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"fallacious" Definitions
  1. wrong; based on a false idea

375 Sentences With "fallacious"

How to use fallacious in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "fallacious" and check conjugation/comparative form for "fallacious". Mastering all the usages of "fallacious" from sentence examples published by news publications.

Bank managements argue that this type of reasoning is fallacious.
But a closer examination reveals that interpretation to be fallacious.
"The whole mission is fallacious," Pluto truther Justin Shaw told Newsweek.
Fallacious images shared on social media are also obscuring the real narrative.
One that doesn't necessarily rely on a fallacious personal approach to the artwork?
Mr. Trump has offered nothing but fallacious excuses for keeping his returns secret.
Facts and reason have to square off against the fanciful and the fallacious.
The image to the left shows this fallacious five o'clock shadow of water ice.
That belief is fallacious, of course, a hard fact that the art world routinely ignores.
While Dworkin is famously billed as being anti-trans, Williams thinks that framing may be fallacious.
"The idea that this would make a big difference hither or yon is fallacious," Gorka said.
Apart from the fallacious argument on the president's powers, the states have no standing to sue.
It's kind of fallacious to think that tapeworms actually out-compete what's happening in your gut.
I think those are fallacious, because the US is going to do plenty about climate control.
Talking of Americans as a homogenous "we," and of homogenous origins, feels increasingly fallacious, of course.
"The argument that it would make it more accessible to children is fallacious," Mr. Bishop said.
The usual narrative that the debt ceiling provides a check on unfettered government spending is fallacious.
Fallacies of Logic lists over 100 different fallacious arguments, describing each in a paragraph or two.
I have to say, maybe 2628 percent of reportage of the White House is just fallacious.
Be warned, they know how to identify fallacious claims and how to pick out insufficient, irrelevant evidence.
The beef association said it was "fallacious" to draw a link between beef consumption and automobile emissions.
More recently, and more loosely, they are considered to be anyone who argues using fallacious or illogical arguments.
So my guess is that that ruling will be in favor of the aggrieved party in a fallacious ad.
"There is no prejudice, this is merely a fallacious pretext to attract attention," one Facebook lawyer said on Thursday.
It is using the plausible but fallacious concept of 'peace through power' to start a war to dominate the world.
With 26 years of combined experience as prosecutors in the SDNY, we know firsthand that this theory is utterly fallacious.
For decades, British newspapers have offered their readers an endless stream of biased, misleading and downright fallacious stories about Brussels.
New Delhi forcefully rejected the claims, calling the report "fallacious, tendentious and motivated," according to a statement from India's foreign ministry.
Mr. Iglesias has denied having any plan to drop the euro, dismissing warnings by Mr. Rivera and others as fallacious scaremongering.
Willey's accusation is less clearly fallacious, but several factors cast serious doubt on it, and it's overall much less credible than Broaddrick's.
In an interview with Broadly, he pointed out that even determining the masculinity or femininity of a fragrance may be a fallacious endeavor.
Clinton would be well advised to draw attention to these facts and not cede a fallacious, but nevertheless appealing, argument to Mr. Trump.
Moving Democrats to the "yes" column will also require aggressive pushback against the biggest fallacious argument offered by opponents of these two measures.
We recognize our political mishaps, but the leap from public deliberation to detentions and fallacious designations is preposterous, shortsighted and an alarming precedent.
It's more likely that people who aren't professional economists will be influenced by simpler stories and metaphors that may, unfortunately, encourage fallacious thinking.
The Indian government rubbished the report, calling it "fallacious, tendentious and motivated," a compilation of "largely unverified information" meant to build a false narrative.
Moreover, the experts' explanations were "fallacious at best" and only "provided circular justifications" for what Nassar claimed were legitimate medical treatments, the report states.
Advocates of criminal-justice reform worry that he will fill up prisons and build new ones, justifying draconian punishments with massaged statistics and fallacious reasoning.
Clinton's supporters desperately wanted her to savage Mr. Trump, over and over, to bludgeon him with his own fallacious words and messy record in business.
Likewise, asserting that belief in God automatically makes one moral is fallacious, as theists have the same potential for moral corruption as everyone else. Why?
It does, however, suggest the fallacious nature of Hall of Fame arguments that would bar Edgar Martinez or David Ortiz because they were "only" designated hitters.
Only a few courageous "deniers" such as my mentor, the great economist Julian Simon, had the courage to call out the report as fallacious from the start.
At just the right moments he intervened to deflate misleading lines of questioning, correct fallacious assertions, and hold Committee members to account, solidifying Judge Kavanaugh's spectacular performance.
Mr. Trump's fallacious argument that he lost the popular vote by nearly 3 million because of illegal immigrant ballots started as the stuff of wonderment and ridicule.
It is "woke" to revile Republicans' attempt to disenfranchise as many black people as possible on the basis of a fallacious concern with virtually non-existent voter fraud.
"There's always the horrible, fallacious view that you have to go after immigrants and then you point out a few immigrants that have committed horrible crimes," said Rep.
But it is a fallacious argument designed to provide political cover to a Senate bill that is more about reducing redistribution than rescuing Obamacare's customers from disaster (see article).
What do we make of a person who would use a fallacious story, and subsequent public interviews, to send the country into disarray for personal, and possibly, financial gain?
Totally ignored from Mr. Kerry's rant is the evidence for the premise that Israel cannot be both "democratic" and a "Jewish" State has been proven fallacious by demographic experts.
"This is the same study, same flawed methodology, and same fallacious result that Professor DeCicco has churned out multiple times in the past," said Bob Dinneen, the group's president.
Migrants bring dynamism and fresh ideas to poor and middle-income countries as well as rich ones; the lump-of-labour fallacy is just as fallacious in the developing world.
We look back from the safe distance of the present, and we imagine there could have been a different ending, a fiction that is as safe as it is fallacious.
The Republican Party was seeking new ways for minority engagement, which was absolutely a good thing, but the idea that Steele was selected only because of his race is fallacious.
The "complete the course" advice given to patients taking antibiotics is "fallacious" and backed by little evidence, they state in their article, and could lead to antibiotic overuse -- and further resistance.
Newspapers around the world picked up a fallacious Argentine news report that the U-boat had carried Hitler and other ranking Nazis out of Germany to the secret base on Antarctica.
Because the President's erroneous tweets seem to be testing his likely lines of defense -- all fallacious -- to this newly emerging area of his legal exposure, they merit further attention and analysis.
The idea that women somehow vote for and of themselves as women already is a fallacious concept—women are already stressed about what's happens to men as what happens to themselves.
Yet the prevailing view of the scandal, promulgated by the media and Mr Trump, that her misdeeds were serious enough to warrant an FBI indictment, always looked fallacious, and so it proved.
Indeed, the politics of climate change remain incredibly challenging; the Trump administration and many Republicans in Congress continue to push the fallacious narrative that they can save coal and coal will save America.
But, while the left might very well succeed in drowning Trump's victories in a sea of fallacious, distracting storylines, they will not be able to alter the changed realities in Americans' everyday lives.
The report says it is characterized by two distinctive features: a multichannel messaging approach and a willingness to disseminate information that is taken out of context, only true in part, or plainly fallacious.
The self-serving, fallacious insistence that there are not enough female directors, and the persistent attention placed on training newcomers, is an obfuscation from those in charge who don't want things to change.
HR: Maybe not the Russians but at least the opponents can ... Look, there was a recent story about some of the fallacious information that's been shared about me, and that's going to happen.
The idea that these need to be the dogmas of the Republican Party reflects the influence of fallacious sunk-cost thinking as much as the genuine ideological commitment of a small number of utopian elites.
As a gay-rights activist, he had volunteered for the abusive "conversion" therapy to expose the prevalence of such treatments in China, which most doctors in developed countries consider to be unethical and medically fallacious.
H.E. Shukry Bishara, a finance minister for the Palestinian Authority (PA), omits much while claiming that "Aid to Palestine promotes peace and prosperity" (February 2023)—perhaps omissions and distortions are essential to his fallacious argument.
It's an easy play for anybody who understands the space, but they were able to repeal it, because they use some sort of fallacious arguments that, "Hey, we just ..." KS: Explain that for regular people.
It is fallacious to paint him as an outsider, since this campaign proves that the Republican Party has changed and there is sufficient room for these kinds of extremist elements to be welcomed into its ranks.
He has a fallacious view of America as a nation in decline and disrespected abroad, and his plans to disengage from the world, tear up trade deals and use bullying tactics would be irrational and dangerous.
Recent statements by acting BLM Director William Perry Pendley, declaring our iconic herds the greatest threat to public lands struck us as out of touch and fallacious – especially given the unique moment our proposal has created.
All faiths and religious practices are under assault when anti-Muslim advocates pretend that Islam is not a religion and use this fallacious argument to deny American Muslims the rights extended to Americans of all faiths.
That said, I created the B.S. Detector specifically to counter Mark Zuckerberg's fallacious statements that Facebook is unable to adequately address the proliferation of fake news on its platform and to demonstrate just how easy it is.
The move towards aggression sits better than Yachty's past attempts, thanks to his increasing technical skill and the bonkers, avant-garde nature of these beats, but to think that major-key rap music can't be hard is fallacious.
We've collectively bought into a fallacious binary that says women are the "fairer sex" — fundamentally more beautiful, gentler, less sexually aggressive, and less threatening — while men are ever and always poised on the cusp of violence and sexual depravity.
But in May 2017, under the Trump-appointed chairman, Ajit Pai, at least two FCC officials quietly pushed a fallacious account of the 2014 incident, attempting to persuade reporters that the comment system had long been the target of DDoS attacks.
Finally, we might note that the bishops only make up about 3% of the House of Lords, which one might argue, given the number of Anglicans, is too low a proportion, so the argument fails even on its own fallacious terms.
If government unions wish to justify their continued ability to compel public employees to pay union dues and fees against their will, they'll have to come up with something better than the fallacious argument that doing so will promote labor peace.
Though journalist Ida B. Wells proved that in most cases rape was not even an allegation that was made, the institution was defended with the fallacious claim that black men rape white women and the lynching was an effective punishment and deterrent.
But using such studies (or really anecdotes, given the small number of samples) to predict a similar move this time around is logically fallacious, insofar as the precise reason we are running them now is that volatility is at levels rarely seen before.
Also, while the Republican Party clearly stands for more than white supremacy and the promotion of that intellectually fallacious concept, the party has often turned a blind eye to the racists in its midst and done far too little to extricate them.
From the incoherent, fallacious interview he gave the New York Times on December 123 to Tuesday's tweet about his "nuclear button" to his Saturday morning assertion that he is a "very stable genius," the remarks keep getting more menacing, bizarre, and portentous of disaster.
Over the years, we have seen how hard it is to detach Americans from even the obviously fallacious parts of that elementary-school saga—the absurd rendering of Reconstruction, with its Northern carpetbaggers and local scalawags descending on a defenseless South, was still taught in the sixties.
" After the separation, I was afraid of appearing irrational, violent, pathetic and fallacious, revealing what Ruskin called "a mind and body in some sort too weak to deal fully with what is before them or upon them; borne away, or overclouded, or over-dazzled by emotion.
"The raw material of this lending boom is not as fallacious as subprime [mortgages]," he says, comparing the borrower-friendly terms of today's corporate loans with the fraudulent loans obtained by tens of thousands of homeowners whose defaults later brought the banking system close to collapse.
It wasn't long before the cult of the closer developed, based on the fallacious notion there was something special and unique about the ninth inning, and that only a fearless, mustachioed, chaw-chomping, hard-throwing right-hander could have the mental and emotional wherewithal to withstand its demands.
"I find the logic a bit fallacious because the cost is not free ... I am a firm believer in low economics, but no economics student can believe in no economics," T.R. Ramachandran, Visa's India and South Asia head, said on Monday, speaking on a panel at an industry conference.
They both remind us that totalizing maxims have often been fatuously and unequivocally sententious in their urge toward controlling domination, embellished (as they seem to always be) with a sort of self-importance and fallacious, sweeping universalism that entangles the difficult idea of the multiple into the simple and unitary.
Beginning by quoting Frederick Douglass, he makes a subtle, complex argument with pointed discussions about the fallacious assumptions that predominantly black institutions must be inferior; the dubious necessity of the state maintaining an elite law school; the disgrace of legacy admissions preferences; and the false "merit" reflected by standardized tests.
On the one hand, there are virulent articles about racism in Europe describing the "Jungle," a migrant detention center in Calais, France, as something of a concentration camp, or presenting fallacious analyses: "No Work in France if You're Arab or African," said one headline in an Islamist newspaper in February.
John Hoberman's book Testosterone Dreams details many of the fallacious claims made about that sex hormone, such as its potential to eradicate impotence and male homosexuality, while also noting that until 1984, the American Academy of Sports Medicine denied that anabolic-androgenic steroids had any impact whatsoever on athletic performance.
It's one thing, to be sure, to insist on holding off on impeachment or sustained oversight for the sake of producing real-world policy breakthroughs on bread-and-butter issues—even though such arguments rest on the same fallacious either/or approach to legislation versus oversight that launch your typical Trump outburst.
Before launching his campaign, in June, 2015, he had been a Democrat (for most of his life), a potential Reform Party candidate (during a brief flirtation with Presidential politics, in 2000), and, starting in 2011, a kind of conservative gadfly, obsessed with the fallacious idea that Obama was not born in America.
"The President does believe that, I think he's stated that before, and stated his concern of voter fraud and people voting illegally during the campaign and continues to maintain that belief based on studies and evidence people have brought to him," White House press secretary Sean Spicer said in January about Trump's fallacious claim.
Mr. Putin has also rejected the American assertions that Mr. Assad's forces were responsible for the chemical weapons attack in Khan Sheikhoun, calling them similar to the fallacious accusations by the United States that Saddam Hussein of Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in the prelude to the 2003 American invasion of that country.
At the time, Biden's choice to oppose busing revolved around the fallacious assumption that one could oppose de jure racial segregation which the Supreme Court ruled illegal and unconstitutional but could do nothing about de facto racial segregation, which occurred because of things like residential and economic segregation, that could not be controlled by policy or politics.
"This is scientifically invalid and we were concerned that it was being dredged up – this fallacious concept, this myth – that vaccines are associated with autism, and because of Mr. De Niro's personal standing and the admiration people have for him as well as the prestige of the festival, it would be a kind of validation," Schaffner says.
It's fallacious to equate correlation with causation, but to many, it was not surprising to learn that a 2017 study conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that white American evangelical Protestants believe Christians face serious persecution at a higher rate than Muslims; 57 percent said that Christians face "a lot of discrimination" in the US today, while just 44 percent said the same of Muslims.
Other conservatives condemned those who argued that the bombings were a "leftist hoax," with Tiana Lowe writing in the Washington Examiner: While it's obviously fine to withhold judgment on the attacks until law enforcement addresses more of the public's questions, the rush from some on the Right to use a lack of facts to justify promulgating ridiculous conspiracy theories is both fallacious and irresponsible.
It has the general argument form: :If P, then Q. :P is a fallacious argument. :Therefore, Q is false. :c since A :A is fallacious :¬c Thus, it is a special case of denying the antecedent where the antecedent, rather than being a proposition that is false, is an entire argument that is fallacious. A fallacious argument, just as with a false antecedent, can still have a consequent that happens to be true.
Paralogist would be correct for someone who uses fallacious argument unwittingly.
Kini Nsom, "Opposition Says NEO Report is Fallacious", The Post (Cameroon), 4 August 2008.
This argumentation is fallacious, since it confounds incomprehensibility with inconceivableness, superiority to reason with contradiction.
Popular perceptions of randomness are frequently mistaken, and are often based on fallacious reasoning or intuitions.
This distinction is often difficult to make, particularly when the fallacious use is a disguise intended to deceive a literal suggestion.
He was never optimistic about the President's case and was not fooled by fallacious beliefs. This procedure helped create Agnew's reputation.
An example of the fallacy of appealing to an authority in an unrelated field would be citing Albert Einstein as an authority for a determination on religion when his primary expertise was in physics. It is also a fallacious ad hominem argument to argue that a person presenting statements lacks authority and thus their arguments do not need to be considered. As appeals to a perceived lack of authority, these types of argument are fallacious for much the same reasons as an appeal to authority. Other related fallacious arguments assume that a person without status or authority is inherently reliable.
Interview (with Michel Sirvent): 'How to Reduce Fallacious Representative Innocence, Word by Word', Studies in 20th- century Literature, vol. 15/2, Summer 1991: 277-298.
This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles.De Maio, F. (2010). Health & Social Theory. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 29-30.
A special subclass of the informal fallacies is the set of faulty generalizations, also known as inductive fallacies. Here the most important issue concerns inductive strength or methodology (for example, statistical inference). In the absence of sufficient evidence, drawing conclusions based on induction is unwarranted and fallacious. With the backing of empirical evidence, however, the conclusions may become warranted and convincing (at which point the arguments are no longer considered fallacious).
The fallacy is in concluding the consequent of a fallacious argument has to be false. That the argument is fallacious only means that the argument cannot succeed in proving its consequent.John Woods, The death of argument: fallacies in agent based reasoning, Springer 2004, pp. XXIII–XXV But showing how one argument in a complex thesis is fallaciously reasoned does not necessarily invalidate its conclusion if that conclusion is not dependent on the fallacy.
Gorka called the report fallacious, and told Newsweek he is contacting Hungarian authorities for clarification. By mid February of that year, the arrest warrant had been removed from the website.
He went on to attack defenders of the Glorious Revolution generally as proponents of fallacious contractarian theories.Andrew Pyle (editor), Dictionary of Seventeenth Century British Philosophers (2000), article on Kettlewell, pp. 487-8.
His son, Sam Holt, said that he was "amazed that people can still keep bringing up fallacious theories".Harold Holt disappearance: 48 years on and still no answers, Herald Sun, 16 December 2015.
Brinton (1914, p. 1) According to Brinton ineffective presentation can lead to fallacious conclusions: > It is often with impotent exasperation that a person having the knowledge > sees some fallacious conclusion accepted, or some wrong policy adopted, just > because known facts cannot be marshalled and presented in such manner as to > be effective.Brinton (1914, p. 1); Cited in: Carl C. Gaither, Alma E. > Cavazos-Gaither. (2012) Gaither's Dictionary of Scientific Quotations. p. > 770 And furthermore: > Ordinarily, facts do not speak for themselves.
Conclusion: :The verisimilitude of the final statement is not relevant in this fallacy. The conclusions in both examples are uncontroversial; however, both are argued on fallacious logic and would not hold up as valid arguments.
This is fallacious. And so is this: # People in Kentucky support a border fence. # People in New York do not support a border fence. # Therefore, people in New York do not support people in Kentucky.
For example, "Which color dress is Mary wearing?" may be fallacious because it presupposes that Mary is wearing a dress. Unless it has previously been established that her outfit is a dress, the question is fallacious because she could be wearing pants instead. Another related fallacy is ignoratio elenchi or irrelevant conclusion: an argument that fails to address the issue in question, but appears to do so. An example might be a situation where A and B are debating whether the law permits A to do something.
In logic and critical thinking textbooks, slippery slopes and slippery slope arguments are normally discussed as a form of fallacy, although there may be an acknowledgement that non- fallacious forms of the argument can also exist.
The contradictions found in these narratives, and which are responsible for the belief of modern critics in a multiplicity of authors, disappear upon close examination. The hypothesis of Jahwistic and Elohistic documents is, according to him, fallacious.
Sagan presents a set of tools for skeptical thinking which he calls the "baloney detection kit". Skeptical thinking consists both of constructing a reasoned argument and recognizing a fallacious or fraudulent one. In order to identify a fallacious argument, Sagan suggests employing such tools as independent confirmation of facts, debate, development of different hypotheses, quantification, the use of Occam's razor, and the possibility of falsification. Sagan's "baloney detection kit" also provides tools for detecting "the most common fallacies of logic and rhetoric", such as argument from authority and statistics of small numbers.
Circumstantial ad hominem points out that someone is in circumstances (for instance, their job, wealth, property, or relations) such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. As with other types of ad hominem attack, circumstantial attack could be fallacious or not. It could be fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument invalid; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source).
It proved impossible to overcome mutual antagonisms, because Chamberlain's programme was flawed by his misperceptions and fallacious judgments.Dragan Bakić, "'Must Will Peace': The British Brokering of 'Central European' and 'Balkan Locarno', 1925–9." Journal of Contemporary History 48.1 (2013): 24–56.
Plato believed that the eristic style "did not constitute a method of argument" because to argue eristically is to consciously use fallacious arguments, which therefore weakens one's position.Alexander Nehamas. "Eristic, Antilogic, Sophistic, Dialectic: Plato's Demarcation of Philosophy from Sophistry". (page 7).
The 1980s and 1990s witnessed some well-publicized fallacious proofs (which were not actually published in peer-reviewed form). An exposition of attempts to prove this conjecture can be found in the non- technical book Poincaré's Prize by George Szpiro.
Austrian theorist Henry Hazlitt argued that aggregate demand is "a meaningless concept" in economic analysis. Friedrich Hayek, another Austrian, wrote that Keynes' study of the aggregate relations in an economy is "fallacious", arguing that recessions are caused by micro-economic factors.
While these behavior patterns are generally dismissed as 'fallacious' or 'illogical' by economists, neuroeconomic researchers are trying to determine the biological reasons for these behaviors. By using this approach, we may be able to find explanations for these seemingly sub-optimal behaviors.
It is possible to have a deductive argument that is logically valid but is not sound. Fallacious arguments often take that form. The following is an example of an argument that is “valid”, but not “sound”: # Everyone who eats carrots is a quarterback.
Both of Ben's rebuttals are arguments from fallacy. Ginger may or may not be a cat, and Tom may or may not be English. The fact that Tom's argument was fallacious is not, in itself, a proof that his conclusion is false.
It could also be another type of proposition that contains some logical connective in a way that makes it have several parts that are component propositions. Complex questions can but do not have to be fallacious, as in being an informal fallacy.
Appeals to emotion are intended to draw inward feelings such as fear, pity, and joy from the recipient of the information with the end goal of convincing them that the statements being presented in the fallacious argument are true or false, resp.
Dietz's acting ability along with his mother's fallacious testimony (to protect him from prison) resulted in a hung jury, but Dietz was immediately re-indicted. The second trial resulted in a sentence of 30 days in the Spokane County Jail after he pleaded "no contest".
Sometimes a syllogism that is apparently fallacious because it is stated with more than three terms can be translated into an equivalent, valid three term syllogism. For example: :Major premise: No humans are immortal. :Minor premise: All Greeks are people. :Conclusion: All Greeks are mortal.
In nature, events rarely occur with perfectly equal frequency, so observing outcomes to determine which events are more probable makes sense. However, it is fallacious to apply this logic to systems designed to make all outcomes equally likely, such as shuffled cards, dice, and roulette wheels.
As a result, the concept of "overkill"—the idea that one can simply estimate the destruction and fallout created by a thermonuclear weapon of the size postulated by Leo Szilard's "cobalt bomb" thought experiment by extrapolating from the effects of thermonuclear weapons of smaller yields—is fallacious.
Historian Giannis Katris, an ardent critic of Karamanlis, argued in 1971 that Karamanlis should have resigned the premiership and pressed charges against Merten as a private individual in German courts, in order to fully clear his name. Nonetheless, Katris rejects the accusations as "unsubstantiated" and "obviously fallacious".
Frank discusses the Beardstown Ladies, an informal investment group comprising elderly women from Beardstown, Illinois. He covers their usage by the media to promote the idea (mostly fallacious, in Frank's estimation) that Average Joe Americans were just as good as, if not better than, professionals at picking stocks.
Everybody has something to believe in. Therefore, there is something that everybody believes in. :∀x∃y Bxy therefore ∃y∀x Bxy It is fallacious to conclude that there is some particular concept to which everyone subscribes. It is valid to conclude that each person believes a given concept.
It can not fix all missed calls. :;Rebuttal ::While not all umpiring errors are corrected under the UDRS, it does reduce the number of errors made. ;Posit (fallacious) :Medical testing on animals is useless. The drug thalidomide passed animal tests, but resulted in horrific birth defects when used by pregnant women.
41 Objection: Evolutionary biology can be fallacious when it proceeds by breaking an organism into adaptive traits and proposing an adaptive story for each trait considered separately."The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A Critique of the adaptionist programme." Proceedings Royal Society London. 305:581-598, 1979.
It was less well received by anthropologists, and Melville Herskovits reviewed it in the journal Social Forces and described it as "fallacious in its assumptions, incompetent in its handling and loose in its logic"Herskovits, M. J. (1923). "Extremes and Means in Racial Interpretation". J. Soc. F., 2, 550-1551.
The psychiatrist Anthony Stevens called The Origins and History of Consciousness, "a great but misguided book". Stevens argues that Neumann's assumptions that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, that preliterate human beings were "unconscious", and that Western consciousness has been subjected to different selection pressures to that of other civilized populations, are fallacious and biologically untenable.
This type of argument is sometimes used as a form of fearmongering, in which the probable consequences of a given action are exaggerated in an attempt to scare the audience. The fallacious sense of "slippery slope" is often used synonymously with continuum fallacy, in that it ignores the possibility of middle ground and assumes a discrete transition from category A to category B. In a non-fallacious sense, including use as a legal principle, a middle-ground possibility is acknowledged, and reasoning is provided for the likelihood of the predicted outcome. Other idioms for the slippery slope argument are the thin end/edge of the wedge, the camel's nose in the tent, or If You Give a Mouse a Cookie.
Yet, according to opponents of Molinism, God is actively bringing about these overt acts of sin. This is fallacious according to the Molinist. In order for this account of prophecy to be valid all prophecies must be wholly good, and never contain evil acts; but this is not what opponents believe to be the case.
Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as fallacious reasoning. Bad reasoning within arguments can be because it commits either a formal fallacy or an informal fallacy. Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument. The word "formal" refers to this link to the form of the argument.
This includes division that is purely illogical and fallacious. After arguing over math, a goat appears and narrates his life about eating paper and other artificial things. Hijibijbij appears and laughs hysterically at improbable situations and keeps changing his mind about the names of his family members. Then many animals appear, and confusion results.
However, boxing films had been made at least 17 years earlier (for example, Fitzsimmons' 1897 fight against Jim Corbett), proving the claim to be fallacious. Sweeney died at New Castle in February 1965.New Castle News (New Castle, Pennsylvania), March 1, 1965, page 2. New Castle News (New Castle, Pennsylvania), March 6, 1965, page 10.
In these articles he reiterates the view that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematician Jason Rosenhouse wrote a response in The Mathematical Intelligencer entitled "How Anti- evolutionists Abuse Mathematics"How Anti-evolutionists Abuse Mathematics, Jason Rosenhouse. and "Does Evolution Have a Thermodynamics Problem?". Physicist Mark Perakh called Sewell's thermodynamics work "depressingly fallacious".
The fallacious deduction is that: For every A, there is a B, such that C. Therefore, there is a B, such that for every A, C. :\forall x \,\exists y \,Rxy \vdash \exists y \,\forall x \,Rxy However, an inverse switching: :\exist y \,\forall x \,Rxy \vdash \forall x \,\exist y\, Rxy is logically valid.
For instance, the appeal to poverty is the fallacy of thinking that someone is more likely to be correct because they are poor. When an argument holds that a conclusion is likely to be true precisely because the one who holds or is presenting it lacks authority, it is a fallacious appeal to the common man.
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. Fallacious arguments are very common and can be persuasive in common use. They may be even "unsubstantiated assertions that are often delivered with a conviction that makes them sound as though they are proven facts". Informal fallacies in particular are found frequently in mass media such as television and newspapers.
During a speech in September 2006, McFadyen described the former New Democratic Party government of Howard Pawley as having been influenced by communism. This statement was widely criticized, and Pawley described it as "fallacious and ridiculous". McFadyen initially refused to withdraw the accusation, and said that there had been card-carrying members of the Communist Party in Pawley's government.
In spring and early summer, the Times is often violent, unfair, fallacious, inconsistent, intentionally unmeaning, even positively blundering, but it is very seldom merely silly. ... In the dead of autumn, when the second and third rate hands are on, we sink from nonsense written with a purpose to nonsense written because the writer must write either nonsense or nothing.
The fallacy is committed because of this diversion; it is fallacious to oppose a point on the basis of minor and incidental aspects, rather than responding to the main claim. There follows an example: :Tom is using a barrage of objections: :Amy: Tomatoes are fruit, not vegetable. :Tom: Tomatoes can't be fruit. They don't grow on trees.
Definitions can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language. This can lead to circular definitions. Definitions should be defined in the most prosaic form of language to be understood, as failure to elucidate provides fallacious definitions. Figurative language can also be misinterpreted. For example, ‘golden eyes’ in a biography may lead the reader to think that the person was fictional.
This is a list of paradoxes, grouped thematically. The grouping is approximate, as paradoxes may fit into more than one category. This list collects only scenarios that have been called a paradox by at least one source and have their own article on Wikipedia. Although considered paradoxes, some of these are simply based on fallacious reasoning (falsidical), or an unintuitive solution (veridical).
Delusions - fixed, fallacious beliefs - are symptoms that, in the absence of organic disease, indicate psychiatric disease. The content of delusions varies considerably (limited by the imagination of the delusional person), but certain themes have been identified; for example, persecution. These themes have diagnostic importance in that they point to certain diagnoses. Persecutory delusions are, for instance, classically linked to psychosis.
Hyman wrote the ganzfeld studies have not been independently replicated and have failed to produce evidence for psi. According to Hyman, "reliance on meta-analysis as the sole basis for justifying the claim that an anomaly exists and that the evidence for it is consistent and replicable is fallacious. It distorts what scientists mean by confirmatory evidence." Storm et al.
Skeptics argue that the connection of conspiracy theorists and occultists follows from their common fallacious premises. First, any widely accepted belief must necessarily be false. Second, stigmatized knowledge—what the Establishment spurns—must be true. The result is a large, self-referential network in which, for example, some UFO religionists promote anti-Jewish phobias while some antisemites practice Peruvian shamanism.
In grammar classes, students were trained to read, write and speak Latin which was the universal language in Europe at the time. Astronomy was necessary for calculating dates and times. Rhetoric was a major component of a vocal education. Logic consisted of the criteria for sound or fallacious arguments, particularly in a theological context, and arithmetic served as the basis for quantitative reasoning.
In a widely cited critique of Greene's work and the philosophical implications of the dual process theory, Harvard philosophy professor Selim Berker critically analyzed four arguments that might be inferred from Greene and Singer's conclusion. He labels three of them as merely rhetoric or "bad arguments", and the last one as "the argument from irrelevant factors". According to Berker, all of them are fallacious.
He stressed the Rabbinic sages and the Talmud as the source of Judaism. "This is not an uncommon impression and one finds it sometimes among Jews as well as Christians - that Judaism is the religion of the Hebrew Bible. It is, of course, a fallacious impression. . . Judaism is not the religion of the Bible" (Judaism and the Christian Predicament, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967, p. 59).
They feel that there is a flaw somewhere in comparison to what they "should" be. The goals set out by the neurotic are not realistic, or indeed possible. The real self then degenerates into a "despised self", and the neurotic person assumes that this is the "true" self. Thus, the neurotic is like a clock's pendulum, oscillating between a fallacious "perfection" and a manifestation of self-hate.
Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false. It is also called argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam), the fallacy fallacy, the fallacist's fallacy, and the bad reasons fallacy. While fallacious arguments cannot arrive at true conclusions, they can contain them, so this is an informal fallacy of relevance.
William Lane Craig states that the question subdivides into two: # If God foreknows the occurrence of some event E, does E happen necessarily? # If some event E is contingent, how can God foreknow E’s occurrence? However, this kind of argument fails to recognize its use of the modal fallacy. It is possible to show that the first premise of arguments like these is fallacious.
This statistical testimony was shown to be fallacious by professional statisticians, notably Gill. Continued scrutiny showed that the data had also been collected to support the prosecutor's conviction of Berk, which further invalidated the pseudo-statistical testimony.Persbericht CWI Petitie 2 November 2007"Expert on the most important proof in the Lucia de B. case: 'This baby has not been poisoned'". NOVA. 29 September 2007.
Personal incredulity – yourlogicalfallacyis.com Arguments from incredulity can sometimes arise from inappropriate emotional involvement, the conflation of fantasy and reality, a lack of understanding, or an instinctive 'gut' reaction, especially where time is scarce. This form of reasoning is fallacious because one's inability to imagine how a statement can be true or false gives no information about whether the statement is true or false in reality.
But it would be fallacious to attribute full credit to Ashkenazi. Another proposal presented to the Venetian Senate earlier that year suggested the Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal be permitted entry, provided they lived in ghettos. While that proposal did not pass, it served to remind the Senate of the economic importance of the Jews and likely contributed to their ultimate readmissionArbel, p. 92.
They further called "fallacious" his claims that Africans had diffused the practices of pyramid building and mummification, and noted the independent rise of these in the Americas. Additionally, they wrote that Van Sertima "diminishe[d] the real achievements of Native American culture" by his claims of African origin for them. Van Sertima wrote a response to be included in the article (as is standard academic practice) but withdrew it.
Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined is a collection of essays on pathological science and pseudoscientific methods used in the science of sociology. It was published in 1997 as a collection of responses, from academics in various related fields, to arguments in the book The Bell Curve. The collection argues that The Bell Curve advocates a specific and fallacious view of race and class, despite the authors' claims of neutrality.
Huygens was often slow to publish his results and discoveries. In the early days his mentor Frans van Schooten was cautious for the sake of his reputation. The first work Huygens put in print was Theoremata de quadratura (1651) in the field of quadrature. It included material discussed with Mersenne some years before, such as the fallacious nature of the squaring of the circle by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent.
The fallacy is similar to affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent. However, the fallacy may be resolved if the terms are exchanged in either the conclusion or in the first co-premise. Indeed, from the perspective of first-order logic, all cases of the fallacy of the undistributed middle are, in fact, examples of affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent, depending on the structure of the fallacious argument.
The terms of the settlement were not disclosed. A September 2006 article in the Miami New Times elaborated on a fabricated profile created to demonstrate that the "website is dangerous". The New Times investigated a number of profiles and found claims made were on the whole, fallacious. One profile the New Times uncovered supposedly of a philandering ex-boyfriend was actually a gay man who had spurned a woman's advances.
A similar fallacy is the appeal to false authority. This fallacy is used when a person uses a false authority as evidence for their claim. These fallacious arguments from authority are the result of citing a non-authority as an authority. The philosophers Irving Copi and Carl Cohen characterized it as a fallacy "when the appeal is made to parties having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter at hand".
He is a slick, sordid, conniving politician. He is a double-talking, rabble-rousing opportunist who glibly repeats the fallacious fulminations of his Red-tinged ghostwriters. He is a Marxist who has been both a Socialist and a pro-Communist (his brother Roy once said: 'Walter has gone completely Stalinist') and he is now in the process of concocting a new Red philosophy called Reutherism. Walter Reuther is an evil genius.
Eventually he resurfaced to carry on the Baptist's work alone. Jesus was a charismatic teacher and possibly a faith healer. James, Simon and Jude were his half-brothers (since Jesus is not Joseph's son, in Tabor's view) and inherited the leadership after Jesus' death. His claim that the brothers of Jesus were members of his Disciples, has been called a misleading and fallacious reading of the biblical text.
LVIII, No. 15, July 28, 2006 Critics say that the Institute is conducting a deliberate disinformation campaign. One common criticism is that the rhetoric employed by the Institute in its campaigns is intentionally vague and misleading"ID supporters present fallacious arguments, use dishonest rhetoric, and often present non- contemptuous responses as evidence that their theories are gaining acceptance." Leaders and Followers in the Intelligent Design Movement Jason Rosenhouse. BioScience, Vol.
Public health measures adopted since World War II in order to reduce smoking have been compared with anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany, which is considered by proponents of anti-smoking measures to be a fallacious reductio ad Hitlerum which often exaggerates how much the Nazis actually opposed smoking. Historian of science Robert N. Proctor speculates that Nazi associations "forestall[ed] the development of effective anti-tobacco measures by several decades".
Gangesa, the author of Tattvacintāmaṇi who had examined the possibility of dialectical reasoning as a way to grasp pervasion, in the anumāna-khanda of the same text states that pervasion is pursued so long as there is doubt because there is contradiction but does not require deviation; doubt is an invalid cognitive act and fallacious reasoning is the ground for contradiction, the nature of doubt and fallacious reasoning both being conceptual is not of determinate character . Thus, dialectical reasoning is blocking of the opposing view and continues so long as doubt persists. Gangesa agrees that since pervasion is a universal invariant concomitance, therefore, the possibility of a counter example cannot be ruled out, and concludes that contradiction as natural opposition cannot block an infinite regress, it is the doubter’s own behaviour proving the lie to the doubt that blocks it acting as the pratibandhaka. Gangesa uses the term, pratibandhaka, to refer to a natural opposition in cognitive logic, as a preventer.
In his first book on consciousness, The Emperor's New Mind (1989), he argued that while a formal system cannot prove its own consistency, Gödel's unprovable results are provable by human mathematicians. Penrose took this to mean that human mathematicians are not formal proof systems and not running a computable algorithm. According to Bringsjord and Xiao, this line of reasoning is based on fallacious equivocation on the meaning of computation.Bringsjord, S. and Xiao, H. 2000.
Because of the lack of information, high uncertainty, the need to make decisions quickly, founders of startups use many heuristics and exhibit biases in their startup actions. Biases and heuristics are parts of our cognitive toolboxes in the decision-making process. They help us decide quickly as possible under uncertainty but sometimes become erroneous and fallacious. Entrepreneurs often become overconfident about their startups and their influence on an outcome (case of the illusion of control).
This, in turn, leads to uneducated thinking and fallacious judgments that could later affect others. Second, confirmation bias detracts from a person's ability to be open-minded. For example, when listening to a statement, an individual may hear something at the beginning of the conversation that arouses a specific emotion. Whether this is anger or frustration or anything else, it could have a profound impact on that person's perception of the rest of the conversation.
These pronouns then recur as the bound variables of quantifications. The third section, "Referring to objects," examines properties, classes and numbers. He concludes that it is a genetic fallacy to claim that truth cannot emerge from fallacious proofs. Quine is interested in explaining the "psychogenesis of reference," constructing how sensory perception moves from the ability to describe concrete objects to abstract objects through a series of increasingly complex ways of referring to things.
The success at Locarno in handling the German question impelled Foreign Secretary Austen Chamberlain, working with France and Italy, to find a master solution to the diplomatic problems of Eastern Europe and the Balkans. It proved impossible to overcome mutual antagonisms, because Chamberlain's programme was flawed by his misperceptions and fallacious judgments.Dragan Bakić, "‘Must Will Peace’: The British Brokering of ‘Central European’ and ‘Balkan Locarno’, 1925–9." Journal of Contemporary History 48.1 (2013): 24–56.
Indian mathematician Bhāskara II (1114–1185) is credited with knowledge of Rolle's theorem. Although the theorem is named after Michel Rolle, Rolle's 1691 proof covered only the case of polynomial functions. His proof did not use the methods of differential calculus, which at that point in his life he considered to be fallacious. The theorem was first proved by Cauchy in 1823 as a corollary of a proof of the mean value theorem.
The repercussions from the mission were fast and furious. SAC headquarters was under pressure from "many external sources" to "stop the carnage ... it has become a blood bath".McCarthy and Allison, p. 85. Of more concern was the position taken by many senior Air Force officers that they "would lose too many bombers and that airpower doctrine would be proven fallacious ... or, if the bombing were stopped, the same thing would occur".
The book is called De Agri Cultura (On Farming Agriculture) and outlines several grafting methods. Other authors in the region would write about grafting in the following years, however, the publications often featured fallacious scion-stock combinations. During the European Dark Ages, Arabic regions were experiencing an Islamic Golden Age of scientific, technological, and cultural advancement. Creating lavishly flourished gardens would be a common form of competition among Islamic leaders at the time.
A fallacy (also called sophism) is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, or "wrong moves" in the construction of an argument. A fallacious argument may be deceptive by appearing to be better than it really is. Some fallacies are committed intentionally to manipulate or persuade by deception, while others are committed unintentionally due to carelessness or ignorance. The soundness of legal arguments depends on the context in which the arguments are made.
Fallacies are commonly divided into "formal" and "informal". A formal fallacy can be expressed neatly in a standard system of logic, such as propositional logic, while an informal fallacy originates in an error in reasoning other than an improper logical form. Arguments containing informal fallacies may be formally valid, but still fallacious. A special case is a mathematical fallacy, an intentionally invalid mathematical proof, often with the error subtle and somehow concealed.
The magician purposely sent her a biorhythm chart based on a different birthdate. After he explained that he sent the wrong chart to her, he sent her another chart, also having the wrong birthdate. She then said that this new chart was even more accurate than the previous one. This kind of willful credulous belief in vague or inaccurate prognostication derives from motivated reasoning backed up by fallacious acceptance of confirmation bias, post hoc rationalization, and suggestibility.
Images include elderly people being fired into the Sun, hippies being killed, and Maddox's testicles drawn larger than basketballs. Maddox maintains a section in which he criticizes hate mail his website has generated. When posting his replies he breaks the e-mail down and ridicules points which use fallacious logic and also corrects grammatical or orthographical errors. The site contains several "hidden pages", many of which are unfinished works or first drafts of articles that were moved around.
He did not go into depth, simply stating that the theoretical premiums used by Wright were "fictitious" and that the results were "fallacious and may be regarded purely as a fabrication".Report from Woolhouse to the directors of the International, dated August 25, 1859. The report is reprinted at pages 87-88 of the Massachusetts Insurance Reports and at pages 550–551 of Volume II of the New York Insurance Reports. In contrast, Nieson's entire report addressed Wright's methodology.
Alternatively, he may intend for this argument to follow from the arguments of fragments 1 and 2, either directly or indirectly. In the former case, unless the argument is based on a now lost theory on the relationship between time and space, it is, as McKirahan says, “grossly fallacious”.McKirahan, p. 297. In the latter case, granting the “beginning” and “end” of fragment 2 spatial as well as temporal qualities leaves Melissus open to the charge of equivocation.
He is also responsible for the equally fallacious notion that the Church forbade human dissection. The notion - eternally repopularized by Hollywood - that the medieval Church condemned all science as devilry runs throughout White; this view is likewise baseless." In his course on science and religion, Principe points out a couple of examples of White's poor scholarship, "Let’s start with a simple and a notorious example: the idea that before Columbus people thought that the world was flat.
The Union Ministry for Human Resource Development referred the matter for an investigation by the Central Bureau of Investigation. FIITJEE denied the allegations. Jain later wrote in his book The Secret of My Success that he was "subtly pressurised" and "cajoled into writing the letter and most of it was not true." FIITJEE moved the Delhi High Court claiming that parts of the book were "defamatory, offensive and fallacious" and sought a permanent injunction on the book's publication.
In the US, photography and broadcasting is permitted in some courtrooms but not in others. Some argue that use of media during courtroom proceedings presents a mockery of the judicial system, though the issue has been contested at length. The presence of cameras can create fallacious information that can damage the reputation for the courts and the trust from the public and/or viewers observing the televised proceedings. For an extensive library of materials on this issue, see .
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was the first philosopher who distinguished arguments attacking a thesis or attacking other persons. The various types of ad hominem arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, in his work Sophistical Refutations, detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. Many examples of ancient non- fallacious ad hominem arguments are preserved in the works of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.
Thus, the presentation of the holotype and paratype as coherent skeletons by Chatterjee is fallacious. Such representations are ad hoc conglomerations of bone whose status as conspecific is not apparent from their taphonomy. Not only were the remains recovered disarticulated and unassociated, there are glaring morphometric differences in the various components of the holotype and paratype. For instance, the scapulae and coracoids are so reduced, that the association with the axial skeleton is extremely difficult to support.
Grammar teaches the mechanics of language to the student. This is the step where the student "comes to terms," defining the objects and information perceived by the five senses. Hence, the Law of Identity: a tree is a tree, and not a cat. Logic (also dialectic) is the "mechanics" of thought and of analysis, the process of composing sound arguments and identifying fallacious arguments and statements and so systematically removing contradictions, thereby producing factual knowledge that can be trusted.
In propositional logic, dilemma is applied to a group of rules of inference, which are in themselves valid rather than fallacious. They each have three premises, and include the constructive dilemma and destructive dilemma. Such arguments can be refuted by showing that the disjunctive premise — the "horns of the dilemma" — does not in fact hold, because it presents a false dichotomy. You are asked to accept "A or B", but counter by showing that is not all.
Objectivists define the fallacy of the stolen concept: the act of using a concept while ignoring, contradicting or denying the validity of the concepts on which it logically and genetically depends. An example of the stolen concept fallacy is anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's statement, "All property is theft". Others have said the statement is fallacious only on a superficial reading of Proudhon, devoid of context. Proudhon used the term "property" with reference to claimed ownership in land, factories, etc.
Reification, while usually fallacious, is sometimes considered a valid argument. Thomas Schelling, a game theorist during the Cold War, argued that for many purposes an abstraction shared between disparate people caused itself to become real. The most clear example was nuclear weapons; in Schelling's time, there were conventional explosives that were more destructive than any nuclear ones, which could be and were used as weapons of war. However, nuclear weapons of lower power were not (excepting, of course, Hiroshima and Nagasaki).
The documents could come from 1st, 2nd, 3rd or 4th offices – only a trainee appeared able to offer such a variety of documents as they passed from one office to another to complete their training. This was the reasoning of Lieutenant-Colonel d’Aboville, which proved fallacious. The ideal culprit was identified: Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a graduate of the École polytechnique and an artillery officer, of the Jewish faith and of Alsatian origin, coming from the republican meritocracy.Birnbaum, The Dreyfus Affair, p. 48.
There exist several fallacious proofs by induction in which one of the components, basis case or inductive step, is incorrect. Intuitively, proofs by induction work by arguing that if a statement is true in one case, it is true in the next case, and hence by repeatedly applying this, it can be shown to be true for all cases. The following "proof" shows that all horses are the same colour.George Pólya's original "proof" was that any n girls have the same colour eyes.
The College Mathematics Journal is an expository magazine aimed at teachers of college mathematics, particular those teaching the first two years. It is published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Mathematical Association of America and is a continuation of Two-Year College Mathematics Journal. It covers all aspects of mathematics. It publishes articles intended to enhance undergraduate instruction and classroom learning, including expository articles, short notes, problems, and "mathematical ephemera" such as fallacious proofs, quotations, cartoons, poetry, and humor.
Flag-waving is a fallacious argument or propaganda technique used to justify an action based on the undue connection to nationalism or patriotism or benefit for an idea, group or country. It is a variant of argumentum ad populum. This fallacy appeals to emotion instead to logic of the audience aiming to manipulate them to win an argument. All ad populum fallacies are based on the presumption that the recipients already have certain beliefs, biases, and prejudices about the issue.
Ronald C. Bailey argues that hereditarianism is based on five fallacious assumptions. In a 1997 paper, he also wrote that "...behavior geneticists will continue to be very limited in their ability to partition the effects of genes, the environment, and their covariance and interaction on human behavior and cognitive ability." Hereditarianism is sometimes used as a synonym for biological or genetic determinism, though some scholars distinguish the two terms. When distinguished, biological determinism is used to mean that heredity is the only factor.
He has an affinity for plants and in turn only eats meat. Dr. Destruction: The leader of the French super hero team Les Formidables. He is a big fan of Fantomas and owns a Citroen CX he claims once belonged to Charles de Gaulle. However, he has displayed a great deal of fallacious knowledge that borders absurdity; he believed that the France defeated Britain in World War II and is under the impression that J.K Rowling, Shakespeare, and Stephen King are French authors.
Historically, opinion on the appeal to authority has been divided: it is listed as a valid argument as often as a fallacious argument in various sources, as some hold that it is a strong or at least valid defeasible argumentSalmon, Merrilee Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking (2012) Cengage Learning and others that it is weak or an outright fallacy. If all parties agree on the reliability of an authority in the given context it forms a valid inductive argument.
Abhasavada (Sanskrit: आभासवाद) is the term derived from the word Abhasa meaning mere or fallacious appearance, reflection, looking like, light, semblance of reason, intention. In Hindu philosophy this term refers to the Theory of Appearance, both of the Shaivite school and the Advaita Vedanta, though with differing connotations. The Shaivites rely on Maheshvaraya (Sovereignty of Will) of Shiva, the creator-sustainer-destroyer to explain Creation. Jnanadikara deals with two theories a) Svatantryavada and b) Abhasavada to explain Shiva's volitional power.
" Malcolm Walter, the Director of the Australian Centre for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, commented on Plimer's "fallacious reasoning," noting the "blatant and fundamental contradictions" and inconsistencies in the book. Walter told ABC Radio National that Plimer's interpretation of the literature is confused and that Plimer "bit off more than he can chew." According to Walter, "reviewing this book has been an unpleasant experience for me. I have been a friendly colleague of Plimer's for 25 years or more.
Similarly, justifications that the discovery is valid because it works well outside the laboratory are fallacious. Any claims as to whether a new substance like TRF works are only valid in a laboratory context (or its extension) -- the only way one can know that the substance is actually TRF (and thus that TRF is working) is through laboratory analysis. However, the authors stress that they are not relativists—they simply believe that the social causes of statements should be investigated.
For the female patients hospitalized during these first three years of the asylum's operation, the three leading causes of insanity are recorded as "puerperal condition" (51 women), "change of life" (32 women), and "menstrual derangements" (29 women). Women with postpartum depression or "hysteria" were labeled insane and sent to recover in the institution. Women were often institutionalized for unnecessary or outright fallacious reasons. The second-most common cause of insanity, as recorded in the first annual report, was "intemperance and dissipation".
Its branch banks should be operated under a strong unified policy and by experienced central bankers. A banking system for Germany patterned after the Federal Reserve System of America would be fallacious and would not provide a central bank that will accomplish what it must do in Western Germany. European bankers have had several centuries’ experience in running central banks and are thoroughly skilled in the central banking theory on the European pattern.Lewis H. Brown, A Report on Germany (New York, 1947), p. 125–6.
The theist might say "No one can prove that God does not exist, therefore an atheist is exercising faith by asserting that there is no God." Dawkins argues that by replacing the word "God" with "Thor" one should see that the assertion is fallacious. The burden of proof, he claims, rests upon the believer in the supernatural, not upon the non-believer who considers such things unlikely. Athorism is an attempt to illustrate through absurdity that there is no logical difference between disbelieving particular religions.
The rhetorical devices of metaphor and personification express a form of reification, but short of a fallacy. These devices, by definition, do not apply literally and thus exclude any fallacious conclusion that the formal reification is real. For example, the metaphor known as the pathetic fallacy, "the sea was angry" reifies anger, but does not imply that anger is a concrete substance, or that water is sentient. The distinction is that a fallacy inhabits faulty reasoning, and not the mere illustration or poetry of rhetoric.
This results from the axiom of foundation – or the axiom of regularity – which enacts such a prohibition (cf. p. 190 in Being and Event). (This axiom states that every non-empty set A contains an element y that is disjoint from A.) Badiou's philosophy draws two major implications from this prohibition. Firstly, it secures the inexistence of the 'one': there cannot be a grand overarching set, and thus it is fallacious to conceive of a grand cosmos, a whole Nature, or a Being of God.
If Joe answers Jim, saying "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me," he has given an answer that is fallacious as well as somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim's original statement. Conversely, take the new statement by Jim, who is tall, " is grossly overweight." Joe, who is , and weighs an exact, well-conditioned , replies, "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me." In this context, Joe's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate.
Nevertheless, her son King Henry IV again seized the duchy on fallacious grounds, which ultimately led to the Saxon Rebellion of 1073. Henry entrusted Bavaria to Welf, a scion of the Veronese margravial House of Este and progenitor of the Welf dynasty, which intermittently ruled the duchy for the next 110 years. Only with the establishment of Guelph rule as dukes from 1070 by Henry IV was there a re-emergence of the Bavarian dukes. This period is characterized by the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Pope.
Machiavellianism is a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, and therefore able to detach him or herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and manipulate others. (See also Machiavellianism in the workplace.) Sophism In modern usage sophist and sophistry are redefined and used disparagingly. A sophism is a specious argument for displaying ingenuity in reasoning or for deceiving someone. A sophist is a person who reasons with clever but fallacious, willful and deceptive arguments.
For example, a Euclidean straight line has no width, but any real drawn line will. Though nearly all modern mathematicians consider nonconstructive methods just as sound as constructive ones, Euclid's constructive proofs often supplanted fallacious nonconstructive ones—e.g., some of the Pythagoreans' proofs that involved irrational numbers, which usually required a statement such as "Find the greatest common measure of ..." Euclid often used proof by contradiction. Euclidean geometry also allows the method of superposition, in which a figure is transferred to another point in space.
Amplification and deprecation, although not elements of an enthymeme, can contribute to refuting an opponent's enthymeme or revealing a falsehood by exposing it as just or unjust, good or evil, etc. Aristotle also mentions the koina, fallacious enthymemes, and lysis (the refutation of an opponent's enthymeme). In all of these techniques, Aristotle considers popular wisdom and audiences as a central guide. Thus, the speaker's effect on the audience serves as a key theme throughout Book II. Book II ends with a transition to Book III.
Argumentum ad lapidem (English: "appeal to the stone") is a logical fallacy that consists of dismissing a statement as absurd, invalid, or incorrect, without giving proof of its absurdity."Definitions of Fallacies", Dianah Mertz Hsieh, 20 August 1995 Ad lapidem statements are fallacious because they fail to address the merits of the claim in dispute. The same applies to proof by assertion, where an unproved or disproved claim is asserted as true on no ground other than that of its truth having been asserted.
Notability may be falsely conferred with fallacious reasoning. Name dropping and argument by authority are examples of attempts to confer notability by associating the name of something notable with something else in an attempt to establish notability of that thing. Conferring notability is related to transitivity and the syllogism. If all A's are notable, and x is an A, then x is notable is true by syllogism, but if A is notable, and x is an element of A, then x is not necessarily notable.
Sometimes a speaker or writer uses a fallacy intentionally. In any context, including academic debate, a conversation among friends, political discourse, advertising, or for comedic purposes, the arguer may use fallacious reasoning to try to persuade the listener or reader, by means other than offering relevant evidence, that the conclusion is true. Examples of this include the speaker or writer: # Diverting the argument to unrelated issues with a red herring (Ignoratio elenchi) # Insulting someone's character (argumentum ad hominem) # Assume the conclusion of an argument, a kind of circular reasoning, also called "begging the question" (petitio principii) # Making jumps in logic (non sequitur) # Identifying a false cause and effect (post hoc ergo propter hoc) # Asserting that everyone agrees (argumentum ad populum, bandwagoning) # Creating a "false dilemma" ("either-or fallacy") in which the situation is oversimplified # Selectively using facts (card stacking) # Making false or misleading comparisons (false equivalence and false analogy) # Generalizing quickly and sloppily (hasty generalization) In humor, errors of reasoning are used for comical purposes. Groucho Marx used fallacies of amphiboly, for instance, to make ironic statements; Gary Larson and Scott Adams employed fallacious reasoning in many of their cartoons.
One hundred years earlier one of his predecessors, Patrocles, based various claims of his Church on the fact that St. Trophimus, founder of the Church of Arles, was a disciple of the Apostles. Such claims were flattering to local vanity; during the Middle Ages and over the centuries many legends grew up in support of them. The evangelization of Gaul has often been attributed to missionaries sent from Rome by St. Clement. This theory inspired a whole series of fallacious narratives and forgeries that complicate and obscure the historical record.
The informal fallacy of accident (also called destroying the exception or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid) is a deductively valid but unsound argument occurring in a statistical syllogism (an argument based on a generalization) when an exception to a rule of thumb is ignored. It is one of the thirteen fallacies originally identified by Aristotle in Sophistical Refutations. The fallacy occurs when one attempts to apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation. For example: It is easy to construct fallacious arguments by applying general statements to specific incidents that are obviously exceptions.
He argued that tariff reform would revive a flagging British economy, strengthen imperial ties with the dominions and the colonies, and produce a positive programme that would facilitate reelection. He was vehemently opposed by Conservative free traders who denounced the proposal as economically fallacious, and open to the charge of raising food prices in Britain. Balfour tried to forestall disruption by removing key ministers on each side, and offering a much narrower tariff programme. It was ingenious, but both sides rejected any compromise, and his party's chances for reelection were ruined.
He attended events sponsored by the French Communist Party and helped develop black-based trade unions. Many came to consider Matsoua as a divine prophet, sent by God to liberate the Congolese from the French. According to author Victor T. Le Vine, Matsoua was comparable to Kimbangu, becoming a "martyr in the eyes of his followers" and developing a "quasi-religious aura". In December 1929, he was arrested in Paris and set to be tried in Brazzaville, under the fallacious motive of swindling money of the African Indigenous people in French Congo.
The fallacy of composition arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole. A trivial example might be: "This tire is made of rubber, therefore the vehicle of which it is a part is also made of rubber." This is fallacious, because vehicles are made with a variety of parts, most of which are not made of rubber. The fallacy of composition can apply even when a fact is true of every proper part of a greater entity, though.
He refused to discuss his experiences or his dispute with Amundsen, and retreated into a life of depression and poverty. On 4 January 1913 he shot himself in his Oslo lodgings. The Scott myth lasted until the final quarter of the 20th century, when it was replaced by one that characterised him as a "heroic bungler" whose failure was largely the result of his own mistakes. This portrayal, the cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski asserts, is as fallacious as the earlier one in which he was considered beyond criticism.
Many of the names of argumentation schemes may be familiar because of their history as names of fallacies and because of the history of the teaching of fallacies in critical thinking and informal logic courses. In his groundbreaking work, Fallacies, C. L. Hamblin challenged the idea that the traditional fallacies are always fallacious.See chapter 1 in: Subsequently, Walton described the fallacies as kinds of arguments; they can be used properly and provide support for conclusions, support which is, however, provisional and the arguments defeasible. When used improperly they can be fallacious.
It does not solve the Jewish problem. Even now, the population of Israel is less than 15 percent of the world's Jewry. Consequently, Israeli leaders are not in a position to assert Zionist claims of leadership over world Jewry, and their policies of Hebraization of Jewish life and of downgrading all Jewish communities outside of Israel (including those in democratic countries, such as the U.S.A) as places of exile are harmful and fallacious. 3\. The key to the safety and the future of the Jews in Israel is peace with the Arabs.
On Putnam's account, the idea that we refer with our sentences and statements to a mind-independent, nonlinguistic world is an illusion. Further he claims that the problem to deal with is a language philosophical one and uses Quine's inscrutability of reference theory to clarify his point of view. He suggests, that, because the referential objects of a language are always inscrutable, the Realist's idea of a mind-independent world is fallacious, because it presupposes distinct referential relations from language to objects in the mind-independent world.Loux (2006), p. 272ff.
Different parts of the Eye of Horus were thought to be used by the ancient Egyptians to represent one divided by the first six powers of two: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus contains tables of "Horus Eye Fractions". p. 165 Studies from the 1970s to this day in Egyptian mathematics have clearly shown this theory was fallacious and Jim Ritter definitely showed it to be false in 2003. See also and The evolution of the symbols used in mathematics, although similar to the different parts of the Eye of Horus, is now known to be distinct.
During his imprisonment, Medrano's defense prevented his extradition to the U.S. Between 2012 and 2014, Medrano and nine other high-profile criminals were unexpectedly released from prison before serving their sentences; only one was re-arrested and re-imprisoned. In some of the cases, judges ordered releases because of violations of due process, fallacious protected-witness testimony, and arrests made without warrants. The reviews were conducted as a result of Mexico's New Criminal Justice System (Nuevo Sistema de Justicia Penal, or NSJP). The reason for Medrano's release was not specified.
In 2015 they publicly release their new album called "el atraco", they also promote "previews" of its possible content. However said album so far has never really been published; On multiple occasions the Akwid group has committed to their fans to release it for sale, but this has only been fallacious. Due to the above, it is rumored that the Akwid group presents economic, administrative and even legal obstacles (Copyright) to start its projects. On May 3, 2019, the official video of the "single" called "akwid suena" is publicly released on the YouTube platform.
Henceforth, Secretary of the Navy James C. Dobbin in late 1853 ordered Lieutenant Strain to form and lead the United States Navy Darien Exploring Expedition in 1854. Setting forth from the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Darién, his expedition into the Isthmus of Darién began January 20, 1854. It was in the densely jungled Darién that France and England had sent explorers of their own. The Englishman Gisborne had put pen to perhaps fallacious or inaccurate, but certainly misleading, journals that would lend ambiguity and deaths to Strain's route for traversing the Gap.
Rational irrationality is not doublethink and does not state that the individual deliberately chooses to believe something he or she knows to be false. Rather, the theory is that when the costs of having erroneous beliefs are low, people relax their intellectual standards and allow themselves to be more easily influenced by fallacious reasoning, cognitive biases, and emotional appeals. In other words, people do not deliberately seek to believe false things but stop putting in the intellectual effort to be open to evidence that may contradict their beliefs.
In medical sciences this can lead to a reified view of identities –– for example assuming that differences in hypertension in Afro-American populations are due to racial difference rather than social causes –– leading to fallacious conclusions and potentially unequal treatment. In general believing that social identities, such as ethnicity, nationality or gender, are the necessary characteristics of people which define who they are, can lead to dangerous consequences. Essentialist and reductive thinking lies at the core of many hateful and xenophobic ideologies. Especially older social theories were guilty of essentialism.
" "Don't let you be fooled by the childish cover, it's passably fallacious" says Anneli Wikström in Metro, she also writes that the album is "far from bubblegum and children's party" and says that it's unexpectedly mature and an eye wink with the 80's. Lisa Appelqvist from Kristianstadsbladet compares Agnes to Madonna and Whitney Houston. She says "With her reincarnated voice from the divas of the 70's she burst out "Release Me". Hansson's craft work almost breaths Madonna's "Like a prayer" with gospel/cello and Agnes haplessly frustrated pray.
Protagoras argued that "man is the measure of all things," meaning man decides for himself what he is going to believe. The works of Plato and Aristotle have had much influence on the modern view of the "sophist" as a greedy instructor who uses rhetorical sleight-of-hand and ambiguities of language in order to deceive, or to support fallacious reasoning. In this view, the sophist is not concerned with truth and justice, but instead seeks power. Some scholars, such as Ugo Zilioli argue that the sophists held a relativistic view on cognition and knowledge.
This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong (intuitively, a cat cannot be a dog), and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious. Example 3 Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: :If Brian had been thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower, then he would be dead. :Brian is dead. :Therefore, Brian was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower.
In 1936, Ian Hogbin criticised the universality of Marett's pre-animism: "Mana is by no means universal and, consequently, to adopt it as a basis on which to build up a general theory of primitive religion is not only erroneous but indeed fallacious". However, Marett intended the concept as an abstraction. Spells, for example, may be found "from Central Australia to Scotland." Early 20th- century scholars also saw mana as a universal concept, found in all human cultures and expressing fundamental human awareness of a sacred life energy.
These programs are written in the Scheme programming language, as were the programs in Sussman's earlier computer science textbook, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs. Sussman wrote: > Classical mechanics is deceptively simple. It is surprisingly easy to get > the right answer with fallacious reasoning or without the real > understanding. To address this problem Jack Wisdom and I, with help from > Hardy Mayer, have written [Structure and Interpretation of Classical > Mechanics] and are teaching a class at MIT that uses computational > techniques to communicate a deeper understanding of Classical mechanics.
In international business (IB) and marketing settings, psychic distance is based on perceived differences between a home country and a "foreign" country regardless of physical time and space factors which differ across diverse cultures.Usunier and Lee Marketing across Cultures, Essex, UK: Pearson Education, 2005 It is a subjective type of distance ("perceived differences") unlike the distances forming the CAGE framework, for instance.Ghemawat (2001) This makes psychic distance very difficult to measure, and oftentimes fallacious proxies are used to estimate it (e.g., Kogut & Singh (1988) index using Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions).
Obi Ijere, a high-ranking leader of the Supreme Vikings Confraternity, a leading group in the 1990s conflict in the Niger Delta, stated in an interview that the confraternity and De Norsemen Kclub of Nigeria were in fact not the same group. This is very correct because all Vikings are norsemen but not all norsemen are vikings However, in an official statement in August 2009 the National President of the organisation, Bond Ohuche, dismissed as "fallacious... criminal and mischievous" any association of the organisation with the conflict in the Niger Delta.
However he carried on this scheme for several months and many of the learned and wise were his followers, till at length his fallacious art was discovered by a Brother of probity and wisdom, who had some small space before attained that excellent part of Masonry in London and plainly proved that his doctrine was false. Separate notes in this work indicate that the rite was practised in Dublin, London and York, and described it as an "organis'd body of men who have passed the chair" (i.e. served as the Master of a Craft lodge).
In a detailed work, he suggested that the inclusion of a statement against a person in an argument does not necessarily make it a fallacious argument since that particular phrase is not a premise that leads to a conclusion. While Hablin's criticism was not widely accepted, Canadian philosopher Douglas N. Walton examined the fallaciousness of the ad hominem argument even further. Nowadays, except within specialized philosophical usages, the usage of the term ad hominem signifies a straight attack at the character and ethos of a person, in an attempt to refute their argument.
Ad hominem fallacies are considered to be uncivil and do not help creating a constructive atmosphere for dialogue to flourish. An ad hominem attack is an attack on the character of the target who tends to feel the necessity to defend himself or herself from the accusation of being hypocritical. Walton has noted that it is so powerful of an argument that it is employed in many political debates. Since it is associated with negativity and dirty tricks, it has gained a bad fame, of being always fallacious.
They define Magical Ideation as magical and superstitious beliefs about reality reliant on false causal relations between events.Eckblad, M., & Chapman, L. J. (1983). Magical ideation as an indicator of schizotypy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(2), 215-225. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.51.2.215 By this definition, cognitive slippage can manifest as fallacious, causal connections between correlated or unrelated events. Gooding, Tallent, And Hegyi (2001), found that in addition to greater cognitive slippage, schizotypic individuals performed worse on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, which was designed to assess overall high-level cognitive functioning.
1\. Every person has a woman that is their mother. Therefore, there is a woman that is the mother of every person. :∀x∃y(Px → (Wy & M(yx))) therefore ∃y∀x(Px → (Wy & M(yx))) It is fallacious to conclude that there is one woman who is the mother of all people. However, if the major premise ("every person has a woman that is their mother") is assumed to be true, then it is valid to conclude that there is some woman who is any given person's mother. 2\.
In argumentation theory, an argumentum ad populum (Latin for "appeal to the people") is a fallacious argument that concludes that a proposition must be true because many or most people believe it, often concisely encapsulated as: "If many believe so, it is so". Other names for the fallacy include common belief fallacy or appeal to (common) belief, appeal to the majority, appeal to the masses, appeal to popularity, argument from consensus, authority of the many, bandwagon fallacy, consensus gentium (Latin for "agreement of the people"), democratic fallacy, and mob appeal.
But the roots of the pragmatic theory go back even further in history to the Sophists. The pragmatic theory finds its roots in the Aristotelian conception of a fallacy as a sophistical refutation, but also supports the view that many of the types of arguments traditionally labeled as fallacies are in fact reasonable techniques of argumentation that can be used, in many cases, to support legitimate goals of dialogue. Hence on the pragmatic approach, each case needs to analyzed individually, to determine by the textual evidence whether the argument is fallacious or reasonable.
Moral philosophers since David Hume have debated whether values are objective, and thus factual. In A Treatise of Human Nature Hume pointed out there is no obvious way for a series of statements about what ought to be the case to be derived from a series of statements of what is the case. Those who insist there is a logical gulf between facts and values, such that it is fallacious to attempt to derive values from facts, include G. E. Moore, who called attempting to do so the naturalistic fallacy.
He gave more emphasis on the fact whether burning of paraffin outside the lamp was a reasonable foreseeable event. The lower courts had already concluded these events as a reasonable foreseeable event, but they were of the view the explosion was an unforeseeable event. Lord Guest argued this as a "fallacious" claim. Lord Guest concluded that the accident and the injuries sustained by the boys should have been reasonably foreseen by the Post Office employees, who were in breach of duty to take adequate protection against the accident.
The economistic fallacy is a concept originated by Karl Polanyi in the 1950s, that refers to fallacious conflation of human economy in general, with its market form. Whereas the former is a necessary component of any society, being the organization through which that society meets its physical wants, i.e. reproduces itself, the latter is a modern institution that is neither autonomous nor stable. The fallacy can occur either by narrowing the genus "economic" to merely market phenomena, or overextending "the market" to encompass all aspects of human economic activity.
Schulz, however, notes the reluctance of classical Roman jurists to formulate principles."'All abstract formulations in private law are dangerous; they generally prove fallacious': this saying of Iavolenus [teacher of Julianus in Digest 50.17.202] is more than a casual remark; it voices the intimate conviction of the second century jurist." In a later age, Justinian's compilers "cherished" and searched for reductions of "case law" to "abstract principles", precisely what "the classical jurists purposely refrained from doing". Fritz Schulz, History of Roman Legal Science (Oxford University 1946, 1967) at 130.
Acts of conceiving are set in many of them (Nichols and Yaffe). Examples of conception include judging there is a door in front of me, imagining there is a door in front of me, or reasoning that all doors have handles (Nichols and Yaffe). “Faculties are all fallible,” as there is evidence of our faculties and senses but not of objects we conceive (Leher 785). But, “we trust them whether we choose to or not,” since they always prevail in daily life (Leher 786). All Reid’s philosophy depends on not fallacious faculties.
Dr. Carezani was born in the city of Córdoba, to an Italian activist and quiet mother. At the age of 10, he moved to Tucumán, where he completed his primary, secondary and university studies. He studied electro-mechanical engineering at the National University of Tucumán and formulated the first draft of his theory Autodynamics at age 24. He graduated in 1947 with a Ph. D. Much of his further life has been devoted to his improvements on his theory, though some have proven to be controversial or even proven fallacious.
A fallacious logical argument based on argumentum ad baculum generally proceeds as follows: :If x accepts P as true, then Q. :x acts to prevent Q and succeeds, so Q is not true. :Therefore, P is not true. This form of argument is an informal fallacy, because the attack on Q may not necessarily reveal anything about the truth value of the premise P. This fallacy has been identified since the Middle Ages by many philosophers. This is a special case of argumentum ad consequentiam, or "appeal to consequences".
Stenger took part in the 2008 "Origins Conference" hosted by the Skeptics Society at the California Institute of Technology and debated several Christian apologists and scientists on such topics as the existence of God and the relationship between science and religion. In 1992, Uri Geller sued Stenger and Prometheus Books for four million dollars, claiming defamation for questioning his "psychic powers." The suit was dismissed and Geller was ordered to pay court costs. Astronomer Luke Barnes argued in a 2012 paper that many of Stenger's claims about fine-tuning were problematic and that his arguments were fallacious.
The wisdom of repugnance has been criticized, both as an example of a fallacious appeal to emotion and for an underlying premise which seems to reject rationalism. Although mainstream science concedes that a sense of disgust most likely evolved as a useful defense mechanism (e.g. in that it tends to prevent or prohibit potentially harmful behaviour such as inbreeding, cannibalism, and coprophagia), social psychologists question whether the instinct can serve any moral or logical value when removed from the context in which it was originally acquired. Martha Nussbaum explicitly opposes the concept of a disgust-based morality.
Dubuffet characterized art brut as: :"Those works created from solitude and from pure and authentic creative impulses – where the worries of competition, acclaim and social promotion do not interfere – are, because of these very facts, more precious than the productions of professionals. After a certain familiarity with these flourishings of an exalted feverishness, lived so fully and so intensely by their authors, we cannot avoid the feeling that in relation to these works, cultural art in its entirety appears to be the game of a futile society, a fallacious parade." — Jean Dubuffet. Place à l'incivisme (Make way for Incivism).
David Hume and later Paul Edwards have invoked a similar principle in their criticisms of the cosmological argument.Alexander R. Pruss, The Hume-Edwards Principle and the Cosmological Argument, International Journal for Philosophy of Religion William Rowe has called this the Hume-Edwards principle: Nevertheless, David White argues that the notion of an infinite causal regress providing a proper explanation is fallacious. Furthermore, in Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, the character Demea states that even if the succession of causes is infinite, the whole chain still requires a cause. To explain this, suppose there exists a causal chain of infinite contingent beings.
Bulekov commented that in most cases the same people made critical remarks and "if not for this meeting, there would be other reasons for such statements." Metropolitan Hilarion Alfeyev told Russian News Agency TASS that critics of dialogue who consider Christian disunity to be normal hold a fallacious position against Jesus' command, in , that they all may be one. Alfeyev pointed out that this command had been broken and this condition is wrong and sinful. The purpose of the dialogue is reflected in the joint statement and is not intended to overcome division and differences, according to Alfayev.
Arguments from self-knowing take the form: # If P were true then I would know it; in fact I do not know it; therefore P cannot be true. # If Q were false then I would know it; in fact I do not know it; therefore Q cannot be false. In practice these arguments are often unsound and rely on the truth of the supporting premise. For example, the claim that If I had just sat on a wild porcupine then I would know it is probably not fallacious and depends entirely on the truth of the first premise (the ability to know it).
The occurrence of favorable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snowfields and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow, while the opposite may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious. At best, local accuracy might be established for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit is about 2400 m (7900 ft) elevation, while in others it cannot be placed much below 2900 m (9500 ft).
On 8 August 1983, Bouteflika was convicted by the Court of Financial Auditors and found guilty of having fraudulently taken 60 million dinars during his diplomatic career. In his defence Bouteflika said that he "reserved" that money to build a new building for the foreign affairs ministry, but the court judged his argument as "fallacious". In 1979, just after the death of Boumédiène, Bouteflika reimbursed 12,212,875.81 dinars out of the 70 million dinars that was deposited in a Swiss bank. Although Bouteflika was granted amnesty by President Chadli Bendjedid, his colleagues Senouci and Boudjakdji were jailed.
Over the last 25 years he has worked at the U.S. Forest Service's anadromous fish unit in Corvallis, Oregon; for the Pacific Rivers Council; and for Ecotrust. He was one of the original divers in the development of the Hankin-Reeves whole-basin survey technique, a standard method for conducting juvenile salmon surveys. He managed the Pacific River Council's national river restoration project, which published Entering the Watershed (Island Press). He has published two books, Saving Science: A Critique of Science and Its Role in Salmon Recovery and Intelligent Discourse: Exposing the fallacious standoff between Evolution and Intelligent Design.
His Church Papers: Sundry Essays on Subjects Relating to the Church and Christian Society (1877), written while Bacon was in Geneva, was praised in the New Englander and Yale Review as a "juicy little volume"; the reviewer hailed the merit and attractiveness of the essays, which are "the product of sound reflection, and of a familiarity not only with books, but with men and things." He discusses such matters as the drawbacks of Congregationalism, which may allow for fallacious decisions by a random majority, and the Temperance movement, and the principles and methods of its zealous advocates.
Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay arguing against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson claims that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.
For example, many dangerous poisons are compounds that are found in nature. It is also common practice for medicine to be brought up as an appeal to nature, stating that medicine is "unnatural" and therefore should not be used. This is particularly notable as an argument employed against the practice of vaccination. On the topic of meat consumption, Peter Singer argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the "natural way", as the way that humans and other animals do behave naturally has no bearing on how we should behave.
"A more critical analysis of the source documentation shows that not one single radio direction finder bearing, much less any locating "fix," was obtained on any Kido Butai unit or command during its transit from Saeki Bay, Kyushu to Hitokappu Bay and thence on to Hawaii. By removing this fallacious lynchpin propping up such claims of Kido Butai radio transmissions, the attendant suspected conspiracy tumbles down like a house of cards."Jacobsen, 2005, p. 142. One suggested example of a Kido Butai transmission is the November 30, 1941, COMSUM14 report in which Rochefort mentioned a "tactical" circuit heard calling "marus".
He said, 'We're taught using improvisation. We are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we want to.' I said 'That's not acting. That's writing.' “ Recalling their experiences on Lifeboat for Charles Chandler, author of It's Only a Movie: Alfred Hitchcock A Personal Biography, Walter Slezak said that Hitchcock “knew more about how to help an actor than any director I ever worked with”, and Hume Cronyn dismissed the idea that Hitchcock was not concerned with his actors as “utterly fallacious”, describing at length the process of rehearsing and filming Lifeboat.
The Analyst was a direct attack on the foundations of calculus, specifically on Newton's notion of fluxions and on Leibniz's notion of infinitesimal change. In section 16, Berkeley criticizes > ...the fallacious way of proceeding to a certain Point on the Supposition of > an Increment, and then at once shifting your Supposition to that of no > Increment . . . Since if this second Supposition had been made before the > common Division by o, all had vanished at once, and you must have got > nothing by your Supposition. Whereas by this Artifice of first dividing, and > then changing your Supposition, you retain 1 and nxn-1.
The mineral beryl, which contains beryllium, has been used at least since the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. In the first century CE, Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder mentioned in his encyclopedia Natural History that beryl and emerald ("smaragdus") were similar. The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, written in the third or fourth century CE, contains notes on how to prepare artificial emerald and beryl. Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin discovered beryllium Early analyses of emeralds and beryls by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Torbern Olof Bergman, Franz Karl Achard, and Johann Jakob Bindheim always yielded similar elements, leading to the fallacious conclusion that both substances are aluminium silicates.
Fallacious ad hominem reasoning is categorized among informal fallacies, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance. Ad hominem fallacies can be separated in various different types, among others are tu quoque, circumstantial, guilt by association, and abusive ad hominem. All of them are similar to the general scheme of ad hominem argument, that is instead of dealing with the essence of someone's argument or trying to refute it, the interlocutor is attacking the character of the proponent of the argument and concluding that it is a sufficient reason to drop the initial argument.
In philosophical ethics, the term naturalistic fallacy was introduced by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica.Moore, G.E. Principia Ethica § 10 ¶ 3 Moore argues it would be fallacious to explain that which is good reductively, in terms of natural properties such as pleasant or desirable. Moore's naturalistic fallacy is closely related to the is–ought problem, which comes from David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (1738–40). However, unlike Hume's view of the is–ought problem, Moore (and other proponents of ethical non-naturalism) did not consider the naturalistic fallacy to be at odds with moral realism.
"massacre of the Latins" of the killing of Roman Catholics in Constantinople in 1182. An early use in the propagandistic portrayal of current events was the "Boston Massacre" of 1770, which was employed to build support for the American Revolution. A pamphlet with the title A short narrative of the horrid massacre in Boston, perpetrated in the evening of the fifth day of March, 1770, by soldiers of the 29th regiment was printed in Boston still in 1770.The shortened name "Boston massacre" was in use by the early 1800s (Benjamin Austin, Constitutional Republicanism, in Opposition to Fallacious Federalism, 1803, p. 314).
In accordance with the beliefs of the later Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), some Song gentry—such as Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129)—valued archaeological evidence over historical works written after the fact, finding written records unreliable when they failed to match with the archaeological discoveries.Rudolph, R.C. "Preliminary Notes on Sung Archaeology", The Journal of Asian Studies (Volume 22, Number 2, 1963): 169–177. Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in the Bogutu archaeological catalogue compiled during the latter half of Huizong's reign (1100–1125).
7 a piece of art. Sontag asserts that the modern style is quite harmful; to art and to audiences alike, enforcing hermeneutics -- fallacious, complicated “readings” that seem to engulf an artwork, to the extent that analysis of content begins to degrade, to destroy. Reverting to a more primitive and sensual, almost magical experience of art is what Sontag desires; even though that is quite impossible due to the thickened layers of hermeneutics that surround interpretation of art and that have grown to be recognised and respected. Sontag daringly challenges Marxian and Freudian theories, claiming they are “aggressive and impious”.
In his Economic Theory of the Leisure Class (1927),Economic Theory of the Leisure Class by Nikolai Bukharin 1927 at www.marxists.org Bukharin argued that Böhm von Bawerk's axiomatic assumptions of individual freedom in his subjectivist theories are fallacious in that economic phenomena can only be understood under the prism of a coherent, contextualised, and historical analysis of society, such as Marx's. By contrast, Austrian economists have regarded his critique of Marx as definitive. For example, Gottfried Haberler argued that Böhm von Bawerk's thorough critique of Marx's economics was so devastating that as of the 1960s, no Marxian scholar had conclusively refuted it.
If this principle, or any other from which it can be deduced, is true, then the casual inferences which Hume rejects are valid, not indeed as giving certainty, but as giving a sufficient probability for practical purposes. If this principle is not true, every attempt to arrive at general scientific laws from particular observations is fallacious, and Hume's skepticism is inescapable for an empiricist. The principle itself cannot, of course, without circularity, be inferred from observed uniformities, since it is required to justify any such inference. It must therefore be, or be deduced from, an independent principle not based on experience.
However, Prescott faced difficulties in writing the work which he had not encountered previously. There was relatively little scholarship on Aztec civilization, and Prescott dismissed much of it as "speculation", and he therefore had to rely almost exclusively on primary sources (with the exception of Humboldt). In particular, he considered Edward King's theory that the pre-Columbian civilizations were non- indigenous to be fallacious, although he was greatly indebted to him for his anthology of Aztec codices in the Antiquities of Mexico.Ticknor, 1864, p. 195 Prescott also studied Spanish writers contemporary to the conquest, most significantly Torquemada and Toribio de Benavente.
The hook length formula can be understood intuitively using the following heuristic, but incorrect, argument suggested by D. E. Knuth.. Given that each element of a tableau is the smallest in its hook and filling the tableau shape at random, the probability that cell (i,j) will contain the minimum element of the corresponding hook is the reciprocal of the hook length. Multiplying these probabilities over all i and j gives the formula. This argument is fallacious since the events are not independent. Knuth's argument is however correct for the enumeration of labellings on trees satisfying monotonicity properties analogous to those of a Young tableau.
Villani wrote: > ... it seems that it happens in the lordships and states of earthly > dignitaries, that as they are at their highest peak, so presently does their > decline and ruin follow, and not without the providence of divine justice, > in order to punish sins and so that no one should place his trust in > fallacious good fortune. Pope Boniface VIII, by Giotto For Villani, this theory of sin and morality being tied directly with fate and fortune fit well with the ultimate fate of the Capetian dynasty of France. The House of Capet was once the champion of the Church and ally of the papacy.
The NACA cowling enhanced speed through drag reduction while delivering improved engine cooling. The idea that the NACA cowling produced thrust through the Meredith effectMeredith, F. W: "Cooling of Aircraft Engines. With Special Reference To Ethylene Glycol Radiators Enclosed In Ducts", Aeronautical Research Council R&M; 1683, 1936. is fallacious—although in theory the expansion of the air as it was heated by the engine could create some thrust by exiting at high speed, in practice this required a cowling designed and shaped to achieve the high speed exit of air required (which the NACA cowling was not), and in any case, at 1930s airspeeds, the effect was negligible.
Rivers' student A. R. Radcliffe-Brown was also highly critical of Morgan, but had an extensive knowledge of Systems of Consanguinity which he used as a basis for his own seminal studies of Native American kinship patterns. Neo-evolutionist anthropologists such as Leslie White also worked to rehabilitate Morgan's interest in cultural evolution. Anthropologists have generally agreed that Morgan's main discovery was the fact that kinship terminology has relevance to the study of human social life. In this way, although Morgan's conclusions about social evolution are now generally considered speculative and fallacious, the methods he developed and the way he reasoned from his data were groundbreaking.
The allegations attracted exclusive coverage by NY1 News and the New York Times. In collaboration with parents and supporters, Chow led a media campaign demanding an apology from NY1 News citing Education Reporter Lindsey Christ's use of, "False facts, outdated materials, misrepresentative parent views and misquoted letters." SWAN's news release on October 14, 2010, described Christ's reporting: "The injuries by Ms. Christ's fallacious report have unjustly damaged the reputation and funding prospects for both 184 and SWAN." In July 2011, outraged parents sued the Department of Education for the investigations citing harassment and racist intent due to the Chinese- orientation of the school's culture and population.
Thea Hillman, an intersex activist and board member for the (now defunct) Intersex Society of North America (ISNA), wrote in the Lambda Book Report, 2002, that the combination of incest and intersex is "inaccurate and misleading". Noting that incest is a loathed social taboo that has "shameful, pathological and criminal repercussions", she criticized Eugenides for underscoring that Cal's intersex condition is due to incest. Hillman stated that this adds to the fallacious belief that intersex people are "shameful and sick" and a danger to society's wellbeing. Seven Graham agrees with Hillman and Holmes, writing that Cal is paralleled with the tragic Greek mythological characters Hermaphroditus, Tiresias, and the Minotaur.
The invincible ignorance fallacy"Invincible Ignorance" by Bruce Thompson, Department of Humanities (Philosophy), Cuyamaca College is a deductive fallacy of circularity where the person in question simply refuses to believe the argument, ignoring any evidence given. It is not so much a fallacious tactic in argument as it is a refusal to argue in the proper sense of the word, the method instead being to either make assertions with no consideration of objections or to simply dismiss objections by calling them excuses, conjecture, etc. or saying that they are proof of nothing; all without actually demonstrating how the objection fit these terms (see ad lapidem fallacy).
Armand Essogo, "Contentieux post- électoral des législatives partielles : sans surprise" , Cameroon Tribune, October 11, 2007 . Kodock criticized the National Elections Observatory's generally positive report on the 2007 election, which was published on July 31, 2008; according to Kodock, the election in Nyong-et-Kelle had been blatantly rigged through vote-buying, intimidation, and violence.Kini Nsom, "Opposition Says NEO Report is Fallacious", The Post, 4 August 2008. Although summoned to appear before State Counsel at the Mfoudi High Court on June 17, 2008, as part of an investigation regarding embezzlement of public funds, Kodock refused to appear, denouncing the investigation as a smear campaign against him.
Allegations published in the paper's January 9, 2008 issue, written by contributing editor Daniel Johnson about then-candidate Barack Obama and Kenya's candidate (and subsequent Prime Minister) Raila Odinga, based on what was later described as "a patently fallacious story ... or at the very least to shirk their responsibility to the truth." The Sun was listed as a three-time victim of plagiarism when the Indiana-based News-Sentinel announced March 1, 2008 that "20 of 38 guest columns .. contributed .. since 2000" by Bush White House staffer Timothy Goeglein were subsequently discovered to have been plagiarized; three were attributed to original articles in The Sun. Goeglein resigned.
Cooper; Benezet, 1772, pp. 6–10 In the introduction Cooper definitively summarized his position regarding prejudice and slavery: > "The power of prejudice over the minds of mankind is very extraordinary; > hardly any extremes too distant, or absurdities too glaring for it to unite > or reconcile, if it tends to promote or justify a favorite pursuit. It is > thus we are to account for the fallacious reasonings and absurd sentiments > used and entertained concerning negroes, and the lawfulness of keeping them > slaves"Cooper, 1772, Introduction, p.1 In 1785 Cooper, along with other Quakers, like Samuel Allinson, submitted petitions to the Legislature for purposes of enacting emancipation legislation.
Example 2 Here is another useful, obviously-fallacious example, but one that does not require familiarity with who Bill Gates is and what Fort Knox is: :If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs. :My cat has four legs. :Therefore, my cat is a dog. Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", etc.) can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs must imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else.
797 However, in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of language mixture." Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages.Merritt Ruhlen, A Guide to the World's Languages, (Stanford University Press: 1991), p.109 Leo Reinisch (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic.
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore (1945) gave an argument for social stratification based on the idea of "functional necessity" (also known as the Davis-Moore hypothesis). They argue that the most difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the division of labour. Thus inequality serves social stability. This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles: the argument is both that the individuals who are the most deserving are the highest rewarded, and that a system of unequal rewards is necessary, otherwise no individuals would perform as needed for the society to function.
Academics like John R. Cole, Garrett G. Fagan and Kenneth L. Feder have argued that pseudoarchaeological interpretations of the past were based upon sensationalism, self-contradiction, fallacious logic, manufactured or misinterpreted evidence, quotes taken out of context and incorrect information. Fagan and Feder characterised such interpretations of the past as being "anti-reason and anti-science" with some being "hyper-nationalistic, racist and hateful". In turn, many pseudoarchaeologists have dismissed academics as being closed-minded and not willing to consider theories other than their own. Many academic archaeologists have argued that the spread of alternative archaeological theories is a threat to the general public's understanding of the past.
Ad hominem (), short for argumentum ad hominem, is a term that refers to several types of arguments, most of which are fallacious. Typically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion to some irrelevant but often highly charged issue. The most common form of this fallacy is "A makes a claim x, B asserts that A holds a property that is unwelcome, and hence B concludes that argument x is wrong".
Walton has argued that ad hominem reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words. The philosopher Charles Taylor has argued that ad hominem reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the apodictic reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism.
As historian Ira Rutkow observed, "by the 1920s, orificial surgery had become little more than a vague memory". The Journal of Orificial Surgery had closed down in 1901; the American Association of Orificial Surgeons continued meeting into the 1910s, but faded away soon thereafter, closing down for good in 1925. To the extent that Pratt and his ideas are remembered at all in the present day, it is for their connection to debates on circumcision and female genital mutilation. Pratt's ideas are sometimes cited as evidence of the fallacious historical basis for male circumcision, and particularly its connection with the desire to prevent masturbation.
Colin Palmer says identifying Romaine outright as a vodou priest is anachronistic, as he was active at a time when Vodou was only just beginning to emerge as a religion, and Rey says that while Romaine's religious practices differed from Makandal, Dutty Boukman and others, "it would be fallacious to conclude therefore that he was not practicing Vodou—or, perhaps, that any of these figures were practicing Vodou", since at the time Vodou was not a distinct, uniform religion. Trou Coffy insurgents viewed their leader as a healer (who employed herbal remedies) and a prophetic figure in the mold of generations of Kongolese prophets.
The historian of science Lynn Thorndike explains that St Amand "asserts that experimentum alone is 'timorous and fallacious,' but that 'fortified by reason' it gives 'experimental knowledge.'" In her view, what St Amand meant was that experimentation had to be methodical, and used alongside theory. On simples used in herbal medicine, St Amand stated specific rules for practical testing: he advised that the specimen had to be pure; that the test should be on a simple disease; that the test be repeated; and that the dose should depend on the patient. Thorndike notes that both St Amand and Albertus Magnus preceded Bacon in their use of the phrase "experimental knowledge".
Many have judged this belief to be fallacious, since the dictators' demands were not limited and appeasement gave them time to gain greater strength. In 1961 this view of appeasement as avoidable error and cowardice was set on its head by A.J.P. Taylor in his book The Origins of the Second World War. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a blueprint for war and was behaving much as any other German leader might have done. Appeasement was an active policy, and not a passive one; allowing Hitler to consolidate was a policy implemented by "men confronted with real problems, doing their best in the circumstances of their time".
An appeal to spite (Latin: argumentum ad odium) is a fallacy in which someone attempts to win favor for an argument by exploiting existing feelings of bitterness, spite, or schadenfreude in the opposing party. It is an attempt to sway the audience emotionally by associating a hate-figure with opposition to the speaker's argument. Fallacious ad hominem arguments that attack villains holding the opposing view are often confused with appeals to spite. The ad hominem can be a similar appeal to a negative emotion, but differs from it in directly criticizing the villain—that is unnecessary in an appeal to spite, where hatred for the disfavored party is assumed.
Some people migrated or may be troops who has come for battle form western part who started to settlement with the four houses(चार घर) in village. Later pronounced of Char ghar (चार घर) changed into Charghare (चारघरे) which consequenced the name of village as Charghare. This assumption of data about the origin of the village and may be fallacious or wrong because data are not based on primary and secondary sources. Jalpadevi Temple of Charghare It is supposed that the name and village were developed in the 19th century but this place has a historical story which is more than a thousand years old.
British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald In the UK, the term is often used by right-wing critics to disparage more progressive political opponents. This argument claims that the champagne socialist espouses leftist views while enjoying a luxurious lifestyle; one example might include Labour Party supporters who stereotypically live in Inner London and consume highbrow media. This usage of the term has been criticised by the writer and broadcaster Caitlin Moran as a fallacious argument, because she claims it assumes that only those who are poor can express an opinion about social inequality. The term has also been used by left-wing commentators to criticise centrist views.
Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism popularized the term "thought-terminating cliché". This refers to a cliché that is a commonly used phrase, or folk wisdom, sometimes used to quell cognitive dissonance. Though the clichéd phrase in and of itself may be valid in certain contexts, its application as a means of dismissing dissent or justifying fallacious logic is what makes it thought-terminating. Examples include “Everything happens for a reason”, “Why? Because I said so” (Bare assertion fallacy), “I’m the parent, that’s why” (Appeal to authority), “To each his own”, “It's a matter of opinion!”, “You only live once” (YOLO), and “We will have to agree to disagree”.
Kiely remarks that "The argument — upheld by dependency and post-development theory — that the First World needs the Third World, and vice versa, rehearses neo-liberal assumptions that the world is an equal playing field in which all nation states have the capacity to compete equally[...]" In other words, making locals responsible for their own predicament, post-development unintentionally agrees with neo-liberalist ideology that favors decentralized projects and ignores the possibility of assisting impoverished demographics, instead making the fallacious assumption that such demographics must succeed on their own initiative alone. Kiely notes that not all grassroots movements are progressive. Post-development is seen to empower anti-modern fundamentalists and traditionalists, who may hold non- progressive and oppressive values.
There is no society in > human history that ever suffered because its people became too reasonable.10 > myths and 10 truths about Atheism Sam Harris Richard Dawkins has stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism, but by dogmatic Marxism and concludes that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds "in the name of atheism".Interview with Richard Dawkins conducted by Stephen Sackur for BBC News 24's HardTalk programme, July 24th 2007. On other occasions, Dawkins has replied to the argument that Hitler and Stalin were antireligious with the response that Hitler and Stalin also grew moustaches in an effort to show the argument as fallacious.
Wyschogrod has been concerned primarily, in his activism and in his scholarly work, with the relationship, especially the theological dialogue, between Judaism and Christianity. His book Abraham's Promise: Judaism and Jewish- Christian Relations makes an appeal for a new non-supersessionist Christian view of Judaism. If Judaism and Christianity are to have a stable and harmonious co-existence in the future, then Christianity must dispense with or, at the very least, not openly insist on a status for Judaism in which Judaism is considered an incomplete or antiquated religion. At the same time, Wyschogrod urges from the Jewish side that Jews not pursue a fallacious dismissal of the divinity of Christ that operates on a priori grounds.
A group facilitation method called dialogue mapping is especially suited for use with Compendium.; Compendium templates for critical thinking can be used to create argument maps using the argumentation schemes developed by argumentation theory scholars such as Douglas N. Walton, Chris Reed, and Fabrizio Macagno.As described in ; to download the templates, see: Argumentation schemes are pre-defined patterns of reasoning for analysing and constructing arguments; each scheme is accompanied by a list of critical questions that can be used to evaluate whether a particular argument is good or fallacious. By using these argumentation schemes, users of Compendium can examine claims in more detail to uncover their implicit logical substructure and improve the rigor and depth of discussions.
The Faurisson affair was an academic controversy in the wake of a book, Mémoire en défense (1980), by French professor Robert Faurisson, a Holocaust denier. The scandal largely dealt with the inclusion of an essay by American linguist Noam Chomsky, entitled "Some Elementary Comments on the Rights of Freedom of Expression", as an introduction to Faurisson's book, without Chomsky's knowledge or explicit approval. Responding to a request for comment in a climate of attacks on Faurisson, Chomsky defended Faurisson's right to express and publish his opinions on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, no matter how unpopular or fallacious. His defense was the target of subsequent accusations by various academics and groups.
We do not dispute anyone's attained > distance nor declare it impossible that he should have been where he was. We > did not hunt up nameless islands and promontories to tag them with the > surnames ... We did not even erect cenotaphs ... We received no flags, > converted no natives, killed no one ... The object of this report is to > expose a few of the specious pleas, fallacious reasonings, and ill-grounded > conjectures which are called scientific, and to place the subject of > circumpolar exploration on a basis of facts and reasonable probabilities. > One cannot explore the earth's surface from an observatory, nor by > mathematics, nor by the power of logic. It must be done physically.
This was viewed as a dangerous and fallacious polemic by the majority who assumed that anyone who had received the Pentecostal Blessing had in fact been sanctified and as an outright heresy by those who had slipped into the entire sanctification camp. In either case, proponents of the finished work were seen as contentious and were in many cases officially shunned to the point of dividing families. The dispute grew more heated in February 1911 when Durham went to Los Angeles where he was prohibited from preaching at the Upper Room and Azusa Street Missions. He was able to hold services at the Kohler Street Mission where he attracted 1000 people on Sundays and around 400 on weekdays.
Slothful induction, also called appeal to coincidence, is a fallacy in which an inductive argument is denied its proper conclusion, despite strong evidence for inference. An example of slothful induction might be that of a careless man who has had twelve accidents in the last six months and it is strongly evident that it was due to his negligence or rashness, yet keeps insisting that it is just a coincidence and not his fault. Its logical form is: evidence suggests X results in Y, yet the person in question insists Y was caused by something else.Bennett, Bo. Logically Fallacious: The Ultimate Collection of Over 300 Logical Fallacies ... Its opposite fallacy (which perhaps occurs more often) is called hasty generalization.
Storm et al. According to Hyman, "Reliance on meta-analysis as the sole basis for justifying the claim that an anomaly exists and that the evidence for it is consistent and replicable is fallacious. It distorts what scientists mean by confirmatory evidence." Hyman wrote that the Ganzfeld studies were not independently replicated and failed to produce evidence for psi. Storm et al. published a response to Hyman stating that the Ganzfeld experimental design has proved to be consistent and reliable, that parapsychology is a struggling discipline that has not received much attention, and that therefore further research on the subject is necessary. Rouder et al. 2013 wrote that critical evaluation of Storm et al.
Cameron's claim of homosexuals being more apt to sexually abuse and molest children rests on the fallacious assumption that for all children who are sexually molested or abused by the perpetrators of the same sex as that of victim, the perpetrators are homosexuals who are mainly attracted to adults of same sex. While any coercive sex between and adult and minor of same sex is homosexual act, the conclusion that the perpetrator is homosexual in orientation towards adults is not necessarily correct. (See page 62 of ref) James Cantor mentions that the extremist groups take advantage of confusing terminologies. Pedophilia is primary sexual attraction towards children whereas teleiophilia refers to sexual attraction towards adults.
Evolution and Ethics by Thomas Henry Huxley Stephen Jay Gould and others have argued that social Darwinism is based on misconceptions of evolutionary theory, and many ethicists regard it as a case of the is-ought problem. After the atrocities of the Holocaust became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion, though it was never universally accepted by either, and at no point in Nazi literature is Charles Darwin or the scientific theory of evolution mentioned.The fallacious nature of reductio ad Hitlerum arguments by anti- evolutionists. In his book The End of Faith, Sam Harris argues that Nazism was largely a continuation of Christian anti-Semitism.
105 F.2d > at 922. There could also be two conspiracies—one in New York including the smugglers, the New York middlemen and the New York group of retailers; and the other including the smugglers, the Gulf Coast middlemen and the Gulf Coast group of retailers. There was apparently no contact between the two groups of retailers, possibly negating their being in a conspiracy together. "That too would be fallacious," the court said, because there was only one conspiracy as far as the defendant smugglers were concerned: > For it was of no moment to them whether the middlemen sold to one or more > groups of retailers, provided they had a market somewhere.
The Oracle at Delphi Medb hErren In accordance with this definitive statement, such scholars as Frederick Poulson, E.R. Dodds, Joseph Fontenrose, and Saul Levin all stated that there were no vapors and no chasm. For the decades to follow, scientists and scholars believed the ancient descriptions of a sacred, inspiring pneuma to be fallacious. During 1950, the French hellenist Pierre Amandry, who had worked at Delphi and later directed the French excavations there, concurred with Oppé's pronouncements, claiming that gaseous emissions were not even possible in a volcanic zone such as Delphi. Neither Oppé nor Amandry were geologists, though, and no geologists had been involved in the debate up to that point.
Harris believes this to be a fallacious explanation because the elites had sufficient wealth easily to support both male and female children. Thus, Harris and others, such as William Divale, see female infanticide as a way to restrict population growth, while sociobiologists such as Mildred Dickemann view the same practice as a means of expanding it. Another anthropologist, Kristen Hawkes, has criticised both of these theories. On the one hand, opposing Harris, she says both that the quickest way to get more male warriors would have been to have more females as child-bearers and that having more females in a village would increase the potential for marriage alliances with other villages.
Coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan, Morgan's Canon remains a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology. In its developed form, it states that: > In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher > psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of > processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and > development. In other words, Morgan believed that anthropomorphic approaches to animal behavior were fallacious, and that people should only consider behaviour as, for example, rational, purposive or affectionate, if there is no other explanation in terms of the behaviours of more primitive life-forms to which we do not attribute those faculties.
Modern historians debate the accuracy of the term as applied to Brown, Colquitt, and Gordon. Discussing the use of the term "Bourbon", American historian C. Vann Woodward claimed that, in its application to the three, "there has probably been no more fallacious misnomer in our history than this term Bourbon". Furthermore, historians note that, despite the general support the three had for New South policies, the three were often opponents when it came to specific policies. Brown and Colquitt especially often showed an adversarial relationship towards each other, with Colquitt blocking many of Brown's political ambitions and Brown at one point discussing the prospect of supporting Henry Grady in running against Colquitt for the governorship.
The debate is whether the experiment would have detected the phenomenon of interest if it were there. The argument from ignorance for "absence of evidence" is not necessarily fallacious, for example, that a potentially life saving new drug poses no long term health risk unless proved otherwise. On the other hand, were such an argument to rely imprudently on the lack of research to promote its conclusion, it would be considered an informal fallacy whereas the former can be a persuasive way to shift the burden of proof in an argument or debate. Carl Sagan criticized such "impatience with ambiguity" with cosmologist Martin Rees' maxim, "Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence".
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations (1979). In The Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey (2013), Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion". Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay arguing against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson claims that while the individual does not owe a normal state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.
Kant's house in Königsberg In the Universal Natural History, Kant laid out the Nebular hypothesis, in which he deduced that the Solar System had formed from a large cloud of gas, a nebula. Kant also correctly deduced (though through usually false premises and fallacious reasoning, according to Bertrand Russell) that the Milky Way was a large disk of stars, which he theorized formed from a much larger spinning gas cloud. He further suggested that other distant "nebulae" might be other galaxies. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy, for the first time extending it beyond the Solar System to galactic and intergalactic realms. According to Thomas Huxley (1867), Kant also made contributions to geology in his Universal Natural History.
While most forms of SCID result in absence of both T and B cell lineages, atypical SCID is characterized (in part) by a normal level of B cells but profound T cell deficiency. However, because of the deficiency of helper T cells, the B cells have profoundly impaired function. It is critical to understand that to view Th cells cells as a monolithic immunological entity is fallacious because the cells themselves are extremely diverse in terms of function and partner cells (this is elaborated upon below). In general, mature naive T cells (those which have passed through the checkpoints of development in the thymus but have not yet encountered their cognate antigen) are stimulated by professional antigen presenting cells to acquire an effector module.
Consider an idealized system of tax policy; tax is based on a tax cutoff point T, that is individuals with income in excess of T pay taxes, everyone else pays no taxes. In a simple majority rule social arbitration scheme, one might expect that a natural tax rate T can be determined: the median income (plus 1). However, a (possibly fallacious) political argument might attempt to change individual's voting by their pocket book by arguing that investment in capital and general welfare will increase by reducing taxes on higher income levels, that is raising the tax cutoff point. A political argument may be ineffective but may still have a purpose, for instance as a justification for an unpopular political action, or as part of a historical narrative.
They are rarely very dense, and visitors accustomed to seeing ponderosa forests in the Sierra Nevada may come to two opposite, and fallacious, conclusions: 1) That the pines were logged, and all we see left is a small percentage of survivors; or 2) that they were all planted. In reality, there is no evidence (stumps, historical accounts) that any significant logging took place, nor does the relatively wide extent of the stands and the great variety of age groups support a tree-planting theory. Most likely, the pines are relicts of a broader distribution during cooler climates. When the climate warmed, the only places the trees could survive were up on the high cooler ridges and shady slopes where they grow today.
Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled to note that passive impressions do not furnish a complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguière he distinguishes attention as an active effort, of no less importance than the passive receptivity of sense, and like Joseph Butler, he distinguishes passively formed customs from active habits. He concluded that Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as the one source of conscious experience was an error of method – in short, that the mechanical mode of viewing consciousness as formed by external influence was fallacious and deceptive. For it he proposed to substitute the genetic method, whereby human conscious experience might be exhibited as growing or developing from its essential basis in connection with external conditions.
These men had specific political purposes in mind when arguing their case, and the historical foundations of their work are unreliable." Principe goes on to write "Despite appearances, White’s arguments are scarcely any better than Draper’s. White uses fallacious arguments and suspect or bogus sources. His methodological errors are collectivism (the unwarrantable extension of an individual’s views to represent that of some larger group of which he is a part), a lack of critical judgement about sources, argument by ridicule and assertion, failure to check primary sources, and quoting selectively and out of context. White popularized the baseless notions that before Columbus and Magellan, the world was thought to be flat and that the Earth’s sphericity was officially opposed by the Church.
Lenard is remembered today as a strong German nationalist who despised "English physics", which he considered to have stolen its ideas from Germany. During the Nazi regime, he was the outspoken proponent of the idea that Germany should rely on "Deutsche Physik" and ignore what he considered the fallacious and deliberately misleading ideas of "Jewish physics", by which he meant chiefly the theories of Albert Einstein, including "the Jewish fraud" of relativity (see also criticism of the theory of relativity). An advisor to Adolf Hitler, Lenard became Chief of Aryan physics under the Nazis.Nobel prize 1905 Some measure of Lenard's views on certain scientists may be deduced through examination of Lenard's book, Great Men in Science, A History of Scientific Progress, first published in 1933.
Fish has argued that this model is fallacious, and has argued for an alternative model: Drug prohibition causes a black market, and the black market causes crime and corruption, and spreads disease. As a result, drug policy should be aimed at shrinking the black market. To achieve this aim, he has been active in bringing together multidisciplinary, international, and American sub-cultural perspectives on drug policy, and to promoting consideration of a wide range of policy alternatives to the War on Drugs. He has served as Adjunct Coordinator of the Committee on Drugs and the Law of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York; and his broadening the discussion of policy alternatives has influenced debates in legal and policy circles.
He was consecrated as bishop of Bruges on 25 July 1895. During his episcopate, he supported the development and modernisation of Catholic education in his diocese, particularly in vocational and technical fields, and encouraged the establishment of the Revue pratique de l'Enseignement in 1896. In line with developing Catholic social teaching he favoured a range of social apostolates, such as mutual insurance societies, savings unions, employment brokerages, trade unions, agricultural cooperatives, and youth work, but wished to ensure that these remained under clerical rather than lay leadership. He also opposed the emergence of Daensism and Christian Democracy, warning against their "fallacious promises" in an 1896 pastoral letter, and refusing Arthur Verhaegen permission for a meeting of the Lige démocratique in Bruges in 1899.
Abusive Ad hominem lies near the bottom end of Graham's Hierarchy of Disagreement Abusive ad hominem argument (or direct ad hominem) is associated with an attack to the character of the person carrying an argument. This kind of argument, besides usually being fallacious, is also counterproductive, as a proper dialogue is hard to achieve after such an attack. Key issues in examining an argument to determine whether it is an ad hominem fallacy or not are whether the accusation against the person stands true or not, and whether the accusation is relevant to the argument. An example is a dialogue at the court, where the attorney cross-examines an eyewitness, bringing to light the fact that the witness was convicted in the past for lying.
Quoting research including those by Eugene Kanin and the U.S. Air Force, they assert that 40–50% or more of rape allegations may be false. To argue the issue of false accusations of rape, the categories of 'false' and 'unsubstantiated' are often conflated, such as the National Coalition for Men citing reports like the 1996 FBI summary that finds a rate of 8% for unsubstantiated forcible rape, which is four times higher than the average for all index crimes as a whole. Experts emphasize that verified false allegations are a distinct category from unsubstantiated allegations, and conflating the two is fallacious. These figures are widely debated due to the questionable methodology and small sample sizes - see the False accusation of rape page for wider survey estimates.
Therefore, so the argument goes, theories of mind that imply or state explicitly that cognition is rule bound cannot be correct unless some way is found to "ground" the regress. This is important because it is often assumed in cognitive science that rules and algorithms are essentially the same: in other words, the theory that cognition is rule bound is often believed to imply that thought (cognition) is essentially the manipulation of algorithms, and this is one of the key assumptions of some varieties of artificial intelligence. Homunculus arguments are always fallacious unless some way can be found to "ground" the regress. In psychology and philosophy of mind, "homunculus arguments" (or the "homunculus fallacies") are extremely useful for detecting where theories of mind fail or are incomplete.
In the middle of the Bible Belt, in Austin, Texas, every Sunday a group of secular humanists debates on the cable- TV show The Atheist Experience religion and beliefs. Matt Dillahunty, one of the hosts of the webcast, appears to be especially harsh in debunking unfounded beliefs and even brings one of the Christian callers to rather come out as an advocate for slavery than distancing himself from the Bible. Repeatedly Dillahunty hangs up on callers when no progress is made in discussion and when the caller is inherently being dishonest or using fallacious arguments to rationalize beliefs. Besides the atheist community Mission Control Texas shows bizarre worship ceremonies, a rodeo, miraculous healing and the distribution of groceries at a food bank.
According to Hemachandra, Anavastha is a Dosha, a defect or fault along with virodha, vaiyadhikarana, samkara, samsaya, vyatikara, apratipatti and abhava. It is also one of the dialectical principles applied alongside atmasraya, anyonyasraya, cakraka, atiprasanga, ubhayatahspasa and the like employed by logicians from very early times. Sriharsa explains that dialectical reasoning, which has its foundation in pervasion, can lead to contradiction when the reasoning becomes fallacious, it is the limit of doubt; and since differing unwanted contrary options create new doubts difficult to resolve which lead to anavastha or infinite regress and there is the absence of finality. The argument that contradiction cannot block an infinite regress is rejected; it is the doubter's own behaviour that process the lie to the doubt, that blocks it (pratibandhaka).
17) assigns Christ's own teaching to the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius; that of the apostles, of St. Paul at least, ends, he says, in the time of Nero; whereas "the authors of the sects arose later, about the times of the emperor Hadrian, and continued quite as late as the age of the elder Antoninus." He gives as examples Basilides, Valentinus, and (if the text is sound) Marcion. Yet his language about Carpocrates a few lines further on suggests a doubt whether he had any better evidence than a fallacious inference from their order in Irenaeus. He was acquainted with the refutation of Basilides by Agrippa Castor; but it is not clear, as is sometimes assumed, that he meant to assign both writers to the same reign.
Eugene Volokh says, "I think the most useful definition of a slippery slope is one that covers all situations where decision A, which you might find appealing, ends up materially increasing the probability that others will bring about decision B, which you oppose." Those who hold that slippery slopes are causal generally give a simple definition, provide some appropriate examples and perhaps add some discussion as to the difficulty of determining whether the argument is reasonable or fallacious. Most of the more detailed analysis of slippery slopes has been done by those who hold that genuine slippery slopes are of the decisional kind. Lode, having claimed that SSAs are not a single class of arguments whose members all share the same form, nevertheless goes on to suggest the following common features.
For example, a $2 increase in salary may not be desirable to an employee if the increase pushes her into a tax bracket in which she believes her net pay is actually reduced (a belief that is typically fallacious, especially in the United States). Similarly, a promotion that provides higher status but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with their children. As an additional example, if a person in the armed forces or security agencies is promoted, there is the possibility that he or she will be transferred to other locations. In such cases, if the new posting is far from their permanent residence where their family resides, they will not be motivated by such promotions and the results will backfire.
A thought-terminating cliché (also known as a semantic stop-sign, a thought- stopper, bumper sticker logic, or cliché thinking) is a form of loaded language, commonly used to quell cognitive dissonance. Depending on context in which a phrase (or cliché) is used, it may actually be valid and not qualify as thought-terminating; it does qualify as such when its application intends to dismiss dissent or justify fallacious logic. Its only function is to stop an argument from proceeding further, in other words "end the debate with a cliche... not a point." The term was popularized by Robert Jay Lifton in his 1961 book Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism, who called the use of the cliché, along with "loading the language", as "The language of Non- thought".
CCRTF 93/1605/B It was submitted that if their client's invention was obvious, as held by the original Judge, such an idea would have been patented sooner. It was the "concept" of a personal stereo player that "changed the listening habits of the world", not the overall product design, which Pavel's team described as "window dressing"; a contention borne out by the "explosive success" of the Walkman. Lord Justice John Hobhouse, Lord Justice Brian Neill, and Lord Justice William Aldous disagreed with the appellant, adducing the Walkman's form factor, minimal operating power, and ability to reproduce high- quality sound at reasonable cost as key reasons for its appeal and popularity. "Although the Walkman was a great commercial success, the attempt to rely upon that success to support invention is fallacious".
In 1946 he founded the bi-monthly Apollo, in which he published more than two hundred articles over ten years including "The 'Avanced' advance into the void", "We must discourage fine art", "The imitation of nature is the only desire in the plastic arts", "The 'golden number' is in nature", "Art has deserted France", "Rules on the harmony of colours and volumes", "The love of art is a bastion against the robot", "We must support art education", "Rules are necessary", "Against publicity", "Speculations on the fine arts", "Nature or nothing", "Refutation of Cubism", "The commercial genius", and so on. He set forth his position toward non-figurative art, explored its origins (which he considered fallacious), and highlighted the lack of understandable criteria by which to judge which works are valuable which are not.
Trinquier's view was that torture had to be extremely focused and limited, but many French officers considered its use corrosive to its own side. There were strong protests among French leaders: the Army's most decorated officer, General Jacques Pâris de Bollardière, confronted General Jacques Massu, the commander of French forces in the Battle of Algiers, over orders institutionalizing torture, as "an unleashing of deplorable instincts which no longer knew any limits." He issued an open letter condemning the danger to the army of the loss of its moral values "under the fallacious pretext of immediate expediency", and was imprisoned for sixty days. As some of the French Army protested, other parts increased the intensity of their approach, which led to an attempted military coup against the French Fourth Republic itself.
The Omaha World-Herald's review said that "this little book takes a potentially ponderous subject (logical fallacies) and makes it wonderfully entertaining." Jenny Bristol reviewed it for the community blog GeekDad, calling it "a great format for teaching kids about logic". L'Express reviewed the French version of the book, concluding that it is “a short and perfectly organized book that examines and dismantles a score of fallacious arguments … [with] illustrations largely inspired by allegories of Animal Farm by G. Orwell and the work of Lewis Caroll”. The Spanish version of the book was reviewed by Rafael Martínez for Loffit, and it emphasized how effectively the book's lessons could be learned by listening to various debates heard every day on radio and television, identifying in them examples of logical fallacies that the book explains.
However, with the decline of the Press, the grounds on which the transfer was made proved to be fallacious and in 1876 it was re-transferred to its original location. The setback of the press affected the government acutely and it soon sought to transfer the whole press to the Presidency Jail, on the Maidan, the insignificant miscellaneous manufactures were discontinued in favour of a concentration of almost all the printing of the Bengal Government. It thus became possible to transfer the greater part of the printing apparatus from the Secretariat Press and give employment to between 600-700 prisoners in all branches of printing and book-binding. Being an extension of the Secretariat Press it began to undertake more varied work much of which was unsuitable for the convicts and soon an entirely separate Paid-Division unit was constructed.
This, however, is fallacious, given that evolution is not a completely random effect (genetic drift), but rather proceeds with the aid of natural selection. The junkyard tornado is also applied to cellular biochemistry. This is comparable to the older infinite monkey theorem but instead of the works of William Shakespeare, the claim is that the probability that a protein molecule could achieve a functional sequence of amino acids is too low to be realised by chance alone. The argument conflates the difference between the complexity that arises from living organisms that are able to reproduce themselves (and as such may evolve under natural selection to become better adapted and perhaps more complex over time) with the complexity of inanimate objects, unable to pass on any reproductive changes (such as the multitude of parts manufactured in Boeing 747).
Dillahunty's explanation of the philosophical burden of proof is ably presented in his 'gumball' analogy: if a hypothetical jar is filled with an unknown quantity of gumballs, any positive claim regarding there being an odd, or even, number of gumballs has to be logically regarded as highly suspect in the absence of supporting evidence. Following this, if one does not believe the unsubstantiated claim that "the number of gumballs is even", it does NOT automatically mean (or even imply) that one 'must' believe that the number is odd. Similarly, disbelief in the unsupported claim "There is a god" does NOT automatically mean that one 'must' believe that there is no god. This line of reasoning is intended to demonstrate that the common retort, "What is your proof that there is no god?" is, in fact, a fallacious shifting of the burden of proof.
These themes were expounded on by Priestly and Brownlee, both of whom undertook speaking tours and radio addresses, and by legal and economic experts commissioned by the government.Barr 74Foster 267 The second element of Reid's approach was to call into question Aberhart's understanding of social credit by exposing inconsistencies between his statements and the theories advanced by Douglas. Douglas and Aberhart did not like each other, and Douglas did not believe that Aberhart fully understood his theories; though he declined to comment publicly, one of his deputies once called one of Aberhart's pamphlets "fallacious from start to finish".Elliott 128 Hoping to capitalize on this rift, Reid invited Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as "Economic Reconstruction Advisor" at an annual fee of $2,500 plus a $2,000 expense allowance for each of his annual three-week trips to the province.
The concept of lost sales has been criticized, primarily due to its assumption that if illegal (pirated) copies were not available, the consumers of such a pirated copy would instead purchase the product at an average market rate. Critics of the "lost sales" concept note that some consumers, for example those in developing countries, or those with lower income such as students, may not be able to afford the market price of certain products and if there were no pirated copies available, it is likely they would simply not purchase the ones available at the market price. Others may treat pirated goods as samples that entice them to buy the product later on. It has been suggested that the better term would be "retail value of pirated [goods]", and that equating such a concept with financial loss is fallacious.
Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value is not a sufficient cause. Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards. Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic. Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious.
This is important for with strict implication p will imply z but if at each step the probability is say 90% then the more steps there are the less likely it becomes that p will cause z. A slippery slope argument is typically a negative argument where there is an attempt to discourage someone from taking a course of action because if they do it will lead to some unacceptable conclusion. Some writers point out that an argument with the same structure might be used in a positive way in which someone is encouraged to take the first step because it leads to a desirable conclusion. If someone is accused of using a slippery slope argument then it is being suggested they are guilty of fallacious reasoning, and while they are claiming that p implies z, for whatever reason, this is not the case.
The planned Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTP) required two major divisional points in BC, where additional staff and facilities would be located. After Prince George, various central points on the Prince Rupert leg were considered in the vicinity of Aldermere.Fort George Tribune, 23 Nov 1912 A prime choice was Hubert, east of Telkwa, initially called Bulkley by the developers,Fort George Tribune, 12 Jul 1913 who had amassed the surrounding land. These speculators promoted a future new city,Fort George Herald, 16 Aug 1913Fort George Tribune: 13 Sep 1913 & 4 Oct 1913 and later a trade centre of the Bulkley Valley,Fort George Tribune: 18 Apr 1914; 20 & 27 Jun 1914; 25 Jul 1914; 7, 14, 21, & 28 Nov 1914; & 16, 23, & 30 Jan 1915 both fallacious claims,Prince George Post: 21 Nov 1914 & 3 Apr 1915 since Smithers had already been selected as the divisional point.
For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning. This poor reasoning includes appeals to ancient astrologers such as Kepler despite any relevance of topic or specific reasoning, and vague claims. The claim that evidence for astrology is that people born at roughly "the same place have a life pattern that is very similar" is vague, but also ignores that time is reference frame dependent and gives no definition of "same place" despite the planet's moving in the reference frame of the solar system. Other comments by astrologers are based on severely erroneous interpretations of basic physics, such as a claim by one astrologer that the solar system looks like an atom.
The "compelling and meditative recording", conducted by Julius Eastman, represents just a fragment of Russell's score, which includes voices along with its instrumentation. While Russell tangentially remained affiliated with the new music sphere in New York until his death, continuing to perform in solo and group configurations at The Kitchen and Experimental Intermedia Foundation, Tower of Meaning was his final orchestral effort. The rejection of Russell's Corn album (a suite of hip-hop-infused electropop including material later released on Calling Out of Context) by Socolov in 1985, coupled with creative disagreements between the two over "Wax the Van", resulted in Russell divesting himself from Sleeping Bag Records shortly after the release of "Schoolbell/Treehouse" in 1986. According to Bob Blank in a followup to an Internet reposting of the (purportedly fallacious) 1986 article that detailed the subterfuge, Socolov "wanted to take the label to 'another level".
Frequency tree of 100 000 battered American women showing the prosecutor's fallacy in OJ Simpson's murder trial Also at the O. J. Simpson murder trial, the prosecution presented evidence that Simpson had been violent toward his wife, while the defense argued that there was only one woman murdered for every 2500 women who were subjected to spousal abuse, and that any history of Simpson being violent toward his wife was irrelevant to the trial. However, the reasoning behind the defense's calculation was fallacious. According to author Gerd Gigerenzer, the correct probability requires the context — that Simpson's wife had not only been subjected to domestic violence, but rather subjected to domestic violence (by Simpson) and murdered (by someone) — to be taken into account. Gigerenzer writes "the chances that a batterer actually murdered his partner, given that she has been killed, is about 8 in 9 or approximately 90%".
Tkachuk was involved in the Mike Duffy scandal, serving as one of a three-member senate committee whose report sought to whitewash Duffy's fallacious claims for living expenses."A look at some of the less familiar faces to appear in the Mike Duffy trial", The Canadian Press Senator David Tkachuk while speaking to the pro-pipeline crowd at Parliament Hill on February 20, 2019, urged the group to "roll over every Liberal left in the country". He continued, "When they are gone, these bills are gone." Given that 10 people were killed in the terrorist attack in April 2018 in North York after being run over by a van, Member of Parliament for Willowdale Ali Ehsassi released a statement which condemned the Senator for inciting violence against Canadians and demanded that Senator Tkachuk be forced to resign and called for his removal from the Conservative Caucus.
As a metaphor, a touchstone refers to any physical or intellectual measure by which the validity or merit of a concept can be tested. It is similar in use to an acid test, litmus test in politics, or, from a negative perspective, a shibboleth where the criterion is considered by some to be out-of-date. The word was introduced into literary criticism by Matthew Arnold in "Preface to the volume of 1853 poems" (1853) to denote short but distinctive passages, selected from the writings of the greatest poets, which he used to determine the relative value of passages or poems which are compared to them. Arnold proposed this method of evaluation as a corrective for what he called the "fallacious" estimates of poems according to their "historic" importance in the development of literature, or else according to their "personal" appeal to an individual critic.
In a judgment delivered by Lord Diplock, the Privy Council rejected this interpretation, finding the Public Prosecutor's argument fallacious. Reading the definition of written law as stated in Article 2(1) together with Article 4, which provides that "any law enacted by the Legislature after the commencement of this Constitution which is inconsistent with this Constitution shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void", their Lordships held that "the use of the expression 'law' in Art 9(1) ... does not, in the event of challenge, relieve the court of its duty to determine whether the provisions of an Act of Parliament passed after 16 September 1963 and relied upon to justify depriving a person of his life or liberty are inconsistent with the Constitution and consequently void".Ong Ah Chuan, [1981] 1 A.C. at p. 670, [1979-1980] S.L.R.(R.) at p. 722, para. 25.
He praised Nagel for the thoroughness of his treatment of the nature of scientific inquiry, his discussion of explanation in the biological sciences, his criticism of functionalism in the social sciences, and his discussion of historical explanation. Scriven described the book as a "great work", and considered Nagel's treatment of some subjects definitive. He praised Nagel's discussion of the history of science and careful analysis of "alternative positions", pointing in particular to Nagel's "discussion of the ontological status of theories and models" and "his treatment of fallacious arguments for holism"; he also complimented Nagel for his criticism of Berlin and his discussion of the meaning of scientific laws. However, he noted that the book was not easy to read; he also criticized Nagel for being too willing to accept the analyses of certain concepts proposed by symbolic logicians, for failing to fully pursue the implications of his ideas about scientific practice, giving his treatment of historical explanation as an example.
The anti-Shiite Imam of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina was even sacked after he attacked Shiism in a Friday sermon in the presence of Iranian president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. In 2003, the political direction turned again, and a series of "National Dialogues" were initiated that included Shiites (as well as Sufis, liberal reformers, and professional women), to the strong disapproval of Wahhabi purists. In late 2003, "450 Shia academics, businessmen, writers, and women" presented a petition to Crown Prince Abdullah demanding a greater rights including the right for Shia to be referred to "their own religious courts as Sunni courts do not recognize testimonies by Shia." As of 2006, more militant Saudi Wahhabi clerics were circulating a petition calling for an intensification of sectarian violence against Shiites, while the official religious establishment was calling for them to renounce their "fallacious" beliefs voluntarily and embrace "the right path" of Islam, rather than be killed, expelled, or converted by violence.
Had the book been submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and this comment had appeared, the review provided by Shapiro would have forced the conclusions regarding intelligent design to be changed or removed. ;K. John Morrow: Morrow criticized the book as appalling and unsupported, which contributed to the original publisher turning down the book for publication. ;Russell Doolittle: Doolittle, upon whom Behe based much of his discussion of blood clotting, described it as misrepresenting a simplified explanation he had given in a lecture, and presenting a fallacious creationist miscalculation of improbability by omitting known options, "Originally published in the February/ March 1997 issue of Boston Review" which also contributed to the original publisher turning down the book for publication. In the same trial, Behe eventually testified under oath that "There are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred".
The implication that the style of lace known as 'Bucks Point' demonstrates a Huguenot influence, being a "combination of Mechlin patterns on Lille ground", is fallacious: what is now known as Mechlin lace did not develop until the first half of the eighteenth century and lace with Mechlin patterns and Lille ground did not appear until the end of the 18th century, when it was widely copied throughout Europe. Many Huguenots from the Lorraine region also eventually settled in the area around Stourbridge in the modern- day West Midlands, where they found the raw materials and fuel to continue their glassmaking tradition. Anglicised names such as Tyzack, Henzey and Tittery are regularly found amongst the early glassmakers, and the region went on to become one of the most important glass regions in the country. Winston Churchill was the most prominent Briton of Huguenot descent, deriving from the Huguenots who went to the colonies; his American grandfather was Leonard Jerome.
He also attempted to usurp the control of the Faith which the Hands had themselves assumed at the passing of Shoghi Effendi stating: > It is from and through the Guardianship that infallibility is vested and > that the Hands of the Faith receive their orders ... I now command the Hands > of the Faith to stop all of their preparations for 1963, and furthermore I > command all believers both as individual Baháʼís and as assemblies of > Baháʼís to immediately cease cooperating with and giving support to this > fallacious program for 1963. He claimed to believe that the Guardianship was an institution intended to endure forever, and that he was the 2nd Guardian by virtue of his appointment to the IBC. Almost the whole Baháʼí world rejected his claim, although he gained the support of a small group of Baháʼís. One of the most notable exceptions to accept his claim were several members of the French National Spiritual Assembly, led by Joel Marangella, who elected to support Remey.
Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who formulated the open-question argument. Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of "natural property" is one "which can be discovered by sense observation or experience, experiment, or through any of the available means of science." They also say that a good definition of "natural property" is problematic but that "it is only in criticism of naturalism, or in an attempt to distinguish between naturalistic and nonnaturalistic definist theories, that such a concept is needed." R. M. Hare also criticised ethical naturalism because of its fallacious definition of the terms 'good' or 'right' explaining how value-terms being part of our prescriptive moral language are not reducible to descriptive terms: "Value-terms have a special function in language, that of commending; and so they plainly cannot be defined in terms of other words which themselves do not perform this function".
Presuppositionalists assert that many of the classical arguments are logically fallacious, or do not prove enough, when used as arguments to prove the existence or character of God. They criticize both the assumption of neutrality and the "block house" or "piecemeal" method for failing to start at the level of the controlling beliefs of worldviews and implicitly allowing non-Christian assumptions from the start, thereby trying to build a Christian "house" on a non-Christian "foundation". Evidentialists demur from this assessment, claiming that presuppositionalism amounts to fideism because it rejects the idea of shared points of reference between the Christian and non- Christian from which they may reason in common. The conclusion of evidential apologetics is that the Bible's historical accounts and other truth-claims are more probably true than false, thus the whole of scriptural revelation may be rationally accepted, and where we can't approach absolute certainty we must accept the explanations most likely to be true.
The CIA reacted strongly to the book A Correspondence with the CIA: "...high-ranking officials of the C.I.A have signed letters for publication to a newspaper and a magazine, granted a rare on-the-record interview at the agency's headquarters in McLean, Va." The C.I.A letters were to the Washington Star and were signed by William E. Colby and Paul C. Velte Jr. "a Washington-based official with Air America, a charter airline that flies missions for the CIA in Southeast Asia." CIA general counsel Lawrence R. Houston wrote the book's publishers Harper & Row and asked that they be given the galley proofs so that the CIA could criticize errors and rebut unproven accusations:"C.I.A officials said they had reason to believe that Mr. McCoy's book contained many unwarranted, unproven and fallacious accusations. They acknowledged that the public stance in opposition to such allegations was a departure from the usual 'low profile' of the agency..." Hersh 1972.
This was based on a nearly identical statement by fellow founder of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Marcello Truzzi, "An extraordinary claim requires extraordinary proof." This idea had been earlier aphorized in Théodore Flournoy's work From India to the Planet Mars (1899) from a longer quote by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French mathematician and astronomer, as the Principle of Laplace: "The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts." Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his naturalistic view of the world. In The Demon-Haunted World, he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating wide use of critical thinking and the scientific method. The compilation Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium, published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on abortion, as well as an account by his widow, Ann Druyan, of his death in relation to his having been an agnostic and freethinker.
This, however, seems to have led to no result, and shortly after, hostilities having again broken out, the Selinuntines called in the aid of the Syracusans, with whose assistance they obtained great advantages, and were able to press Segesta closely both by land and sea. In this extremity the Segestans, having in vain applied for assistance to Agrigentum, and even to Carthage, again had recourse to the Athenians, who were, without much difficulty, persuaded to espouse their cause, and send a fleet to Sicily in 416 BC. It is said that this result was in part attained by fraud, the Segestans having deceived the Athenian envoys by a fallacious display of wealth, and led them to conceive a greatly exaggerated notion of their resources. They, however, actually furnished 60 talents in ready money, and 30 more after the arrival of the Athenian armament. But though the relief of Segesta was thus the original object of the great Athenian expedition to Sicily (415-413 BC), that city bears little part in the subsequent operations of the war.
Maarten Boudry and others have argued that formal, deductive fallacies rarely occur in real life and that arguments that would be fallacious in formally deductive terms are not necessarily so when context and prior probabilities are taken into account, thus making the argument defeasible and/or inductive. Boudry coined the term fallacy fork. For a given fallacy, one must either characterize it by means of a deductive argumentation scheme, which rarely applies (the first prong of the fork) or one must relax definitions and add nuance to take the actual intent and context of the argument into account (the other prong of the fork). To argue, for example, that one became nauseated after eating a mushroom because the mushroom was poisonous could be an example of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy unless one were actually arguing inductively and probabilistically that it is likely that the mushroom caused the illness since some mushrooms are poisonous, it is possible to misidentify a mushroom as edible, one doesn't usually feel nauseated, etc.
Vitale and viewed the doctrine relied on in that case as implausible, given the long history of government religious practice in the United States, including the fact that the Supreme Court opens its own sessions with the declaration, "God Save this Honorable Court" and that Congress opens its sessions with prayers, among many other examples. Stewart believed that such practice fit with the nation's long history of permitting free exercise of religious practices, even in the public sphere. He declared the cases consolidated with Schempp as "so fundamentally deficient as to make impossible an informed or responsible determination of the constitutional issues presented"—specifically, of whether the Establishment Clause was violated. As to the intent and scope of the religion clauses of the First Amendment: > It is, I think, a fallacious oversimplification to regard the [religion > clauses] as establishing a single constitutional standard of "separation of > church and state", which can be applied in every case to delineate the > required boundaries between government and religion.... As a matter of > history, the First Amendment was adopted solely as a limitation upon the > newly created National Government.
The Nyayasutra defines error as knowledge, an opinion or a conclusion about something that is different from what it really is. Gautama states in the text that the error is always in the process of cognition itself, or the "subjective self", and not in the object. It is the duty of the knowledge-seeker to "test the validity of his knowledge", both in assumptions or through practice (experience), but neither the object of knowledge nor the knowledge itself is responsible for errors; only the knowledge-seeker and his process of cognition is.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 139-140S Rao (1998), Perceptual Error: The Indian Theories, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 59–72 The Nyaya theory shares ideas on the theory of errors with Advaita Vedanta, Buddhism and Mimamsa schools of Indian philosophies, states Rao, and these schools likely influenced each other.S Rao (1998), Perceptual Error: The Indian Theories, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 22–23, 21–44 The text identifies and cautions against five kinds of fallacious reasoning (hetvabhasa) in sutra 1.2.4, discussing each in the sutras that follow, stating that these lead to false knowledge, in contrast to proper reasoning (hetu), which leads to true knowledge.

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