Sandstone, Elbow Formation, and the Heiser Sandstone.
The Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve is located in the Western Cape Province of South Africa approximately 40 km east of Cape Town. The Biosphere Reserve extends from the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve in the south, northwards along the Cape Fold Belt Mountain Chain and the adjoining valleys constituting the Cape Winelands. The Biosphere Reserve incorporates key portions of the registered Cape Floral Region Protected Areas World Heritage Site. The Reserve was designated in 2007.
The Truong Son and Luang Prabang structures converge in northern Laos, bordered by northwest trending fault-bounded structures such as Phu Hoat Massif. The Song Ma Anticlinorium near Vietnam exposes Proterozoic basement rock at the surface. The Yunnan-Malay fold belt originated from closure of two sedimentary basins and is a prominent feature. Only a few major intrusions are known such as Early Triassic granodiorite near Pak Lay and gabbro near Sayaboury.
Geologically, Da Nang is at the edge of a Paleozoic fold belt known as the Truong Son Orogenic Zone, whose main deformation occurred during the early Carboniferous period. Da Nang's topography is dominated by the steep Annamite mountain range to the north and north-west, which features peaks ranging from in height, and low-lying coastal plains with some salting to the south and east, with several white sand beaches along the coast.
The two lobed geometry of the Permian basin separated by a platform was the result of the Hercynian collisional orogeny during the collision of North America and Gondwana Land (South America and Africa). This collision uplifted the Ouachita-Marathon fold belt and deformed the Tobosa Basin. The Delaware Basin resulted from tilting along areas of Proterozoic weakness in Tobosa basin. Southwestern compression reactivated steeply dipping thrust faults and uplifted the Central Basin ridge.
The coastal area of Stilbaai lies south of the Southern Langeberg mountains, which are part of the Cape Fold Belt. The exposed geology is sediments of the Table Mountain Sandstone group and occasional outcrops of the older Malmesbury group. The drainage of these mountains includes the Goukou River and its estuary, which is in the MPA. The climate of the region is in the transition zone between winter and year-round rainfall.
The blister bush is native to the Table Mountain and western Cape Fold Belt region of the Western Cape in South Africa. It is usually found at medium- to high-altitudes in partially shady and damp areas but will also grow at lower altitudes and in areas of direct sunshine. The plant grows in the winter rainfall areas, which are relatively frost-free and have well-drained soils. Distribution of Notobubon galbanum across the Western Cape, South Africa.
The Eastern Terrane lacks signs of magmatism, instead it is made up of overriding late Neoproterozoic deposits above older groups, most of which are intruded by granites. South of the Angara fault, there are two allochthonous units. One is the Angara-Kan micro-craton, which is sometimes considered separate from the fold belt. This terrane is formed of Paleoproterozoic granulite amphibolite facies, and the other is the Predivinsk terrane which is mostly Neoproterozoic island-arc accretion.
The second major structural break in Victoria is the Baragwanath Transform, which occurs along the eastern side of the Selwyn Block. This transform fault divides the Lachlan Fold Belt into two terranes, the Whitelaw Terrane to the west and the Benambra Terrane to the east. The main difference between these is that orogen-parallel (north-south) transport was more prevalent in the Benambra Terrane, whereas convergent east–west transport orthogonal to the orogen was dominant in the Whitelaw Terrane.
The western central parts of the Surat Basin unconformably overlies the Palaeozoic igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of the Lachlan Fold Belt. Dalby, 2010 In the east and northern parts of Queensland it unconformably overlies the sedimentary basin rocks of the Hunter-Bowen Orogen. The Surat Basin overlies parts of the Bowen Basin in southern Queensland, and overlies the Gunnedah Basin in central New South Wales. Palaeozoic basement highs mark the western and eastern boundaries of the Surat Basin.
Western Cape topology showing the Boland Mountains. The Boland (Afrikaans for "top country" or "land above") is a region of the Western Cape province of South Africa, situated to the northeast of Cape Town in the middle and upper courses of the Berg and Breede Rivers, around the Boland Mountains of the central Cape Fold Belt. It is sometimes also referred to as the Cape Winelands because it is the primary region for the making of Western Cape wine.
The Sydney Basin showing the Great Dividing Range, the Hunter Valley and the Barrington Tops to the north of the Hunter. The Hunter Region is considered a transitional area between the Paleozoic rock foundation of the New England Fold Belt located to the south and the Early Permian and Middle Triassic period rock formations of the Sydney Basin to the south. Between these two geological areas is the Hunter-Mooki Thrust fault."Hunter Valley Research Foundation " Web.
The Palmyra fold belt forms fold mountains found mostly in Syria. The mountains are formed due to thrusting together of Aleppo plateau in the north and Rubtah uplift in the south. This is according to the modern theory of plate tectonics. Similar view of the feature from the geosyncline theory can be taken where Palmyra can be viewed as Median mass between the two forelands of Aleppo foreland in the north and Rubtah foreland in the south.
The Anysberg Nature Reserve of 62,500 ha is situated in the western Kleinkaroo region of the Western Cape province, South Africa. The central mountain is named after Anise, Pimpinella anisum, which is found in the reserve. The reserve was established in 1988 to conserve Succulent and Fynbos flora in the Cape Fold Belt, and to reintroduce game which formerly occurred here. The nearest towns are Laingsburg and Ladismith, which are both about 55 km from the main reserve entrance.
During this period there was the second Alpine Orogeny, which was as a result of the collision the Arabian and the Eurasian plates at the Mesozoic and Cenozoic border and this resulted in the formation of the Zagros Fold Belt together with the extensive Mesopotamian Foredeep and thus the formation of the foreland Persian basin. In addition to the opening of the Red Sea about ~25 Ma, which resulted in the separation of the African and the Arabian plates.
Pan-African thrusts were reactivated 270-215 Mya to form the CFB which was then part of a continuous fold belt that developed during the Gondwanide orogeny together with Sierra de la Ventana (Argentina), Pensacola Mountains (East Antarctica), and Ellsworth Mountains (West Antarctica). In the late Carboniferous and early Jurassic, the Karoo Supergroup was deposited in the Karoo Basin north of where the CFB is located today, and covering nearly two-thirds of present-day South Africa.
The Rocky Mountain Front in Montana from the Canada–US border south to about Helena is heavily deformed by faulting, folding, and overthrusting.Baron, p. 28. During the Sevier orogeny mountain-building event about 115 and 55 million years ago, what is known as the Cordilleran foreland thrust-and-fold event occurred along the east side of the Rocky Mountains in northwest Montana. The thrust-and-fold belt does not extend all the way south through Montana.
The Belcher Islands are the eroded surface of the Belcher Fold Belt, which formed as a result of the tectonic compression and folding of sediments that accumulated along the margin of the Superior Craton before its collision with the Western Churchill Craton.Darbyshire, F.A., and Eaton, D.W., 2010. The lithospheric root beneath Hudson Bay, Canada from Rayleigh wave dispersion: No clear seismological distinction between Archean and Proterozoic mantle, Lithos. 120(1-2), 144–159, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.04.010.
A deposit, known as the Peninsula Formation (also often referred to as Table Mountain Sandstone), consisting of thickly layered quartzitic sandstone, with a maximum thickness of 2000 m, was laid down. These sandstones are very hard, and erosion resistant. They therefore form the bulk of mountains and steep cliffs and rugged crags of the Cape Fold Belt, including the upper 600 m of the 1 km high Table Mountain, below which Cape Town is situated. It contains no fossils.
Examples of granite textures and mineralogy as seen in sawn-slabs from hand samples collected from granites of the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia are shown. This includes enclaves of dark, lineated, ovoid, metamorphic rocks in the S-type Cooma Granodiorite. These enclaves are considered to represent restite by some researchers and meta-sedimentary xenoliths by others. The S-type Granya Granite shows the characteristic white feldspars, grey quartz, and black biotite, the highly reflective mineral is muscovite.
Major Geologic Units of the Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent, and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class mineral deposits can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System.
The Simcoe Mountains Volcanic Field is located in the Yakima Fold Belt in the Columbia River Basalt Group. The eruptions occurred in three periods during the Pliocene and Quaternary; the first episode occurred 4.2–3.2 million years ago. the second was from 2.2–1.2 million years ago, and the most recent episode lasted from 1.0 to 0.6 million years ago. The most recent eruption was a trachybasalt lava flow dated to 631,000 ± 27,000 years ago called the "Trachybasalt of Pretty Swamp".
Geology of Ukraine The region is situated between two main regional tectonic plates: Carpathian fold belt and Volhynia-Podillya plate. The most prominent features of the first one are the Carpathian Mountains, while the second one - Dniester river. The Carpathian Mountains contribute tremendously to the change in relief of Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast and their elevation rises from north-east to south-west stretching along the oblast's south-western border. The elevation of the oblast varies from 230m to 2,061m above sea level.
SSCV Thialf with gangway on Perdido (left). Perdido is the deepest floating oil platform in the world at a water depth of about 2450 meters (8040 feet) operated by the Shell Oil Company in the Gulf of Mexico USA. The Perdido is located in the Perdido fold belt which is a rich discovery of crude oil and natural gas that lies in water that is nearly 8000 feet deep. The platform's peak production will be 100,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day.
The Huronian Supergroup on the north shore of Lake Huron in Ontario overlies an Archean basement. On the map it is the formation north of both Lake Huron and the Grenville Front Tectonic Zone. Huronian sedimentary rocks form a east-west fold belt and reach a thickness of near Lake Huron. Deposition of sediments began 2,450 to 2,219 million years ago and continued until 1,850 to 1,800 million years ago when the rocks were deformed and metamorphosed during the Penokean orogeny.
Precordillera is a Spanish geographical term for hills and mountains lying before a greater range. The term is derived from cordillera (mountain range)—literally "pre-mountain range"—and applied usually to the Andes. The Precordillera is in western Argentina and can be traced by the thrust-fold belt. It is about 200 km wide, and stretches 800 km from latitude 29°S to 33°S in western Argentina, with its south end in Mendoza, through San Juan, to La Rioja in the north.
In that region, a series of great faults developed in addition to the folds. As the two continents collided, large belts of rock bounded by thrust faults piled one on top of another, shortening the crust along the eastern edge of North America in the North Carolina and Tennessee region by as much as . The relative amount of deformation gradually diminishes as one travels northward. The fold belt extends northward through Pennsylvania and gradually fades in the vicinity of the New York border.
Byneskranskop is an archaeological site in present-day South Africa where the coastal plain meets the southern Cape Fold Belt. Neolithic human remains have been discovered in caves at the site. Carbon dating of the remains indicates the bodies date from 3,000 to 2,000 years BCE. Remains of tortoises at this site and a dig at Die Kelders, have been used to assess a correlation between tortoise size and human population, with a decrease in tortoise sizes as the human population grows.
Great Escarpment, and the Cape Fold Belt in the south- west corner of the country Great Escarpment which edges the central plateau. The eastern portion of this line, coloured red, is the Drakensberg. The Escarpment rises to its highest point, at over , where the Drakensberg forms the border between KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho. None of the regions indicated on the map has a well-defined border, except where the Escarpment or a mountain range forms a clear dividing line between regions.
The Isan orogeny affected the Mount Isa Inlier in what is now Australia between 1.65 and 1.50 billion years ago in the Proterozoic. Deformation from the event is widespread and complex in the Eastern Fold Belt, with no consensus on timing and sub-events as of 2017. To date, most research has focused on the Snake Creek Anticline, Selwyn zone and Mary Kathleen Domain. At the end of the orogeny, massive A-type granitoids intruded with the Williams- Naraku Batholith.
Precambrian Research. 2011 March. 187: 155–164.Lente, B. Van; Ashwal, L.D.; Pandit, M.K.; Bowring, S.A.; Torsvik, T.H.. Neoproterozoic hydrothermally altered basaltic rocks from Rajasthan, northwest India: Implications for late Precambrian tectonic evolution of the Aravalli Craton. Precambrian Research. 2009 January; 170: 202–222. The basement is categorized into two subdivisions: the Sandmata Complex and the Mangalwar Complex.Rao, V. Vijaya; Prasad, B. Rajendra; Reddy, P.R.; Tewari, H.C.. Evolution of Proterozoic Aravalli Delhi Fold Belt in the northwestern Indian Shield from seismic studies. Tectonophysics.
The mountains have very little, if any metamorphism, from the time and no Hercynian granites. The Meseta Domain, taking its name from Spain's Meseta Central inner plateau is an area of stable Paleozoic rock that was never affected by the Hercynian orogeny and was later covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. Forming Morocco's Central Massif, the Meseta Domain completely conceals Precambrian rocks, although boreholes have found Neoproterozoic rocks in a Meseta anticline. The domain is split in two by the Middle Atlas fold belt.
This period is covered by the recent Geological Survey of Victoria publication The Tasman Fold Belt System in Victoria. The sequence of events associated with the building of southeastern Australia reveals that mineralization and magmatic processes are intimately linked with the tectonic development of the region. The history is dominated by east–west compression of predominantly oceanic sedimentary and igneous rocks and their resultant folding, faulting and uplift. Recently, it has become increasingly apparent that major north–south movements have also been involved in constructing eastern Australia.
Chief Mountain in Glacier National Park was formed from the eastern edge of the upper plate of the Lewis Overthrust and shaped by erosion.Thrust faults often associate three types of structures, imbricate fan structures, ramp-flat structures, and duplex structures, all of which are seen within the Lewis thrust and the Rocky Mountain thrust and fold belt. Duplex structures are common and have been located in numerous locations along the Lewis thrust. These structures are distinct due to their structurally overlapping, lenticular stacked thrust fault slices.
Geology of the area surrounding Mudgee and Gulgong forms part of the north eastern margin of the Lachlan Fold Belt tectonic zone. This northern area is traversed by the Cudegong River which rises in the mountains of the Great Divide, flowing west into the Murray-Darling river system. At the head of the valley, to the east, high mountains are of volcanic origin, and capped in basalt lava flows deposited some 17 million years ago. Nullo Mountain is the most extensive, and Mount Coricudgy the loftiest at .
In these high temperature belts, the temperature peaked at 700°C and the pressure was 350 MPa, with a thermal gradient of 65 °/km. This same high temperature regime produced migmatite and S-type granite from the Ordovician sediments. Blueschist formed by intermediate to high pressure metamorphism is found in melange at Port Sorell and the Arthur Lineament in Tasmania, and Howqua Melange and Heathcote Melange in Victoria. Slate has been formed in other parts of the fold belt indicating intermediate pressure and low temperature.
Extensional basins occur in the central and east parts of the fold belt. Oceanic subduction (or underthrusting) is evidenced for the western and central parts by slivers of ophiolite and blueschist metamorphism. These are known as Coolac serpentinite, and Honeysuckle Beds east of Tumut; The Kiandra Beds north of Batlow and the Tumut Pond Serpentinite Belt on the west side of Talbingo Dam. The Narooma Terrane migrated 2500 km westwards on the moving Pacific plate and became attached to the Adaminaby Superterrane in Silurian times.
It is a part of Joint Base Lewis-McChord. It comprises 327,000 acres (132,332 hectares) of land, most of which consists of shrub-steppe, making it one of the largest areas of shrub-steppe habitat remaining in Washington state. The terrain is undulating and dominated by three east-west parallel ridges, the Saddle Mountains, Manastash Ridge, and Umtanum Ridge anticlines, which are part of the Yakima Fold Belt near the western edge of the Columbia River Plateau. Vegetation consists of sagebrush, bitterbrush, and bunch grass.
The Yakima Fold Belt of south-central Washington, also called the Yakima fold- and-thrust belt, is an area of topographical folds (or wrinkles) raised by tectonic compression. It is a structural-tectonic sub province of the western Columbia Plateau Province resulting from complex and poorly understood regional tectonics. The folds are associated with geological faults whose seismic risk is of particular concern to the nuclear facilities at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation (immediately northwest of the Tri-Cities) and major dams on the Columbia and Snake Rivers.
Winterhoek Mountains from the town of Tulbagh in Die Land van Waveren Grootwinterhoek Peak, looming at 2077 m, above the northern Breede River Valley. The Groot Winterhoek mountains are located in the Western Cape province of South Africa and are part of the Cape Fold Belt. They rise to a maximum height of 2077 m just north of the town of Tulbagh as Groot Winterhoek peak. The Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area, operated by CapeNature, comprises a conservation area of 30,608 ha, and contains waterfalls, swimming holes, pristine rivers and mountain wilderness.
Waldhof The geology of Luxembourg is divided into two geologic regions: Rheinisches Schiefergeblige in the north, extending into the Ardennes region in Belgium, and the Oesling (also known as Islek) Zone to the north of Ettelbruck. The country is underlain by the Hercynian orogeny related Givonne Anticlinorium, which mainly contains Early Devonian sandstone and shale. Rocks closer to the surface are primarily from the Cretaceous and are cut by the Sauer River and its tributaries. Geologists draw parallels between the Gutland Zone, south of the Hercynian fold belt, and the Lorraine region of France.
Bathymetric data suggest it is a possible graben structure with steep, linear, north-south margins that formed during the Eurekan Rifting Episode. The faults forming the supposed graben appear to have been guided in part by the structure of the Cornwallis Fold Belt, but probably were controlled ultimately by trends in the Precambrian crystalline basement. The Kaltag Fault is a northeast trending structure that extends along the continental margin northwest of the Queen Elizabeth Islands. It forms a boundary between the Canadian Arctic Rift System and other rifted structures to the northwest.
Sir John Charles Molteno The enormous Cape Fold Belt effectively separated Cape Town on the coast from the hinterland of Southern Africa, and had obstructed previous attempts to expand the Cape Colony's railway infrastructure inland. In 1872 the Cape Government, under Prime Minister John Molteno, ordered that a railway line must be constructed across this barrier in the vicinity of the Hex River Mountains. The Cape Government Railways (CGR) was formed and railway engineer William George Brounger was appointed to oversee the task.The Royal Commonwealth Society, 1898, "Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute".
The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic Benguela Upwelling and Indian Ocean Agulhas Current meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources. The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years-old engravings from Blombos Cave, South Africa.
On the west is the Delamerian Orogen from the early Palaeozoic (550 to 470 Mya). On the east side is found the Narooma Accretionary Complex (or Narooma Terrane) from 445 Mya, and the New England Orogen from late Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic (310 - 210 Mya). These boundary orogens along with the Lachlan Orogen make up the Tasman Orogenic System In Australia, which along with the extension into the neighbouring parts of Gondwana make up the Tasmanides. North of the Lachlan Fold belt is the Thomson Orogen in the north east and centre of Queensland.
The geology of Macau includes rocks from the Paleoproterozoic and Mesozoic belonging to the Yangtze terrane and Cathaysia terrane, which joined to the form the basement rock of southern China. The Yuao-Macao Fault Zone was identified in 1992 as a component of the broader South China Fold Belt, together with the Jiangshan-Shaoxing Fault Zone. I-type granite intrusion took place in the region around 160 million years ago in the Mesozoic. As a result, the rock in Macau is dominantly granite with veins and dikes of dacite, basalt and aplite.
Most of Mt Imlay National Park was formed during the Ordovician Period, 500 to 435 Million years ago, from sedimentary and metamorphosed rocks of the Mallacoota Beds, part of the Southern Highlands Fold Belt, including greywacke, sandstone and shale. The summit of Mt Imlay and the upper slopes are younger, with Devonian (395 to 345 Million years ago) rocks of the Merimbula Group, lying above the Ordovician sediments. The Merimbula Group includes sandstone, conglomerates, quartzite, siltstone and shale. Quaternary sediments form narrow river flats along the Towamba River on the northern edge of the park.
Subsequent uplift and erosion of the New England Fold Belt has seen the majority of the surrounding sediments and metamorphic rocks eroded away, with the Stanthorpe Adamellite remaining due to its resistance to weathering. This regolith has created a landscape with many exposed inselbergs of granite rocks, some balancing on top of each other, or forming natural arches. Just off the main road from Tenterfield to the park is Thunderbolt's Hideout, a set of caves and overhanging granite rocks. It was thought to have been used by bushranger Captain Thunderbolt.
Geologically, the Ellsworth Mountains occupy a discrete block of continental crust known as the Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountain terrane. This terrane was part of the early Paleozoic amalgamation of Gondwana and consists of a thick section of folded Cambrian–Permian strata, which accumulated on Grenville-age continental crust. It was likely was once part of the Cape Fold Belt that was detached from southern Africa during the breakup of Gondwana and later incorporated into Antarctica.Craddock, J.P., Schmitz, M.D., Crowley, J.L., Larocque, J., Pankhurst, R.J., Juda, N., Konstantinou, A. and Storey, B., 2017.
The Hottentots Holland Mountains are part of the Cape Fold Belt in the Western Cape, South Africa. The mountain range forms a barrier between the Cape Town metropolitan area and the southern Overberg coast. Steenbras Dam, view from N2 The range is primarily composed of Table Mountain Sandstone, and forms a large range between the Cape Town outlying suburbs of Somerset West and Gordon's Bay to the west, and the large Elgin valley to the east. Sir Lowry's Pass is the only crossing, in the form of the N2 motorway.
The very abrupt transition between them suggests that the Aghulas Sea was initially (during the Graafwater period) an area of inland drainage, possibly below sea level (comparable to the Dead Sea in the Middle East today). When the rift extended into the ocean, the rift valley suddenly flooded to become a deep water passage similar to the Red Sea today. The photograph was taken at an elevation of 250 m. Schematic diagram of an approximate 100 km west-east (left to right) geological cross- section through the Cederberg portion of the Cape Fold Belt.
The three kilometer thick unit is subdivided into the Anhyop, Puapsan and Saknyong Series and is widespread throughout the Imjinang Fold Belt in central North Korea. The Anhyop Series represents one kilometer of schist, limestone, phyllite and sandstone. The 1.1 kilometer Puapsan Series and one kilometer Saknyong Series are both very similar, although the Saknyong also has siltstone and volcanic rocks. North Korean geologists have identified the Imjin Group as a continental rift basin, correlated with similar rocks on the Shandong Peninsula across the Yellow Sea in China.
Schematic diagram of an approximate 100 km west-east (left to right) geological cross-section through the Cederberg (a portion of the Cape Fold Belt to which Table Mountain on the Cape Peninsula also belongs). The rocky layers (in different colours) belong to the Cape Supergroup. The green layer is the Pakhuis Formation (a sediment, called "tillite", left by glaciers which for a short time crossed this area about 450 million years ago). It divides the Peninsula Formation Sandstone (or Table Mountain Sandstone) (magenta layer) into a Lower and Upper portion.
5 The formation is considered to have economic potential in an area around Beaufort West to Graaff-Reinet.Cole, 2014, p.31 Results from Rock-Eval pyrolysis, vitrinite reflectance measurements, open pyrolysis and thermovaporization analyses carried out on core samples drilled through the formation show that organic matter has reached an advanced stage of kerogen development. These rocks can therefore be classified as overmature, likely because of the thermotectonic processes related to the Cape orogeny forming the Cape Fold Belt overprint on lower Karoo rocks in the study area.
Ahtanum Ridge Ahtanum Ridge is a long anticline mountain ridge in Yakima County in the U.S. state of Washington. It is located just south of the city of Yakima, and much of its length is at the northern edge of the Yakama Indian Reservation. Ahtanum Ridge is part of the Yakima Fold Belt of east-tending long ridges formed by the folding of Miocene Columbia River basalt flows.Complete Report for Saddle Mountains structures , USGS Earthquake Hazards Program Ahtanum Ridge separates Yakima Valley on the south from Ahtanum Valley on the north.
This collision also crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern British Columbia. Plate tectonics of the Omineca and Insular arcs 130 million years ago. After the sedimentary and igneous rocks were folded and crushed, it resulted in the creation of a new continental shelf and coastline. The Insular Plate continued to subduct under the new continental shelf and coastline about 130 million years ago during the mid Cretaceous period after the formation of the Intermontane Belt, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the Omineca Arc.
Structure and features of a compressional décollement. Horizontal shortening of the thin-skinned sediments lying above the detachment fault due to tectonic convergence must accommodate this horizontal shortening and has done so by the formation of major thrust faults with large displacement, the largest of which is the Lewis Thrust. The thrust sheets involved in the Canadian Rocky Mountain foreland thrust and fold belt consist of different aged strata indicative of significant deformation over time. The dominant structure of the deformational belt is a series of thrust faults, which are mostly listric and north-easterly or easterly verging.
The northeastern active fold belt of Iran, the Kopet Dagh, is formed on the Hercynian metamorphosed basement at the southwestern margin of the Turan Platform. The belt is composed of about 10 kilometres of Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments (mostly carbonates) and, like the Zagros, was folded into long linear northwest-southeast trending folds during the last phase of the Alpine Orogeny, in the Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene time. No magmatic rocks are exposed in Kopet Dagh except for those in the basement in the Aghdarband and some Triassic basic dikes. This basin was located in the northeastern Iran.
The view is from the Lower Karoo looking northwards. In the southwest, running parallel to the coastline, the mountains of the Cape Fold Belt form a series of ranges that run in the form of an "L" by a series running north–south, and another set running east–west, with the junction between the two at the Cape Peninsula. The north–south ranges, paralleling the Atlantic coastline, include the Cederberg and the Groot Winterhoek and have peaks close to 2,000 metres high. The east–west ranges, paralleling the southern coastline, include the Swartberg and the Langeberg with peaks exceeding 2,200 metres.
The central and eastern section of the Axial Zone is bounded in the north by the North Pyrenean Fault, a system of N 110-striking, steeply dipping reverse- faults. The trace of the North Pyrenean Fault becomes more and more diffuse west of Lourdes; near the Basque basement massifs, it seems to be displaced to the south by a wrench fault and then possibly continues into Spain south of the Basque Marble Nappe and south of the Basque Fold Belt. In Cantabria, it finally reaches the Atlantic coast. The southern limit of the Axial Zone runs completely on Spanish territory.
The Meseta Domain, taking its name from Spain's Meseta Central inner plateau is an area of stable Paleozoic rock that was never affected by the Hercynian orogeny and was later covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. Forming Morocco's Central Massif, the Meseta Domain completely conceals Precambrian rocks, although boreholes have found Neoproterozoic rocks in a Meseta anticline. The domain is split in two by the Middle Atlas fold belt. The Western Meseta has relatively little sedimentary cover and well-developed massifs, while the Eastern Meseta spanning the border with Algeria has numerous, small Paleozoic massifs.
Past the Wallula Gap the OWL is identified with the Wallula Fault Zone, which heads towards the Blue Mountains. The Wallula Fault Zone is active, but whether that can be attributed to the OWL is unknown: it may be that, like the Yakima Fold Belt, it is a result of regional stresses, and is expressed only in the superficial basalt, quite independently of what ever is happening in the basement rock. At the western edge of the Blue Mountains the Wallula Fault zone intersects the northeast-striking Hite Fault System (HFS). This system is complex and has been variously interpreted.
The Kammanassie Mountain is one of the prominent east-west trending ranges composing the southern branch of the Cape Fold Belt. It was formed as a result of north-south oriented compressive stress during the Cape Orogeny 123-200 million years ago. The Kammanassie mountain range comprises almost exclusively the resistant quartz arenites of the Table Mountain Group, overlain on the lower slopes by the shale of the Bokkeveld group. Soils generally form a thin (<1 m) veneer of silty sands/sandy silts as a result of the steepslopes of the Kammanassie Mountain and predominantly quartzitic rocks.
Topographically the GBMZ is characterised by granitic low relief areas with former volcanoes forming -high hills. Several plate tectonic reconstructions propose an Archean-Paleoproterozoic connection between the cratonic core of North America, the continent Laurentia, and that of Siberia, the continent Siberia, based on geological connections and paleomagnetic evidence. For example, in the reconstruction of Angara in Siberia matches the Wopmay orogen and the GBMZ in Laurentia; and the Aktikan fold belt in Siberia matches the Thelon-Taltson belt in Laurentia. Several other tectonic models have been proposed, however, and the possible connections between the two early continents remain controversial.
Rocks in the area, especially within the latter sub-basin were folded during the Variscan Orogeny to form the Ribblesdale Fold Belt which is aligned broadly southwest - northeast. Further south is the Rossendale Basin.BGS 1:50,000 geological map memoir for sheet 59 Lancaster, p130-140 In the west of the county, the West Lancashire basin is in effect a landward extension of the East Irish Sea Basin. The area is threaded by numerous broadly north-south aligned normal faults thought to have been active during Permo-Triassic times and perhaps later, in association with early rifting of the Atlantic Ocean.
The Agulhas Bank relative to the Agulhas Ridge, Basin, and Plateau As Gondwana formed 500 mya, a rift appeared which eventually developed into the Agulhas Sea. This sea filled with sediments that were to become the Cape Supergroup, which subsequently were folded into the Cape Fold Belt. The oldest rock found along the coastline of the Agulhas Bank are eugeosynclinal sediments of the up to thick Kaaimans Group deposited during continental rifting some 900 million years ago (Mya). The proto-South Atlantic closed during the Saldanian orogeny to form part of the supercontinent Gondwana (700-600 Mya).
The Cape granites were emplaced and the Kaaimans Group rocks were folded and thermally metamorphosed during this period. The formation of the main basin in the Cape Province commenced 570 Mya and lasted for 200 My. The Table Mountain Group is thick and an erosional unconformity marking its base is composed of both terrestrial and marine sediments. Synclines along the coast of the southern Cape contains sediments from the Bokkveld Group. The Cape Fold Belt (CFB) rocks and the Karoo Basin were deposited 450 Mya; the Cape Supergroup 450-300 Mya during a series of transgression-regression cycles.
8 ff. . in structural geology describes a fold belt of west and central Europe, formed during the Hercynian orogeny (about ). The zone consists of folded and thrusted Devonian and early Carboniferous sedimentary rocks that were deposited in a back-arc basin along the southern margin of the then existing paleocontinent Laurussia. The Rhenohercynian Zone, named for the Rhine River and the Hercynian Forest of Antiquity, forms a narrow zone through western and central Europe, from Cornwall and Ireland in the west to the Harz mountains of central Germany in the east, including the Rhenish Massif (Ardennes, Taunus, Eifel and Hunsrück).
Extensive gorges are a major feature of the park and attract many visitors Bungonia National Park is notable for its unique geology which has given it a status as the "adventure capital of the Southern Tablelands". The park contains over 200 caves and numerous gorges and canyons. The formations in Bungonia are part of the Lachlan Fold Belt which is made up of metamorphosed ordovician and devonian sandstones, shales and volcanic rocks. The rock sequence in Bungonia is highly mineralised and part of a larger series of formations which contain gold deposits of economic importance to the region.
The Highlands are a portion of the Lachlan Fold Belt that goes through the eastern states as a sequence of metamorphosed Ordovician to Devonian sandstones, shales and volcanic rocks, which imposed by many granite bodies and distorted by four episodes of folding, faulting and uplift. North to south is the general structural trend in this bioregion. The Early Ordovician serpentinite rocks running from Gundagai past Tumut into the Snowy Mountains are the oldest. These uncommon rocks were created in abyssal environments and were surfaced against the edge of Australia when a part of sea floor and an island arc closed.
Guangdong Province lies in a tectonically stable part of China, which has relatively low seismicity. The area forms part of the passive margin between the continental crust of China and the oceanic crust of the northern part of the South China Sea. Within the stable South China Block, there are three zones of higher earthquake activity, one of which is the Southeast China Coast seismic zone running through Guangdong and Fujian Provinces. This zone follows the South China Maritime Fold Belt, which was formed by a subduction event during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous epochs.
The town of Tarago serves the adjoining large Woodlawn Mine site. The mine, which operated from 1978 to 1998 extracted gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc from deposits formed within the Lachlan Fold Belt. During the period of mining operations, goods sidings were added at the town's railway station to facilitate the transfer of minerals to and from the site. The closure of the mine came about when the operator, Denehurst Limited was placed in administration due to financial difficulties and subsequently sparked controversy when the pay entitlements of the 160 former miners, totalling $6.5 million, were not paid.
Suurberg cycads in a valley of the Suurberg The Suurberg (also Zuurberg or Suurberge) is a mountain range in the southern Sarah Baartman District Municipality of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The range of some 70 kilometres long (west to east) is situated at the eastern end of the Cape Fold Belt, and rises just north of the towns of Kirkwood and Bontrug (in the Sundays River Valley), and Paterson further east. Its rugged terrain is intersected by many defiles and ridge lines, rising from some 200 m a.s.l. in the south to 936 m a.s.l.
These eventually eroded into the Karoo Sea, forming the Karoo Supergroup. Ultimately, the Falkland Mountains eroded almost completely away, but the Cape Fold Mountains had, by this time, become buried under the Karoo sediments. Being composed largely of quartzitic sandstone, they resisted subsequent erosion, when continental uplifting caused several kilometers of Southern Africa's surface to be planed away, and thus persist to this day as the Cape Fold Belt. The remnant of the Falkland Plateau broke away from Africa, and drifted south-westwards to its present position in the western South Atlantic Ocean, following the breakup of Gondwana about 150 million years ago.
Geological Journeys. pp. 300–311. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. Sediments eroded from these mountains provided the bulk of the 6 km thick Beaufort sediments in the Karoo Basin, but they also covered the Cape Fold Belt, thereby protecting them from erosion. At the end of the Karoo Period about 180 million years ago, the subcontinent was covered by a thick layer of Drakensberg lavas, an event that was accompanied by upliftment or bulging of Southern Africa, ushering in an almost uninterrupted period, continuing to the present, of erosion removing many kilometers of surface rocks from the entire subcontinent.
A map of South Africa showing the central plateau edged by the Great Escarpment and its relationship to the Cape Fold Mountains in the south. The portion of the Great Escarpment shown in red is known as the Drakensberg. The Cape Fold Belt is a fold and thrust belt of late Paleozoic age, which affected the sequence of sedimentary rock layers of the Cape Supergroup in the southwestern corner of South Africa. It was originally continuous with the Ventana Mountains near Bahía Blanca in Argentina, the Pensacola Mountains (East Antarctica), the Ellsworth Mountains (West Antarctica) and the Hunter-Bowen orogeny in eastern Australia.
The Ukrainian Shield and the Voronezh Massif consists of 3.2-3.8 Ga Archaean crust in the southwest and east, and 2.3-2.1 Ga Early Proterozoic orogenic belts. The Ural Mountains are the eastern margin of the East European Craton and mark the Late Paleozoic orogenic collision of the East European Craton with the Siberian cratons. The southern margin of the craton is where Sarmatia is buried beneath thick Phanerozoic sediments and the Alpine orogens. The intervening Late Palaeozoic Donbass Fold Belt, also known as part of the Dnieper-Donets Rift, transects Sarmatia, dividing it into the Ukrainian Shield and the Voronezh Massif.
Witpoort Formation black shales within the Eastern Cape often exhibit cyclical changes in composition, which likely reflect (potentially seasonal) fluctuations in water salinity. Water stratification within the estuarine lake frequently led to anoxic bottom waters, resulting in episodes of exceptional preservation. Witpoort Formation sediments were deeply buried due to continued basinal subsidence through the Carboniferous, and were subsequently metamorphosed during the massive Permian aged Cape Fold Belt orogenesis. Hundreds of millions of years of erosion and uplift brought the Waterloo Farm shales back up to near surface, they were exposed in 1985, in new road cuttings south of Makhanda/Grahamstown, during construction of a bypass road.
The underwater avalanches were probably triggered by frequent earthquakes as the Cape Fold Mountains were being formed towards the south. The Ecca Turbidite deposits should not be confused with the dolerite sills found further inland (illustrated and described lower down, on the right, in the article) . The turbidites can be recognized at close quarters by the fact that the lowermost portion of each layer tends to be made up of sandstone which gradually grades into fine siltstone at the top of the layer. During the Ecca period the Falklands Plateau collided and then fused with Southern Africa, forming a vast range of mountains to the south of the Cape Fold Belt.
AMS, 1953) Xuzhou is of strategic importance for linking South China and North China. The boundaries of its jurisdiction are adjacent to Lianyungang and Suqian in east; Suzhou of Anhui province to the south; Huaibei to the west; Linyi, Zaozhuang, Jining and Heze of Shandong province to the north. The area can be divided into four sectors from east to west, constitute the Shandong-Jiangsu Traps (), the Tancheng-Lujiang Fault Zone (), the Xu-Huai Downwarp-fold Belt () and the Fault-block of West Shandong () respectively. Most of the area is located in the Xu-Huai Alluvial Plain, the southeast part of the North China Plain.
Silvermine, Cape Peninsula The nine species of plampers are all endemic to the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa, in particular the Cape Fold Belt and the foreland along the southern coast. They reach the Cedarberg in the north, the Cape Peninsula in the west, and as far as Grahamstown in the east, but do not occur in the Knysna forest. It usually grows on nutrient poor, shallow, quartzite sandy soils in the mountains and on heavy soils from slates, phyllites and granite of the Bokkeveld and Malmesbury Groups. One species grows on shallow calcareous soil on the limestone hills near Bredasdorp and around De Hoop.
The Dead Sea Transform began to form during the early to mid- Miocene, when there was a change in plate motions and rifting stopped in the Gulf of Suez Rift. The initial phase of northward propagation reached as far as southernmost Lebanon and was followed by a period in the Late Miocene where continuing displacement across the plate boundary was taken up mainly by shortening in the Palmyride fold belt. A total displacement of 64 km has been estimated for this early phase of motion. In the Pliocene the DST propagated northwards once more through Lebanon into northwestern Syria before reaching the East Anatolian Fault.
A diagrammatic 400 km north-south cross-section through the southern portion of the Western Cape, South Africa, near Calitzdorp in the Little Karoo (approximately 21° 30’ E), showing the relationship between the coastal strip (the Overberg) and Little Karoo, separated by the Langeberg mountain range. The significance of the various geological layers (coloured layers) can be found in the articles on the Karoo Supergroup and Cape Fold Belt. The heavy black line flanked by opposing arrows is the fault that runs for nearly 300 km along the southern edge of the Swartberg Mountains. The Swartberg Mountain range owes some of its great height to upliftment along this fault line.
The Eurekan orogeny was a Phanerozoic mountain building event that affected the eastern portion of the Arctic Archipelago and, to a lesser extent, northern Greenland. Deformation initiated in the Late Cretaceous, during which time the Sverdrup Basin began to fragment and fold in response to the counterclockwise rotation of Greenland, caused by seafloor spreading in the Canadian Arctic Rift System. Isostatic uplift was most pronounced in the Grantland Mountains and Victoria and Albert Mountains on Ellesmere Island and in the Princess Margaret Range on Axel Heiberg Island, as evidenced by the current physiography. Compression in a broad zone on Ellesmere Island resulted in the formation of the Eurekan Fold Belt.
The N1 highway, also called the Cape to Cairo Road crosses them at the Du Toitskloof Pass. The old route culminated at ; however, the new Huguenot Tunnel, of in length, cuts out the old mountain pass. Sometimes the Du Toitskloof Mountains together with the Wemmershoek Mountains and others are called the Klein Drakenstein, but it is more usually considered part of the greater Boland mountain range. Structurally, the mountains form part of the Cape Syntaxis, a complex portion of the Cape Fold Belt where the north-south trending ranges meet the east-west trending ranges in a complex series of folds, thrusts and fault-lines.
Until at least the end of the Middle Triassic, high sea levels enabled shallow water to cover much of the South China Block, a tectonic plate that today consists of the stable Yangtze Craton and the less stable South China Fold Belt. A mountain-building event known as the Indosinian orogeny uplifted Precambrian rocks to form four major landmasses on the South China Block: Khamdian to the west, Jiangnan in the centre, Yunkai to the south, and Cathaysia to the east. Island chains also stretched between Yunkai and Cathaysia in the east. Located between Khamdian and Jiangnan was a deep oceanic basin known as the Nanpanjiang Basin.
Faith et al. 2013 noted that the western and southern CFR were separated by biogeographical barriers, such as the Cape Fold Belt and afromontane forests. A 2011 study suggested that low sea levels facilitated migrations for large mammals; therefore the rise in sea levels with the beginning of the Holocene would have led to fragmented bluebuck populations and distanced many populations from the western coast (fossils dating to this period are scarce in the western coast but have been recorded from the southern coast). Thus, a mass extinction could have taken place, leaving behind mainly the populations that remained in the resource-rich western CFR.
The sand, silt and mud deposits were lithified by pressure and then folded during the Cape Orogeny to form the Cape Fold Belt, which extends along the western and southern coasts. The present landscape is due to prolonged erosion having carved out deep valleys, removing parts of the once continuous Table Mountain Group sandstone cover from the Cape Flats and leaving high residual mountain ridges. At times the sea covered the Cape Flats and Noordhoek valley and the Cape Peninsula was then a group of islands. During glacial periods the sea level dropped to expose the bottom of False Bay to weathering and erosion.
Deposition of the Cape Supergroup on the flat eroded surface of granite-intruded Malmesbury rocks. Alternating deposition of sandstone and shale reflects changes in relative sea level along an overall subsiding, passive continental margin. (after Compton 2004) Table Mountain group sandstones were deposited on the eroded surface of granite and Malmesbury series basement, in the stream channels and tidal flats of a coastal plain and delta environment that extended across the region about 450 million years ago. The sand, silt and mud deposits were lithified by pressure and then folded during the Cape Orogeny to form the Cape Fold Belt, which extends along the western and southern coasts.
The Umtanum Ridge Water is a water gap cut by the Yakima River through Manastash and Umtanum Ridge anticlines, which are part of the Yakima Fold Belt near the western edge of the Columbia River Plateau located in central Washington. This National Natural Landmark is characterized by a series of steep-sided ridges in the Columbia River basalt which are cut through axially by the Yakima River. It is also referred to as the Yakima River Canyon, and is located between the cities of Ellensburg and Yakima. Washington State Route 821, originally the main route between Ellensburg and Yakima, parallels the river through the canyon.
This collision crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern Washington State and British Columbia. After the sedimentary and igneous rocks were folded and crushed, it resulted in the creation of a new continental shelf and coastline. This coastline and continental shelf was located adjacent to the eastern margin of Methow Valley. The Insular Plate continued to subduct under the new continental shelf and coastline about 130 million years ago during the mid Cretaceous period after the formation of the Intermontane Belt, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the Omineca Arc.
The Yapungku Orogeny (~1790 Ma) formed the Stanley Fold Belt on the northern margin of the Eerarheedy Basin, via assembly of the Archaean-Proterozoic fold belts of Northern Australia. East Australian Events The Palaeoproterozoic in southeastern Australia is represented by the polydeformed high-grade gneiss terranes of the Willyama Supergroup, Olary Block and Broken Hill Block, in South Australia and New South Wales. The Palaeoproterozoic in the north of Australia is represented mostly by the Mount Isa Block and complex fold-thrust belts. These rocks, aside from suffering intense deformation, record a period of widespread platform cover sedimentation, ensialic rift-sag sedimentation including widespread dolomite platform cover, and extensive phosphorite deposition in the deeper sea beds.
Ordovician geological events in Australia involved Alpinotype orogeny in the Lachlan Fold Belt, resulting in the great serpentinite belts of western New South Wales, and accretion of deepwater molasse and flysch exemplified by the slate belts of Victoria and eastern New South Wales. Victoria – 490–440 Ma The late Cambrian to early Ordovician saw deepwater sedimentation of the St Arnaud and Castlemaine Group turbidites, which are now emplaced in the Stawell and Bendigo Zones. The middle Ordovician saw the deposition of the Sunbury Group in the Melbourne Zone, Bendoc Group and formation of the Molong Arc, a calc-alkaline volcanic arc which is related to the Kiandra Group turbidites. Ordovician orogenies include the Lachlan Orogeny.
Pectodens on the land surrounding a shallow sea that covered much of southern China during the Middle Triassic. Four major landmasses were present in this region, which had been formed by a mountain-building event known as the Indosinian orogeny: Khamdian to the west, Jiangnan occupying a central position, Yunkai to the south, and Cathaysia to the east. The Lagerstätten of Panxian and Luoping were laid down as fossil-bearing sediments on the western edge of an oceanic basin located between Khamdian and Jiangnan, known as the Nanpanjiang Basin. All of these geological features are part of the South China Block, a tectonic plate presently composed of the Yangtze Craton and the South China Fold Belt.
An extended magmatic event, the High Arctic Large Igneous Province, broke Arctica in part 130–90 Ma, opened the Arctic Ocean, and left radiating dyke swarms across the Arctic. Fragments of this continent include the Kara Shelf, New Siberian Islands, northern Alaska, Chukotka Peninsula, Inuit Fold Belt in northern Greenland, and two Arctic underwater ridges, the Lomonosov and Alpha-Mendeleev Ridges. More recent reconstructions also include Barentsia (including Svalbard and Timan-Pechora Plates). Remains of the last continent are now located on the Kara Sea Shelf, New Siberian Islands and adjacent shelf, Alaska north of Brooks Ridge, Chukchi Peninsula in easternmost Siberia, and fragments in northern Greenland and Northern Canada and in the submerged Lomonosov Ridge.
Schematic diagram showing subduction system in conventional plate tectonics theory and divergent double subduction Divergent double subduction (abbreviated to DDS, also called as outward dipping double-sided subduction) is a special type of subduction system where two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate. In conventional plate tectonics theory, an oceanic plate subducts under another plate and new oceanic crust is generated somewhere else, commonly along the other side of the same plates However, in divergent double subduction, the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. This results in the closure of ocean and arc-arc collision. This concept was first proposed and applied to the Lachlan fold belt in southern Australia.
The northern section is thus more expansive than the southern coastal section. The land is characterised by mangrove forests, estuaries and coastal plains in the south, which rise steadily northwards into rolling hills and a jagged highland region in the interior, commonly known as the Yorubaland plateau or Western upland. The highlands are pronounced in the Ekiti area of the region, especially around the Effon ridge and the Okemesi fold belt, which have heights in excess of 732m (2,400 ft) and are characterized by numerous waterfalls and springs such as Olumirin waterfall, Arinta waterfall, and Effon waterfall. The highest elevation is found at the Idanre Inselberg Hills, which have heights in excess of 1,050 meters.
Small (Klein) Swartberg Range from the Laingsburg area A diagrammatic 400 km north–south cross-section through the southern portion of the Western Cape, South Africa, near Calitzdorp in the Little Karoo (approximately 21° 30’ E), showing the relationship between the Little and Great Karoos, separated by the Swartberg mountain range. The significance of the various geological layers (coloured layers) can be found in the articles on the Karoo Supergroup and Cape Fold Belt. The heavy black line flanked by opposing arrows is the fault that runs for nearly 300 km along the southern edge of the Swartberg Mountains. The Swartberg Mountain range owes some of its great height to upliftment along this fault line.
The Hex River Mountains () make up the second highest mountain range in the Western Cape province of South Africa and are located 120 kilometres (75 miles) north-east of Cape Town. They form part of a large anticline in the Cape Fold Belt mountain system and form a north-east, south-west trending mountain system forming the core of the Cape Syntaxis between the towns of Worcester and De Doorns. They are mostly composed of Table Mountain sandstone and most peaks reach 2,000 metres (6,562 feet) in height or more. The highest mountain is Matroosberg at 2,249 metres (7,379 feet), making it the second tallest peak in the province after Seweweekspoort Peak in the Swartberg Mountain Range.
Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g.
The Rocky Mountain thrust and fold belt propagated from west to east, accommodating up to of horizontal shortening near the Canada and US border, and about in northern parts of BC and Montana. The eastern boundary of the fold and thrust belt is marked by the easternmost deformed strata known in outcrop and or in the subsurface. Because strata underlying the Alberta plains is gently dipping, it is difficult to pinpoint the edge of deformation on this side of the belt. On the west side, the Rocky Mountains are bounded by the Rocky Mountain Trench, where the trench is interpreted to overlie the western, down-dropped blocks of major normal faults that separate the southern Rocky Mountains from the Purcell mountains.
Evidence for the local high temperatures within the fault zone indicate that local areas of frictional stress must have existed, with the possibility of this occurring due to ramps in the fault plane where drainage of high pore pressures may have occurred. Moreover, samples from the hanging wall collected in close proximity to the fault plane show no evidence for heating during progressive burial of sediments. This absence of evidence for heating during faulting is indicative of low frictional stress and therefore, low rates of slip. This shows solid agreement with the evolution of the Canadian Rocky mountain foreland thrust and fold belt, including the Lewis thrust sheet which has been interpreted to have developed and commenced movement in pulses.
Sediments eroded from these Gondwana mountains buried the Cape Fold Belt and formed the thick Beaufort Group of rocks of the Karoo basin. As the escarpment eroded, moving inland, the buried Cape Fold Mountains that had formed 150 million years earlier, were gradually re-exposed. As they were composed of erosion resistant quartzitic sandstone they remained as the less resistant overlying sediments were removed by erosion, ultimately to form the parallel formations that protrude from the coastal plain of the south and southwest Cape. The eastern portion of the Great Escarpment (the Drakensberg) goes as far north as Tzaneen at approximately the 22° S parallel, from there it veers west to Potgietersrust, where it is known as the Strydpoort Mountains.
The Cape Floral Region is a thin coastal strip and a botanic hotspot which developed at the confluence of the Benguela Upwelling and Agulhas Current. According to what professor Curtis Marean calls the "Cape Floral Region – South Coast Model" for the origins of modern humans, the early hunter-gatherers survived on shellfish, as well as geophytes, fur seal, fish, seabirds, and wash-ups found on the exposed Agulhas Bank. The bank slopes into the sea and a reconstruction of how the coastline has changed over 440 kya shows that the coast during the Pleistocene was located as far as from the present coast. The present South African southern coastal plain (SCP) is still separated from the rest of Africa by the Cape Fold Belt.
Breede River Valley aerial showing intensive viticulture and surrounding mountains The Breede River Valley is relatively broad and flat for a Western Cape valley, averaging at a floor height of 80m-250m above sea-level. Western regions are mostly alluvial and flat, while eastern regions have more hills of the Bokkeveld Group with narrow alluvial deposits. The valley is framed by the high mountains of the Cape Fold Belt, with the Hex River Mountains and the Skurweberge to the northwest, the Langeberg Mountains (up to 2000m) to the north, the smaller Boland Mountains to the southwest, and the Riviersonderend Mountains to the south. It stretches from Tulbagh in the north to McGregor in the south and Rawsonville in the west to Ashton and Bonnievale in the east.
Talc output in 2005 Talc is a common metamorphic mineral in metamorphic belts that contain ultramafic rocks, such as soapstone (a high-talc rock), and within whiteschist and blueschist metamorphic terranes. Prime examples of whiteschists include the Franciscan Metamorphic Belt of the western United States, the western European Alps especially in Italy, certain areas of the Musgrave Block, and some collisional orogens such as the Himalayas, which stretch along Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Talc carbonate ultramafics are typical of many areas of the Archaean cratons, notably the komatiite belts of the Yilgarn Craton in Western Australia. Talc- carbonate ultramafics are also known from the Lachlan Fold Belt, eastern Australia, from Brazil, the Guiana Shield, and from the ophiolite belts of Turkey, Oman, and the Middle East.
There is Later Stone Age archaeological material preserved in caves and rock shelters, such as Melkhoutboom Cave, in the Cape Fold Belt Mountain surrounding Port Elizabeth (see Deacon and Deacon, 1963; Deacon, 1976; Binneman, 1997) and large numbers of coastal shell middens have been reported at Humewood, St. George's Strand and the Coega River Mouth (Rudner, 1968). Most recently, Binneman and Webley (1997) reported thirteen shell middens and stone tool scatters about 500 m east of the Coega River mouth in the archaeological assessment carried out for the development of maritime infrastructure for the Port of Ngqura. Importantly, some of this archaeological material was recorded in secondary context in the gravels from older river terraces along the banks of the Coega River.
The name Variscan, comes from the Medieval Latin name for the district Variscia, the home of a Germanic tribe, the Varisci; Eduard Suess, professor of geology at the University of Vienna, coined the term in 1880. (Variscite, a rare green mineral first discovered in the Vogtland district of Saxony in Germany, which is in the Variscan belt, has the same etymology.) Hercynian, on the other hand, derives from the Hercynian Forest. Both words were descriptive terms of strike directions observed by geologists in the field, variscan for southwest to northeast, hercynian for northwest to southeast. The variscan direction reflected the direction of ancient fold belts cropping out throughout Germany and adjacent countries and the meaning shifted from direction to the fold belt proper.
They examined the abundant and extensive rock exposures that occur within the region of the Nastapoka arc and found a complete lack of shatter cones, suevite-type or other unusual melt rocks, pseudotachylite or mylonite, radial faults or fractures, unusual injection breccias, or any other evidence of shock metamorphism. Based on numerical modelling, regional geology, and lack of evidence for a hypervelocity impact, the current, general consensus is that it is an arcuate boundary of tectonic origin between the Belcher Fold Belt and crystalline rocks of the Superior craton created during the Trans-Hudson orogeny about 2.0–1.8 billion years ago.Hynes, A., 1991. The gravity field of eastern Hudson Bay: Evidence for a flextural origin for the Hudson Bay (Nastapoka) Arc?. Tectonics, 10(4), pp. 722–728.Darbyshire, F.A., and Eaton, D.W., 2010.
An ONGC platform at Bombay High in the Arabian Sea Since its inception, ONGC has been instrumental in transforming the country's limited upstream sector into a large viable playing field, with its activities spread throughout India and significantly in overseas territories. In the inland areas, ONGC not only found new resources in Assam but also established new oil province in Cambay basin (Gujarat), while adding new petroliferous areas in the Assam-Arakan Fold Belt and East coast basins (both onshore and offshore). ONGC went offshore in the early 1970s and discovered a giant oil field in the form of Bombay High, now known as Mumbai High. This discovery, along with subsequent discoveries of huge oil and gas fields in Western offshore changed the oil scenario of the country.
Geologists debate whether the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are part of the southern extent of the fold belt and whether some faults are detached in Triassic-Kurrachine evaporate deposits. The northern and southern Palmyrides are divided by the Jhar Fault, which runs east to west. Because of differing depths to metamorphic basement rocks on different ends of the Palmyrides, some geologists have suggested that the Jhar Fault might be the remains of a Pan- African suture zone from the late Proterozoic. The modern geology and geography of Lebanon is influenced in part by the opening of the Red Sea in the Eocene and Oligocene as well as the formation of the Levant Fracture System, from the Oligocene until the late Miocene, with the separation of the African and Arabian plates.
The recorded geological history of East Sussex commenced during Carboniferous, with the rocks which are today basement deposited within a low swamp providing coals which were exploited to the north and east in Kent, but boreholes drilled in the 19th century failed to find this deposit in Sussex. The Carboniferous coals are overlain by Permian and Triassic sediments. The sediments were uplifted and faulted within the Variscan Orogeny, with the land now occupied by East Sussex being a low external fold belt to the main orogeny, which was located within the present day English Channel, the remnants of the mountain belt can be seen today in Devon and Cornwall in what is known as the Cornubian Massif. Although unlike in Devon and Cornwall, there was little or no metamorphism.
The Tasmanides are the result of compression, horizontal shortening, and vertical thickening of various "terranes" such as small continental fragments and volcanic island arcs that were plastered against the original continental margin as a result of plate tectonic movements. The Tasmanides also extended into Antarctica in the south and northern China on the north, as these continental units were attached to Australia at the time, in Gondwana.Plate tectonic processes in the southwest Pacific: a spatial and temporal context Barry Drummond, B. L. N. Kennett, R. J. Korsch, B. R. Goleby & P. A. Symonds Penrose Conference March 1999 The ACT is part of the Eastern Lachlan Fold Belt, which is located on a terrane that is called the Benambra Terrane in Victoria, but the Molong-Monaro Terrane in New South Wales.
The Coolac Geological Site north-east of Coolac, is the best known example in Australia of a substantial ophiolite assemblage. The distinctive rock assemblage over a site provides insights into events in the continental evolution of eastern Australia.Australian Government Department Transport and Regional Services, Segment 1.4 Wagga to Yass for example, abstract of article in GeoScience World Tectonic significance of 400 Ma zircon ages for ophiolitic rocks from the Lachlan fold belt, eastern Australia and an article in the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales entitled Hydrothermal Ca- Al Silicates in Ophiolitic Rocks near Coolac, N.S.W. The rocks here were part of the oceanic crust and mantle, normally not exposed on the Earth's surface. The rock from the mantle is called Coolac Serpentinite.
GAIL is participating in 10 exploration blocks, in Basins such as Mahanadi, Mumbai, Cambay, Assam-Arakan, Tripura Fold Belt, Gujarat Kutch, Krishna Godavari, Cauvery and Cauvery Palar. GAIL has partnership in these blocks with various companies such as ONGC, OIL, GSPC, Hardy Exploration & Production, Petrogas, JOGPL, Eni and Daewoo as Operators. Out of these 10 E&P; blocks, 2 blocks are overseas (A-1 and A-3 blocks in Myanmar). The blocks are in various stages of exploration, appraisal and development. Hydrocarbon discoveries are in place in 7 E&P; blocks in blocks where GAIL is participating. The blocks with hydrocarbon discoveries are: MN-OSN-2000/2, CB- ONN-2000/1, Block A-1 and A-3 Myanmar, CY-OS/2, AA-ONN-2002/1, CB-ONN-2003/2.
The three main rock formations are the late-Precambrian Malmesbury group (metamorphic rock), the Peninsula granite, a huge batholith that was intruded into the Malmesbury Group about 630 million years ago, and the Table Mountain group sandstones that were deposited on the eroded surface of granite and Malmesbury series basement about 450 million years ago. The sand, silt and mud deposits were lithified by pressure and then folded during the Cape Orogeny to form the Cape Fold Belt, which extends along the western and southern coasts. The present landscape is due to prolonged erosion having carved out deep valleys, removing parts of the once continuous Table Mountain Group sandstone cover from the Cape Flats and leaving high residual mountain ridges. At times the sea covered the Cape Flats and Noordhoek valley and the Cape Peninsula was then a group of islands.
Mossel Bay straddles the Cape St Blaize peninsula (which rises to an average height of 96 metres), and spreads out along the sandy shores of the Indian Ocean, eastwards towards the town of George. The Outeniqua Mountains, which form part of the Cape Fold Belt, lie to the north of the municipal area. These mountains of sandstone and shale are characterised by gentle slopes to the seaward side (which are generally covered by montane fynbos and grasslands), and rise to a height of 1,578 m at Cradock Peak, near George (40 km east of Mossel Bay), and 1,675 metres at Formosa Peak near Plettenberg Bay (150 km east of Mossel Bay). To the east, the land slopes upwards towards the wave-cut platform (average elevation 245 metres) that characterises the more lush all-year-round rainfall area of the Garden Route.
Vijay P. Singh, Pratap Singh and Umesh K. Haritashya, Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers, page 525, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011, The Western Fold Belt along the border (between the Sulaiman Range and the Chaman Fault) is the western boundary of the Indian Plate.S. Mukherjee, R. Carosi, P.A. van der Beek, B.K. Mukherjee and D.M. Robinson (ed.), Tectonics of the Himalaya, Geological Society of London, 2015, Given the difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest, the valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes. More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans. These routes and interactions have led to the spread of Buddhism out of the Indian subcontinent into other parts of Asia.
The weight of the Falkland-Cape Supergroup mountains caused the continental crust of Southern Africa to sag, forming a retroarc foreland system, into which the Karoo Supergroup was deposited. Eventually much of the Cape Supergroup became buried under these Karoo deposits, only to re-emerge as mountains when upliftment of the subcontinent, about 180 million years ago, and again 20 million years ago, started an episode of continuous erosion that was to remove many kilometers of surface deposits from Southern Africa. Although the tops of the original Cape Fold Mountains were eroded away, they eroded much slower than the considerably softer Karoo deposits to the north. Thus the Cape Fold Belt "erupted" from the eroding African landscape to form the parallel ranges of mountains that run for 800 km along the southern and south-western Cape coastline today.
During the late Jurassic, a rift complex forms between the Australian Plate/Tasman Fold Belt, and the Antarctic Plate.Rahmanian, V. D., Moore, P. S., Mudge, W. J., and Spring, D. E., 1990, sequence stratigraphy and the habitat of hydrocarbons, Gippsland Basin, Australia; in Brooks, J., ed., Classic Petroleum Provinces, Geological Society Special Publication No. 50, p 525-541.Etheridge, M. A., Branson, J. C., and Stuart-Smith, P. G., 1987, The Bass, Gippsland and Otway Basins, southeast Australia: a branched rift system formed by continental extension, in Beaumont, Christopher, and Tankard, Anthony J., eds., Sedimentary Basins and Basin-Forming Mechanisms; Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 12, Atlantic Geoscience Society Special Publication 5, p. 147-162.Falvey, David, A., and Mutter, John C., 1981, Regional plate tectonics and the evolution of Australia’s passive continental margins; BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 6(1), p. 1-29.
Underlying all this is the ancient bedrock of different kinds of metamorphic rock (such as schist, gneiss, quartz, granulite, etc.) that form the Eastern Block of the North China Craton. This craton was formed approximately two billion years ago by the collision of two major crustal blocks that left a belt of uplifted mountains – the Central (China) Orogenic Belt (COB) – that crosses China approximately southwest to northeast, passing just west and north of Beijing. Just north of Zunhua another orogenic belt, the east–west trending Yanshan mountain fault-fold belt (also known as the Yanshan seismic belt) marks the northern edge of the North China Craton (and of the alluvial plain). It is also the location of over half of the destructive earthquakes in Hebei province, as under the plain several fault zones (oriented parallel to the Central Orogenic Belt) terminate against the Yanshan mountains.
The remnants of this period has left an extensive network of coal seams that fuelled the early population boom of the Hunter Valley in the 19th century as well a high degree of salinity in the water table of much of the area. The further north and west, towards the Brokenback Range and the Upper Hunter, the more Triassic sandstone that can be found leading eventually to the carboniferous rocks that form the northern boundary of the Hunter with the New England Fold Belt and the foothills of the Barrington Tops. Overall, the Hunter Valley has more soils (mostly hard, acidic patches of poorly draining heavy clay) that are unsuitable for viticulture than they have areas that are ideal for growing grapes. The soils of the Lower Hunter vary widely from sandy alluvial flats (often planted to Semillon), to deep friable loam (often planted with Shiraz) and friable red duplex soils.
Geologic map of southeast England and the region around the English Channel, showing the Weald-Artois anticline and therefore the modern day form of the Weald Basin in its regional context The Weald Basin's formation commenced during the Carboniferous, with the rocks which are today basement deposited within a low swamp providing coals which were exploited to the north and east in Kent, but boreholes drilled in the 19th century failed to find this deposit in the area of the Weald. The Carboniferous coals may be overlain by early Triassic sediments. The sediments were uplifted and faulted within the Variscan Orogeny, with the land now occupied by the Weald Basin being a low external fold belt to the main orogeny, which was located within the present day English Channel. The remnants of the mountain belt can be seen today in Devon and Cornwall in what is known as the Cornubian Massif.
The Hunter-Bowen Orogeny was a significant arc accretion event in the Permian and Triassic periods affecting approximately 2,500 km of the Australian continental margin. The Hunter-Bowen Orogeny occurred in two main phases, a Permian accretion of previously formed passive-marginal Devonian and Carboniferous sediments in the Hunter region and mid-west region of what is now New South Wales, separated by rifting, back-arc volcanism and a later Permian to Triassic event resulting in arc accretion and metamorphism during a subduction event. The Hunter-Bowen Orogeny has resulted in the New England Fold Belt, a tectonic accretion of metamorphic terranes and mid-crustal granitoid intrusions, flanked by Permian to Triassic sedimentary basins which were formed distally to the now-eroded orogenic mountain belt. While the Great Dividing Range north of Sydney is a prominent landform, this is more the result of Cenozoic volcanism and crustal uplift since the Jurassic than the result of the original orogenic belt which is essentially mimics.
By the time Gondwana broke up about 150 million years ago, the Falkland Mountains had been all but eroded away, before drifting south- westwards to their present position off the coast of southern South America, close to Cape Horn, leaving behind only the submarine Agulhas Bank along the southern coastline of Africa. The Cape Fold Mountains possibly survived erosional obliteration, firstly because of the extremely hard rocks (the Peninsula Formation Sandstone) that form the backbone of the mountain chains, but also possibly because they had become buried under the Karoo deposits which originated in the Falkland Mountains. Thus traces of Karoo deposits can, for instance, be found in the Worcester-Robertson valley in the middle of the Fold Belt. Although the Dwyka and Ecca sediments adjoining the Cape Fold Mountains were subjected to the same compression forces that gave rise to the Cape Mountains, they do not form the same mountain ranges as do the Cape Fold Mountains.
Rivers running off this bulging interior into the seas that were forming around South Africa as Gondwana was breaking up 150 million years ago, eventually encountered rocky ridges as the protective layer over the Cape Fold Belt eroded away, exposing their mountain tops. The rivers breached these ridges, after possibly being dammed back for a short period, creating a narrow passage through the low rocky barrier. Continued erosion exposed more and more of these quartzitic mountain ranges, but the rivers, now confined to narrow, fast flowing gorges, continued breaking through each barrier as the surrounding landscape eroded to lower and lower levels, particularly during the past 20 million years. These 150‑million-year-old rivers therefore cut the defile, starting by flowing over, and then through the gradually erupting Cape Fold Mountains, to form the spectacular "poorte" and "klowe" (plural of "poort" and "kloof", the Afrikaans for defile or chasm) that characterize these mountains today.
This period is characterized by the intrusion of mafic-ultramafic sills, meimechite and carbonatite deposition, and MORB-like mafic volcanism corresponding to the formation of a transitional continental-oceanic crust. # A deformation and high-grade metamorphism phase occurs in the hinterland near Kuujjuaq from 1.84 to 1.83 Ga. A regional-scale granitic and charnockitic intrusion, the De Pas Supersuite (formerly De Pas Batholith), was also emplaced during the same period and up to 1.81 Ga. This supersuite is interpreted by several authors as being associated with a Proterozoic magmatic arc environment connected to a subduction zone developed during the orogenesis. This supersuite may also be associated with a syncollisional component in the hinterland. # There would have been an oblique collision between the Superior craton and the Core Zone of the Churchill Province during the orogenesis from 1.82 to 1.77 Ga. This event resulted in transpressure-type deformation and the formation of a western-verging thrust and fold belt, now known as the Labrador Trough.
The Cape Supergroup re-emerged as mountains when uplift of the subcontinent, about 180 million years ago, and again 20 million years ago, started an episode of continuous erosion that was to remove many kilometres of surface deposits from Southern Africa. Although the tops of the original Cape Fold Mountains were eroded away, the hard Table Mountain Sandstone component eroded much slower, forming the backbone of the Cape Fold Mountains, with the younger, but very much softer Bokkeveld shales remaining only in the valleys (see diagram on the left). The Falkland Mountain range had probably eroded into relative insignificance by the mid-Jurassic Period, and started drifting to the south- west soon after Gondwana began to break up 150 million years ago, leaving the Cape Fold Belt to edge the southern portion of the newly formed African continent. Even though the mountains are very old by Andean and Alpine standards, they remain steep and rugged due to the Table Mountain Sandstone's quartzitic sandstone geology, making them very resistant to weathering.

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