Sentences Generator
And
Your saved sentences

No sentences have been saved yet

"collectivization" Definitions
  1. the act or policy of joining several private farms, industries, etc. together so that they are controlled by the community or by the state
"collectivization" Antonyms

921 Sentences With "collectivization"

How to use collectivization in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "collectivization" and check conjugation/comparative form for "collectivization". Mastering all the usages of "collectivization" from sentence examples published by news publications.

Collectivization of the farmlands of Ukraine began in 1929. Stalin
Evaluated by Stalin's own brutal standard, collectivization was a success.
When the "industrial" part became impossible, they insisted on yet more collectivization.
Famines brought on by collectivization spread through Soviet Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Russia.
There was the calamity of collectivization and the opposition it engendered inside the Party.
Stalin was asserting that collectivization was a success except for isolated cases of overzealous bureaucracy.
His long-estranged peasant wife was produced, and suggested that Mr. Fedorenko had opposed Soviet collectivization.
"Without collectivization of one form or another it is unthinkable to overcome capitalism," he told us.
The first victims were the Party higher-ups who had supported the Trotskyist opposition, or failed to support collectivization.
Mao was blamed and partly sidelined by Communist Party leaders who pulled back some of the most extreme collectivization efforts.
The Communist regime once took your grandfather's father and beat him up because he didn't want to join the collectivization.
Back home, he shaved his beard and mustache, donned Western clothes and evangelized for agricultural collectivization and the miraculous tractor.
But the practice largely faded in the early 20th century, when the Soviet authorities confiscated livestock from nomads during collectivization.
Socialism, the idea that workers' needs are best met by the collectivization of the means of production, didn't function for Werner.
"Many mistakes were made in the Soviet Union during the collectivization," the guide said, striding briskly from one display to another.
Mao's disastrous Great Leap Forward, beginning in 22019, was ostensibly an attempt to transform a mainly agrarian society through industrialization and collectivization.
Under Stalin, over 6900 million of Kazakhs were starved to death in the agricultural "collectivization" of the 2628s – one third of the population.
When the Chinese Communists forced collectivization on these Tibetan nomads and farmers in the latter half of the 1950s, the results were catastrophic.
In the summer of 1930, when he was in Crimea mourning the defeat of his opposition to forced collectivization, Anna came to visit.
MORE's collectivization of  government, polarization of race, mobilization of a new immigrant electoral base, and establishment of a suffocating PC culture — it's already here.
General Kalashnikov was born in Siberia to a family that suffered from collectivization under Stalin, but he always professed staunch allegiance to Soviet values.
That didn't make the forced collectivization of agriculture, in which millions of these same workers were displaced, dispossessed, starved and executed, hurt any less.
Liu Shaoqi, China's president, relaxed collectivization to undo some of the damage of the Great Leap Forward and became the leading target of Cultural Revolution attacks.
The organizers hope to resurrect nomadic traditions, especially those of Central Asia, whose cultures were pushed toward extinction by decades of Soviet collectivization and then globalization.
In the event, of course, the road actually taken was catastrophic: forced collectivization of agriculture by the Soviet regime and the ruthless destruction of the Russian peasantry.
Stalin introduced collectivization during the late 1920s in a plan to free Russian peasants from centuries of forced labor as serfs working under wealthy landowners and later, kulaks.
Her face crumpled as she talked about the hunger that followed Mao's agricultural collectivization and industrialization campaign, when the local state-run canteen distributed two small meals a day.
Cuba's woes are a result of the inefficient economic model of centralized planning, state enterprises and agricultural collectivization its leaders have pursued despite the failure of these models worldwide.
When historians researched the collectivization of the Chinese countryside in the 1950s, an event believed to have empowered rural women by offering them employment, they discovered a complicated picture.
JUSOS chief Kevin Kuehnert, 29, unleashed a storm of protest, including from party allies, this week when he said that "without collectivization, overcoming capitalism is not thinkable", citing BMW specifically.
Bureaucratic modes of administration—from Le Corbusier's vision for Brasilia's streets to Prussian state agriculture to Soviet collectivization—have run roughshod over the complexity of actual life on the ground.
Furthermore, the collectivization of capitalists (read: mergers and acquisitions) lowers intra-industry competition, eliminates duplicative laborers, eliminates duplicative processes, and makes the job market less fluid all without sacrificing productivity.
Lenin's close collaborator and pupil, Joseph Stalin, launched the collectivization of agriculture and began the great purges that resulted in the starvation and death of more than 20 million people.
The Cultural Revolution had roots in the 1958-61 Great Leap Forward, the collectivization of agricultural and industrial output that precipitated a famine that left as many as 45 million dead.
But Kotkin also attributes the drive for collectivization to a broader determination to wrench the Soviet Union, no matter the cost, into a state of social and economic, albeit anticapitalist, modernity.
Perhaps its most impressive achievement was to carry out agrarian reform, allowing peasants to buy land at reasonable prices and not resorting to the catastrophic forced collectivization the Bolsheviks later employed.
It included a devastating portrait of Stalin's collectivization campaign that led to the death of millions of peasants in the 1930s, tracking some who returned from the labor camps after Stalin's death.
But some of his policies were disastrous, including the forced agricultural collectivization and industrialization of the Great Leap Forward, which historians blame for a famine in which tens of millions of people died.
Following the collectivization of agriculture in 1933 in Ukraine, a famine caused life expectancy to drop to 7.3 years for men and 10.9 years for women, down from 41.58 and 45.93 years, respectively.
"However hard I tried," he wrote, "I just could not see anything in my memories that had to deal with collectivization, killings, political trials, endless bread lines, imprisoned free thinkers," and so on.
He was born in 1961, during a catastrophic period known as the Great Leap Forward, when Mao Zedong's program of industrialization and agricultural collectivization resulted in famine and tens of millions of deaths.
Both were homicidal paranoiacs, determined to deport, enslave and exterminate entire categories of human beings: in Stalin's case, the kulaks during the collectivization campaign; in Hitler's, not just Jews but Slavs, Romani and numerous others.
The communist intellectuals in the West deliberately ignored the man-made starvation that collectivization caused in Russia and Ukraine, as well as the ethnic and social cleansing unleashed by the Bolsheviks on an unprecedented scale.
A loosening of political restrictions in the 1980s allowed Russians for the first time to freely discuss the millions of people who died during his forced collectivization of farmers and his bloody purges of the 1930s.
She mines a vast array of sources to tell the disastrous tale of forced collectivization, deportations and exile, and starvation, all underscored by Russia's prolonged fear of losing a territory it regarded as a lucrative colony.
While the famine of 1932 and 1933 brought on by the forced collectivization of farms undeniably affected other parts of the Soviet Union, in Ukraine, entire villages were cut off and their inhabitants left to starve.
Communism lifted his father to the role of itinerant industrial manager, and he moved the family across the Soviet Union as he helped carry out Stalin's five-year plans for rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture.
It was nearly obliterated under Maoist collectivization, and — after reviving in the 1980s — is now under assault from urban administrators and police officials who loathe dirt and disorder and often treat the traveling performers as embarrassing yokels.
An estimated 750,000 people were executed during the height of the Great Terror, in 1937 and 1938, but the victims number in the millions when the labor camps, forced collectivization, famine and other horrors are taken into account.
For decades, that reign had corrupted Soviet agricultural sciences, contributed to disastrous crop failures and famines after the forced collectivization of farms, and led to the imprisonment, expulsion and deaths of hundreds of his academic and political opponents.
He is recognized as responsible for the deaths of millions, from policies that included the forced collectivization of farms that caused famine, and from a succession of purges that saw mass executions and imprisonment at an archipelago of camps.
Other visitors expressed concern that the museum appeared to honor Stalin for his defeat of Nazi Germany without mention of his repressive policies which led to the death of millions of people during bloody purges and the forced collectivization of farms.
Pinkham dispenses with the natural-gas wars that have dominated Russo-Ukrainian relations in the post-Soviet era in a half-paragraph — and, within it, glosses the Holodomor, the murder of untold millions of Ukrainians during the collectivization of the 1930s.
Stalin's project of farm collectivization "served well enough as a means whereby the state could determine cropping patterns, fix real rural wages, appropriate a large share of whatever grain was produced, and politically emasculate the countryside"; it also killed many millions of peasants.
That story is the complement to her grandparents', the two together constituting the Latvian national wartime narrative: those who suffered the pain of leaving and those subjected to the pain of staying — which meant life under the Soviet yoke, collectivization and, often, expulsion to Siberia.
As starvation spread in the wake of Stalin's collectivization, particularly in 21953-220, Lysenko, a semi-educated charlatan, attacked well-known geneticists who were trying to develop new hybrid crops that could solve the problem of low productivity, much of it caused by Stalin's brutal policies.
Armenia By The New York Times A fleeting reference is made to the collectivization of Soviet farms, which led to the starvation of an estimated four million Ukrainians, but if you'd never heard of this atrocity, you might think it was a hard-won success marred by slip-ups.
In a signed editorial, Mr. Meyer concluded that Mr. Duranty had been guilty of "some of the worst reporting to appear in this newspaper" — including his indifference to the 21999-19903 famine in which millions perished in Ukraine, a result of Stalin's policy of forced collectivization of farms.
Every day exploded with a new revelation: about the acid poured by Lenin's Chekists to dissolve the faces of the murdered Romanovs; about the peasants who'd eaten their dead children during the famine caused by collectivization; about the bones of the gulag inmates that paved the great construction projects of Communism.
One of my all-time favorite quotes comes from William Whyte's The Organization Man: The most misguided attempt at false collectivization is the current attempt to see the group as a creative vehicle… People very rarely think in groups; they talk together, they exchange information, they adjudicate, they make compromises.
Fourth, the increasing affordability of international trade and travel – in part thanks to lower energy costs and greater economies of scale due to the collectivization of corporations and shareholders – has taken globalization into hyper drive, resulting in American workers having to compete with workers all across the globe for labor intensive industries such as manufacturing.
The miners working there, and the population tasked with feeding that labor, were internally exiled citizens; ethnic minorities from the empire's vast corners; farmers who resisted Stalin's forced collectivization of agriculture; people who maybe were suspected of thinking (or, God save you, saying) something negative about Soviet life—packed into train cars and put to work.
It was vaguely understood that there had been some loss of life: the terror and famine under Lenin, the Civil War, forced collectivization ("Ten millions," Stalin said to Churchill, holding up both palms, in the Kremlin in 1942), the burgeoning system of state slavery known as the gulag (created under Lenin), the Great Purge of 1937-38.
Nearly all of the major figures who enabled this integration through reidentification, who went down like Moses into the rail yards, packing plants, and sweatshops, and brought socialism to America, were Jews: Daniel De Leon (1852-1914), a Sephardic immigrant from Curaçao and the forefather of industrial unionism, became the leader of the Socialist Labor Party of America and a three-time failed candidate for governor of New York; Samuel Gompers (1003-1924), an immigrant Jew from England who was the first president of the American Federation of Labor; Victor L. Berger (1860-1929), an immigrant Jew from Austro-Hungary, who founded the Social Democratic Party of America, converted Eugene V. Debs, who had been a Democratic member of the Indiana General Assembly, to socialism, and became the first socialist elected to the House; Morris Hillquit (1869-1933), a Jewish immigrant from the Baltics, who co-founded the Socialist Party of America and was a two-time failed candidate for the mayor of New York City and representative of New York's 9th congressional district—Sanders's birth district; and Saul Alinsky, the Chicago-born codifier of community organizing, who influenced Sanders's grassroots-collectivization campaigning (and, parenthetically, served as the subject of Hillary Clinton's undergrad thesis).
By the end of the FYP, agricultural collectivization showed minimal growth in production as well as profits, agricultural collectivization was a failure for the Soviets.
Villages had to agree to collectivization: some collectivization planners would hold endless meetings that would not end until villages joined; another tactic was through intimidation and coercion. Mass agricultural collectivization was largely supported by the middle and poor peasantry As the peasant class itself was divided into three groups: kulaks, wealthy; serednyak, middle; bednyak, poor. The middle and lower class supported collectivization, because it took private land from individual Kulak's, and distributed it among the serednyak and bednyak's villages. With the serednyak and bednyak joining collectivization they were also joining a kohloz.
In such a manner, the state introduced forced collectivization of villages. This collectivization soon disappointed the poor peasants who got their land for free in the process of dispossession of wealthy peasants. Even though the communists thought that collectivization would solve the problem with food, on the contrary, the collectivization created the so-called "Bread Crisis" in 1949. The process of dispossession in Yugoslavia lasted from the middle of 1945 until the end of 1949.
99 Stamp published in 1962 announcing "the end of the collectivization of agriculture" Despite these warnings, Party cadres were employed and trained on strategies to recruit support for collectivization. These individuals were chosen among the normal peasant population. Upon completion of their training, they would travel the country speaking to peasant farmers about the party and its efforts at collectivization. This usually included efforts to persuade the peasants to agree to collectivization and to the goals of the Party.
The requisition of grains from wealthy peasants (kulaks) during the forced collectivization in Timashyovsky District, Kuban Soviet Union. 1933 Agricultural collectivization, within Russia, had its origins under Lenin during the New Economic Policy. One reason for the collectivization of Soviet agriculture was to increase the number of industrial workers for the new factories. Soviet officials also believed that collectivization would increase crop yields and help fund other programs. The Soviets enacted a land decree in 1917 that eliminated private ownership of land.
They witnessed the Holodomor, produced by forced collectivization (von Mohrenschildt 1970).
Of the European communist states, Yugoslavia ranked second, behind Bulgaria, in proportion of peasant households in collectives. In 1950, 21.9% of arable land and 18.1% of households were under collectivization. The Cazin rebellion of May 1950 was a peasant revolt against the state's collectivization efforts and was a factor in the abandonment of collectivization that occurred throughout the 1950s in Yugoslavia.
With lack of a foundation, collectivization led to the Famine of 1931–33 in Kazakhstan, the region once being a major grain producer.Pianciola, N. “The Collectivization Famine in Kazakhstan, 1931-1933.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol. 25, no.
It was not until 1940 that agricultural production finally surpassed its pre-collectivization levels.Richard Overy: Russia's War, 1997Eric Hobsbawm: Age of Extremes, 1994 Collectivization throughout Moldova was not aggressively pursued until the early 1960s because of the Soviet leadership's focus on a policy of Russification of Moldavians into the Russian way of life. Much of the collectivization in Moldova had undergone in Transnistria, in Chişinău, the present-day capital city of Moldova. Most of the directors who regulated and conducted the process of collectivization were placed by officials from Moscow.
The collectivization effort was primarily orchestrated by the rank-and-file members of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT; ) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI; ). The socialist Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT; ) also participated in the implementation of collectivization.
Soviet Union stamp, the seven-year plan, grain; 1959, 20 kop., used, CPA No. 2345. Stalin's campaign of forced collectivization relied on a hukou system to keep farmers tied to the land. The collectivization was a major factor explaining the sector's poor performance.
Rapid collectivization began in 1946, followed in 1947 by a crackdown against kulak farmers. The kulak repression started as oppressive taxation, but eventually led to mass deportations. Those who resisted collectivization were killed or deported. More than 95% of farms were collectivized by 1951.
Rumors circulated in the villages warning the rural residents that collectivization would bring disorder, hunger, famine, and the destruction of crops and livestock.Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin, 60. Readings and reinterpretations of Soviet newspapers labelled collectivization as a second serfdom.Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin, 3.
They also objected to Pasternak's subtle criticisms of Stalinism, Collectivization, the Great Purge, and the Gulag.
But soon collectivization was intensified again, and by 1936, about 90% of Soviet agriculture was collectivized.
CENA WYGRANEJ, Biuletyn IPN - nr 1/2002 The idea of collectivization returned in the early 1970s, after Gomułka's successor as First Secretary, Edward Gierek, visited Moscow in January 1971; there General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev stated that Gomułka had not carried out collectivization, and that that accounted for his "problems". However, the position of private farmers had become well- established in Poland by that time, and after some attempts at promotion, the Polish government abandoned the policy of expanding collectivization.
Between the years of 1929 to 1932, the Soviet Communist Party under Joseph Stalin organized dekulakization and collectivization. Dekulakization involved the killing and deportation of millions of peasants and their families. Collectivization signified the "effective abolition of private property in land, and the concentration of the remaining peasantry in 'collective' farming under Party control." Although collectivization is discussed in relation to agriculture, it is quite evident that the Communist Party's Policy was directed not only at collectivizing land, but also at collectivizing people.
The Polish People's Republic pursued a policy of agricultural collectivization during the Stalinist regime period, from 1948 until the liberalization during Gomułka's thaw of 1956. However, Poland was the only country in the Eastern Bloc where large-scale collectivization failed to take root. A legacy of collectivization in Poland was the network of inefficient State Agricultural Farms (PGRs), many of which can still be seen in the countryside of modern Poland, especially in its newly acquired northern and western provinces (the Recovered Territories).
3-4, 2001, p. 237.Economakis, E. “Soviet Interpretations of Collectivization.” Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 69, no.
Viola, Lynne, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1996), p. 3.
In 1964, Na Irtyshe (On the Irtysh) was published in Novy Mir. The novel describes the catastrophe of the peasant life at the turn of the 1930s, during the collectivization period. “For the first time in the Soviet censored press, the truth about collectivization was told, for the first time collectivization was shown not in the canonical Sholokhov interpretation, but as a tragedy of the Russian peasants, and even more - as a national catastrophe”. Official critics accused Zalygin of distorting the “concrete historical truth” and of “ideological and artistic inability”.
This degree of collectivization was achieved with much less turmoil than had occurred during collectivization in the Soviet Union. As in the Soviet Union, however, investment in the agricultural sector was kept low relative to industrial investment because planners chose to achieve more rapid growth of basic industries. But collectivization did not prevent the growth of agricultural production; grain production, for example, increased by 3.5 percent a year under the First Five-Year Plan (1953–57). Growth was achieved mainly through the intensified use of traditional agricultural techniques, together with some technical improvements.
The film begins with the final moments of grandfather Semyon (Simon) Opanas beneath a pear tree.Philosophy, Iconology, Collectivization: Earth (1930) Next local kulaks, including Arkhyp Bilokin, contemplate the process of collectivization and declare their resistance to it, while elsewhere Semyon's grandson Vasyl (Basil) and his Komsomol friends also meet to discuss collectivization, although his father is skeptical. Later, Vasyl arrives with the community's first tractor to much excitement. After the men urinate in the overheated radiator, the peasants plow the land with the tractor and harvest the grain.
Not only was collectivization meant to fund industrialization, but it was also a way for the Bolsheviks to systematically attack the Kulaks and peasants in general. Stalin was incredibly suspicious of the peasants, he viewed them as a major threat to socialism. Stalin's use of the collectivization process served to not only address the grain shortages, but his greater concern over the peasants' willingness to conform to the collective farm system and state mandated grain acquisitions. He viewed this as an opportunity to eliminate Kulaks as a class by means of collectivization.
Iván T. Berend, The Hungarian Economic Reforms 1953–1988, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. In the spring of 1955 the drive for collectivization was renewed, again using physical force to encourage membership, but this second wave also ended in dismal failure. After the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the Hungarian regime opted for a more gradual collectivization drive. The main wave of collectivization occurred between 1959 and 1961, and at the end of this period more than 95% of agricultural land in Hungary had become the property of collective farms.
The kulaks who were considered "counter- revolutionary" were executed or exiled, those who opposed collectivization were deported to remote regions and the rest were resettled to non-arable land in the same region. In the years following the agricultural collectivization, the reforms would disrupt the Soviet food supply. In turn, this disruption would eventually lead to famines for the many years following the first five- year plan, with 6-7 million dying from starvation in 1933. Although Stalin reported in 1930 that collectivization was aiding the country, this was the era of exaggeration.
CLUEA's management was always surrounded by controversy and confrontation, since although the UGT militants agreed with the collectivization, the leaders of the PSOE did not. Among the leaders opposed to collectivization was Largo Caballero himself. In that year, an overproduction crisis occurred in the European market. The European market was saturated with Palestinian oranges, Spanish production had extra competition.
The Soviet Union enforced the collectivization of its agricultural sector between 1928 and 1940. The policy aimed to consolidate individual landholdings and labour into collective farms: kolkhoz and sovkhoz. Since 1929 in view of the forced collectivization campaign, in Damaskino the Kolkhoz appeared. The kolkhoz named after Mikhail Frunze was formed in two rural selsoviets: in Zhirnovo and Damaskino.
All land was nationalized; the largest farms were reduced to , and extra land (some ) was distributed to small farmers.Anušauskas (2005), pp. 120–121 To turn small peasants against large landowners, collectivization was not immediately introduced in Lithuania. In preparation for eventual collectivization, farm taxes were increased by 50–200% and additional heavy in-kind conscriptions were enacted.
In Mongolia, a so-called 'Soviet dependency', attempted collectivization was abandoned in 1932 after the loss of 8 million head of livestock.
The vehement Chechen opposition to Soviet collectivization has been explained by the threat it posed to the traditional customs of land allotment.
In February 1961, the Central Committee declared that collectivization had been completed.Nigel Swain, Collective Farms Which Work?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Lhakar's strategy is based on nonviolence. That strategy is applied along three main lines: de-collectivization, weaponization of culture, and non-cooperation.
The Decree of Central Committee of VKP(b) from August 2, 1931 clarified the “all-over collectivization” term - in order to be considered complete the “all-over collectivization” does not have to reach “100%”, but not less than 68–70% of peasants households and not less than 75-80% of arable lands. According to the same decree “all-over collectivization” accomplished at Northern Caucasus (Kuban) - 88% of households and 92% of arable lands “collectivized”, Ukraine (South) – 85 and 94 percents respectively, Ukraine (Right Bank) – 69 and 80 percents respectively, and Moldavian ASRR (part of Ukrainian SRR) – 68 and 75 percent.Compendium of Soviet Law for 1931. Moscow, 1932 As of the beginning of October 1931, the collectivization of 68.0% of peasant households, and 72.0% of arable land was complete.
The community survived until 1935, and is considered by historians as a successful Mennonite settlement that was dissolved under the Soviet collectivization program.
Stalin's second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva, committed suicide due to the atrocities of collectivization, particular the famine.McCauley, Martin. Stalin and Stalinism. Pearson Longman, 2008.
Thomas Koebner wrote that the film was clearly a "vehicle of propaganda to promote the collectivization".Thomas Koebner. Filmregisseure: Biographien, Werkbeschreibungen, Filmographien. Reclam (1999). .
According to Valentino, between 60,000 and 300,000 people may have been killed in Romania beginning in 1945 as part of agricultural collectivization and political repression.
During the 1870s, button manufactory was established. Brushes producing was started in 1918 operating to 1991. Hostice farmers resisted to the collectivization up to 1957.
Some historians and scholars consider that this famine amounted to genocide of the Kazakhs. The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan.PIanciola, Niccolò, 2004, "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928-1934", Cahiers du monde russe, vol.
Gupta (ed.), The Ryutin Platform, pg. xvii. Upon his return to Moscow, Ryutin sharply criticized the collectivization program in a report to the Politburo. This report drew Stalin's ire, but he nevertheless made use of Ryutin's analysis as part of his seminal article, "Dizzy with Success." In January 1930, Ryutin published an article in Red Star which again publicly challenged the implementation of the collectivization program.
With such control, intellectual reform becomes much easier. Collectivization was also an excellent way to create and subsequently destroy a class structure, especially when none already existed. For many communist countries, the Soviet Union’s ‘extensive experience in collectivizing agriculture’ served as their guiding light and provided the basic script. Its central ingredient ... was the demonization of the wealthy peasants.” Class war and collectivization went hand in hand.
Semyon Lipkin wrote: Grossman also criticized collectivization and political repression of peasants that led to the Holodomor tragedy. He wrote that "The decree about grain procurement required that the peasants of Ukraine, the Don and the Kuban be put to death by starvation, put to death along with their little children."Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. .
For the collectivization of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers would revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54 Once collectivization takes place, money would be abolished to be replaced with labour notes and workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on job difficulty and the amount of time they contributed to production.
1962 stamp commemorating the "completion" of land collectivization. In Romania, land collectivization began in 1948 and continued for over more than a decade until its virtual eradication in 1962.A. Sarris and D. Gavrilescu, "Restructuring of farms and agricultural systems in Romania", in: J. Swinnen, A. Buckwell, and E. Mathijs, eds., Agricultural Privatisation, Land Reform and Farm Restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe, Ashgate, Aldershot, UK, 1997.
He retained his seat as a candidate member of the Central Committee of the VKP(b) at this time, however. In 1929, faced with bitter peasant opposition to forced requisitioning, the Stalin faction moved towards a radical restructuring of Soviet agriculture through a drive for collectivization. The Central Committee determined to send Ryutin back to his native village in Siberia to report on the progress of collectivization in the grain-producing areas of Siberia. As a child of a peasant family, Ryutin understood full well the unpopularity of the collectivization idea with the peasantry as a whole, and the potential for economic catastrophe represented by the program.
The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine by Robert Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine is a book by British historian Robert Conquest, published in 1986. It was written with the assistance of historian James Mace, a junior fellow at the Ukrainian Research Institute, who, following the advice of the director of the Institute, started doing research for the book. The book deals with the collectivization of agriculture in 1929–31 in Ukraine and elsewhere in the USSR under Stalin's direction, and the 1932–33 famine which resulted. Millions of peasants died due to starvation, deportation to labor camps, and execution.
The next major step toward "all-over collectivization" took place after an article was published by Stalin in Pravda in early November 1929. While initiated by a November 10-17 meeting of Communist Party Central Committee Twenty-Five Thousanders only trained at special short courses, the main driving force of collectivization and dekulakization in Ukraine became a "poor peasants committee" (komnezamy) and local village councils (silrady) where komnezams members had a voting majority. The USSR Kolhozcenter issued the December 10, 1929, decree on collectivization of livestock within a three-month period (draft animals 100%, cattle 100%, pigs 80%, sheep and goats 60%). This drove many peasants to slaughter their livestock.
In the Western World, this was referred to as "the Great Terror". The Soviet collectivization of agriculture used terror against the peasants that resisted, see "Dekulakization".
Uzbeks who remained practicing Muslims were deemed nationalist and often targeted for imprisonment or execution. Stalinist collectivization and industrialization proceeded as elsewhere in the Soviet Union.
Viola, "Bab'i bunti", 217–18. Dovzhenko's film Earth gives example of peasants' scepticism with collectivization on the basis that it was an attack on the church.
Polish farmers fiercely resisted collectivization. In some cases, they cut down forests which were marked for nationalization. According to sources, peasants feared collectivization more than a hypothetical future World War Three, hoping that such a war would help them to keep their land.CENA WYGRANEJ, Biuletyn IPN - nr 1/2002 However, a number of poor peasants, influenced by official propaganda, supported the changes, hoping that their quality of life would improve.
At the same time, grain, livestock and other foodstuffs were seized. In December 1927 the Fifteenth Party Congress of the Soviet Union passed a resolution calling for the "voluntary" collectivization of agriculture. The change in policy was accompanied by a new campaign of repression, directed initially against the small farming class. The objective of this campaign was to suppress the resistance of farming peasants to the full-scale collectivization of agriculture.
These figures are consistent with the archived documents that Russian historian Oleg Khlevniuk presents and analyzes in his study The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror, according to which some 500,000 people died in the camps and colonies from 1930 to 1941.Oleg V. Khlevniuk: The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror New Haven: Yale University Press 2004, , pp. 326–7.
Despite the expectations, collectivization led to a catastrophic drop in farm productivity, which did not return to the levels achieved under the NEP until 1940. The upheaval associated with collectivization was particularly severe in Ukraine and the heavily Ukrainian Volga region. Peasants slaughtered their livestock en masse rather than give them up. In 1930 alone, 25% of the nation's cattle, sheep, and goats, and one- third of all pigs were killed.
The most obstinate farmers were persecuted and imprisoned. The most common form of collectivization was agricultural cooperative (in Czech Jednotné zemědělské družstvo, JZD; in Slovak Jednotné roľnícke družstvo, JRD). The collectivization was implemented in three stages (1949–1952, 1953–1956, 1956–1969) and officially ended with the 1960 implementation of the constitution establishing the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, which made private ownership illegal. Many early cooperatives collapsed and were recreated again.
Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Collectivization in Ukraine, officially the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, was part of the policy of Collectivization in the USSR and dekulakization that was pursued between 1928 and 1933 with the purpose to consolidate individual land and labour into collective farms called kolkhoz and to eliminate enemies of the working class. The idea of collective farms was seen by peasants as a revival of serfdom. In Ukraine this policy had a dramatic effect on the Ukrainian ethnic population and its culture as 86% of the population lived in rural settings. The forceful introduction of the policy of collectivization was one of the main causes of the Holodomor.
Since the committee controlled all the money supply, travel to another region required getting permission and convertible money from the committee. For the CNT, collectivization was a key component of the revolution, they feared that the small holders and tenant farmers would form the core of a new landholding class and act as an obstacle to the revolution. The Anarchists also believed that private ownership of land created a bourgeois mentality and led to exploitation. While the official policy of the CNT was that of peaceful voluntary collectivization and many small farmers and peasant proprietors voluntarily joined the collectives, a larger proportion of them opposed collectivization or joined only after extreme duress.
The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union consequently criticised the Mongolian Communists for implementing the collectivization in a similar way as in the Soviet Union, forcing the Mongolian government to shift to the so-called "New Course" and abandon the noncapitalist path, including collectivization, for the time being. Historian Stephen Kotkin argued that this was a "full reversal Stalin would not countenance at home", although collectivization had resulted in similar economic chaos and a great famine in the Soviet Union. In 1934, Peljidiin Genden visited Moscow and angrily accused Stalin of "Red imperialism". He subsequently died in the Great Purge after being tricked into taking a holiday on the Black Sea.
I don't know, the collectivization of manufacture? The institutionalization of the human psyche? I'm not sure. But I can tell you one thing: this is a symbol of irreversibility.
Set in 1946, the novel's central theme is the forced collectivization of agricultural land in North Korea, a national crisis that altered the path of the history of Korea.
Bakukunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd. p. 115. For the collectivization of the means of production, collectivist anarchism originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. Once collectivization takes place, money would be abolished to be replaced with labour notes and workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations of voluntary membership based on job difficulty and the amount of time they contributed to production.
Ukhnalev was born in Leningrad in 1931, during the soviet famine of 1932-1933. Dekulakization was pursued during this period, which was meant to highlight the economic disparity present in Russia prior to the political ascent of the Bolsheviks. Thegovernment imposed collectivization of agricultural activity, such as wheat, grain and livestock production, under the theory that kulaks ("rich" peasants) were the main culprits. The consequences of collectivization were drastic- approximately 5.5.-6.5.
It seemed that the 1947–1948 deportations achieved their goals: 1949 saw a flurry of collectivization and further weakening of the armed resistance. However, the pace of collectivization in Lithuania was still not as rapid as in Latvia or Estonia, where 93% and 80% of the farms were collectivized by the end of 1949.Misiunas (1993), p. 102 Therefore, an additional large-scale deportation took place in October 1951 (code name Osen – autumn).
6 Oct. 2010. Ali Hassan al- Majid, nicknamed "Chemical Ali," led the three step process of "village collectivization": the destruction of hundreds of Kurdish villages and the relocation of their residents to concentration camps, mujamma'at. This campaign was the first documented use of chemical weapons by a government against its own civilians. The process of village collectivization violated widespread human rights, it is an example of systematic genocide that went unchecked by the global community.
Propaganda shows the use of tractors (in this case McCormick-Deering 15-30) as a backbone of collectivization. Soviet Ukraine, 1931 Under the NEP, Lenin had to tolerate the continued existence of privately owned agriculture. He decided to wait at least 20 years before attempting to place it under state control and in the meantime concentrate on industrial development. However, after Stalin's rise to power, the timetable for collectivization was shortened to just five years.
Demand for food intensified, especially in the USSR's primary grain producing regions, with new, forced approaches implemented. Upon joining kolkhozes (collective farms), peasants had to give up their private plots of land and property. Every harvest, Kolkhoz production was sold to the state for a low price set by the state itself. However, the natural progress of collectivization was slow, and the November 1929 Plenum of the Central Committee decided to accelerate collectivization through force.
Rákosi renewed the drive for collectivization, again using physical force to encourage membership. This attempt failed to last even as long as the previous drive. Nikita Khrushchev's secret speech and Rákosi's ensuing resignation led to second failure at collectivization. The weaknesses in the Stalinist model had been rather apparent to some after the first wave in the early 1950s, but the inflexibility of the Rákosi government left no room for any creative solutions.
With relatively little use of force, the great wave of collectivization occurred between 1959 and 1961, earlier than forecast in the Agrarian Theses. At the end of this period, more than 95% of agricultural land in Hungary had become the property of collective farms. In February 1961, the Central Committee declared that collectivization had been completed. This quick success should not be confused with enthusiastic adoption of collective idealism on the part of the peasants.
Mao advocated that a further round of collectivization modeled on the USSR's "Third Period" was necessary in the countryside where the existing collectives would be merged into huge People's Communes.
From 1900 she spoke in opposition to state intervention in women's work. After the Russian Revolution in 1917 she wrote several articles that criticized "collectivization" of women by the Bolsheviks.
"Rightists" officially referred to those intellectuals who appeared to favour capitalism and against collectivization during the Anti-Rightist Movement. It was estimated 550,000 Chinese were being prosecuted as a result.
Furthermore, collectivization involved significant changes in the traditional village life of Russian peasants within a very short time frame, despite the long Russian rural tradition of collectivism in the village obshchina or mir. The changes were even more dramatic in other places, such as in Ukraine, with its tradition of individual farming, in the Soviet republics of Central Asia, and in the trans-Volga steppes, where for a family to have a herd of livestock was not only a matter of sustenance but of pride as well.YCLers seizing grain from "kulaks" which was hidden in the graveyard, Ukraine Some peasants viewed collectivization as the end of the world.Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford University Press, 1996), 3–12.
In 1930, however, in "a kind of rehabilitation,"Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 385. he returned to Georgia as First Secretary of the Transcaucasus Regional Committee of the party (Zakkraikom) as part of the party reorganization consequent on Stalin's acknowledgment of the excesses of collectivization ("Dizzy with Success"). Shortly after his arrival in Tbilisi, Lominadze made several speeches criticizing the way collectivization had been carried out in the region, telling the Seventh Congress of the Georgian party in May 1930, "Here in the Transcaucasian village the material productive base which would allow us to undertake such a tempo of collectivization as in the North Caucasus, Lower Volga, or Ukraine does not exist."Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 250.
In Ukraine collectivization had specific goals and outcomes. The Soviet policies related to collectivization have to be understood in the larger context of the social "revolution from above" that took place in the Soviet Union at the time.С. Кульчицький, Проблема колективізації сільського господарства в сталінській “революції зверху”, (pdf ) Проблеми Історіїї України факти, судження, пошуки, №12, 2004, сс. 21-69 The formation of collective farms were based on the large village farms in collective ownership of village inhabitants.
Collectivization was more widespread in the so-called Recovered Territories, where settlers were not emotionally connected to the land. Collectivization and persecution of private farmers, on whom quotas were enforced, led to a collapse of Polish agricultural production after 1950, and a large-scale exodus of villagers. Furthermore, government planners decided that the national budget would favor financing heavy industry at the expense of agriculture. As a result, farms experienced shortages of fertilizers, pesticides, machinery and tools.
Davies, R.W., The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929–1930, Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1. As the peasantry, with the exception of the poorest part, resisted the collectivization policy, the Soviet government resorted to harsh measures to force the farmers to collectivize. In his conversation with Winston Churchill Stalin gave his estimate of the number of "kulaks" who were repressed for resisting Soviet collectivization as 10 million, including those forcibly deported.Valentin Berezhkov, "Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina", Moscow, DEM, 1993, . p.
NEP was based more on capitalism and not socialism, which is the direction the government wanted to head toward. By 1928, with the rapid industrialization, and mass urbanization that followed, consumption was to increase rapidly as well. Need for urban dwellers to be fed, the FYP increased collectivization, leading to its recognition be largely associated with Stalin. Beginning in 1929 under the FYP, mass collectivization was communal farms being assigned an amount of agricultural output with government coercion.
Li County's loess is prone to erosion and landslides. Amid the increasing collectivization of agriculture from 1964 to 1978, just seven flows damaged of farmland, destroyed 17,544 homes, and killed 1,142 people.
Emphasizing individual acts of resistance rather than public acts of protest, Lhakar has decentralized the resistance. Through de-collectivization of activism, Lhakar wishes to sustain the Tibetan struggle by empowering the individual.
Among them were 30–40 men from Răstoaca who had attacked a convoy of Party members (Nicolae Ceaușescu among them) that had come to convince the locals to join in the collectivization effort.
While both Su and Dong agreed that it was the collectivization of agriculture and the establishment of People's Communes which had ended rural exploitation, neither of them sought a return to collectivized agriculture.
In 1928 he became General Secretary of the Ukrainian SSR Communist Party. Among his tasks was the collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine. In 1930 Kosior was admitted to the Politburo of the CPSU.
In Romania, where anti-Russian and anti- collectivization sentiments were widespread among the peasantry, it was the persuasion work of cadres that was supposed to "inform" peasants on the reality of the collective farms, in this way disseminating the class line on collectivization throughout the countryside.Kligman & Verdery, p. 284. When they went into the peasant villages to do this, however, many party workers could not even explain adequately what the terms "collective farm" and "stratification" meant, Kligman & Verdery, p. 289-91.
In Hungary, agricultural collectivization was attempted a number of times between 1948 and 1956 (with disastrous results), until it was finally successful in the early 1960s under János Kádár. The first serious attempt at collectivization based on Stalinist agricultural policy was undertaken in July 1948. Both economic and direct police pressure were used to coerce peasants to join cooperatives, but large numbers opted instead to leave their villages. By the early 1950s, only one-quarter of peasants had agreed to join cooperatives.
The price of collectivization was so high that the March 2, 1930 issue of Pravda contained Stalin's article Dizzy with Success, in which he called for a temporary halt to the process: > It is a fact that by February 20 of this year 50 percent of the peasant > farms throughout the U.S.S.R. had been collectivized. That means that by > February 20, 1930, we had overfulfilled the five-year plan of > collectivization by more than 100 per cent.... some of our comrades have > become dizzy with success and for the moment have lost clearness of mind and > sobriety of vision. After the publication of the article, the pressure for collectivization temporarily abated and peasants started leaving collective farms. According to Martin Kitchen, the number of members of collective farms dropped by 50% in 1930.
Another theme in the film is collectivism in opposition to individualism which was viewed as a convention of western film. Collective efforts and collectivization of characters are central to both Strike and Battleship Potemkin.
Pons' joined the CNT in 1937 and participated in the collectivization of the Consejo Económico de la Madera Socializada and other locations such as the Santa Madrona Church in Poble Sec neighborhood of Barcelona.
The film was adapted from Jurij Brězan's novel by the same name, published in 1953. 52 Weeks Make One Year was the first East German film about the collectivization of agriculture in the country.
It was also the date that the Khmer Rouge had initiated forced collectivization in southern Takéo in 1973.Fawthrop, Tom, and Helen Jarvis. Getting Away with Genocide?: Cambodia's Long Struggle against the Khmer Rouge.
Ohayon, Isabelle, 2006, La Sédentarisation des Kazakhs dans the USSR de Stalin. Collectivization et changement social (1928-1945). Maisonneuve et Larose. 70% of the refugees survived and the rest died due to epidemics and hunger.
After the 1949 deportations and collectivization the resistance movement decreased sharply, with the last few individuals surrendering in 1956, when amnesty was offered. The last holdout was Jānis Pīnups, who hid from authorities until 1995.
During the Spanish Civil War, the village of Graus served as a fairly important local commercial center with 2,600 inhabitants around 1936. It was a libertarian stronghold and a centre of collectivization at that time.
Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. . By a decree of February 1930, about one million individual peasants (kulaks) were forced off their land.
The capital Dyushambe was renamed Stalinabad in honor of Joseph Stalin. Like in other Soviet Socialist Republics, the processes of industrialization and collectivization started in 1927 and continued until the end of the 1930s. Terror was often used to coherce farmers into forced collectivization, and this led to anti-government resistance in the years spanning from 1930 to 1936. Stalinist purges hit many members of the Communist Party of Tajikistan, and this led to the elimination of around 10,000 people (70% of the Party members).
Some of those dekulakized were declared to have been labeled mistakenly and received their property back, and some returned home. As a result, the collectivization process was rolled back. On May 1, 1933, 38.2% of Ukrainian SSR peasant households and 41.1% of arable land had been collectivized—by the end of August these numbers declined to 29.2% and 35.6% respectively. A second forced-voluntary collectivization campaign was initiated in the winter of 1931, with significant assistance of the so-called tug-brigades composed of kolkhoz udarniks.
Theoretically, landless peasants were intended as the biggest beneficiaries of collectivization, because it promised them an opportunity to take an equal share in labour and its rewards. In fact, however, rural areas did not have many landless peasants, given the wholesale redistribution of land following the Revolution. Alternatively, for those with property, collectivization meant forfeiting land up to the collective farms and selling most of the harvest to the state at minimal prices set by the state itself. This, in turn, engendered opposition to the idea.
Even before World War II, industrialization in Czechoslovakia had substantially reduced the relative importance of agriculture in the economy. Before the KSC gained control of the government, Czechoslovak agriculture consisted primarily of small to mid-size family farms with an efficiency on a par with most of Europe. The situation did not change until 1949, when the KSC initiated a policy of collectivization. The pace of collectivization was rather gradual until the late 1950s and was generally more thorough in the Czech lands than in Slovakia.
Soviet famine of 1932–33. Areas of most disastrous famine marked with black. As part of the first five-year plan, collectivization was introduced in the Soviet Union by general secretary Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s as a way, according to the policies of socialist leaders, to boost agricultural production through the organization of land and labor into large-scale collective farms (kolkhozy). At the same time, Joseph Stalin argued that collectivization would free poor peasants from economic servitude under the kulaks (farmland owners).
Kligman and Verdery state "The violence collectivization, emerges, then, less, as an abhoration than as a product of sociocultural shaping and of deep problems with how the soviet blueprint came to be implemented... instead of a gradual and integrated process of moving from one form of society to another, Romanian society in the Soviet orbit was being completely rearticulated, a process in which violence was inevitable." Kligman, G., & Verdery, K. (2011). Peasants under siege: the collectivization of Romanian agriculture, 1949–1962. Princeton University Press.
The kulaks did not support mass collectivization, as their land was being taken from them as well as their animals. At the end of 1929 the Soviets asserted themselves to forming collectivized peasant agriculture, but the “Kulaks” had to be “liquidated as a class,” because of their resistance to fixed agricultural prices. Resulting from this, the party behavior became uncontrolled and manic when the party began to requisition food from the countryside. Kulaks were executed, exiled or deported, based on their level of resistance to collectivization.
The collectivization process was rolled back: by 1 May 1933 38.2% of Ukrainian peasant households and 41.1% of arable land had been collectivized. By the end of August, these numbers declined to 29.2% and 35.6% respectively.
This gradual shift to collective farming in the first 15 years after the October Revolution was turned into a "violent stampede" during the forced collectivization campaign that began in 1928 as means to countering "counterrevolutionary elements".
Kliment Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, Alexander Kosarev and Vyacheslav Molotov on the 7th Conference of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League (Komsomol). Jul 1932 Kaganovich (together with Vyacheslav Molotov) participated with the All-Ukrainian Party Conference of 1930 and were given the task of implementation of the collectivization policy that caused a catastrophic 1932–33 famine (known as the Holodomor in Ukraine). Similar policies also inflicted enormous suffering on the Soviet Central Asian republic of Kazakhstan, the Kuban region, Crimea, the lower Volga region, and other parts of the Soviet Union. As an emissary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Kaganovich traveled to Ukraine, the central regions of the USSR, the Northern Caucasus, and Siberia demanding the acceleration of collectivization and repressions against the Kulaks, who were generally blamed for the slow progress of collectivization.
This monograph dealt with the Soviet grain procurement crisis of 1928 and the associated political battle, a bitter fight which resulted in a decision to forcibly collectivize Soviet agriculture. In this work, Lewin emphasized collectivization as a practical (albeit extreme) solution to a real world problem facing the Soviet regime, one out of several potential solutions to a crisis situation. Rather than an inevitable and predestined action, collectivization was cast as a brutal manifestation of realpolitik — a view in marked contrast to the traditionalist historiography of the day. Russian Peasants and Soviet Power was initially projected as the first part of a long study of the social history of Soviet Russia down to 1934,Moshe Lewin, "Author's Foreword" to Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968, p. 11.
Following the implementation of the Soviet collectivization campaign, Shmyryov was elected a kolkhoz chairman in 1933. By the outbreak of war between the Germans and the Soviet Union, Shmyryov had been made director of a cardboard factory.
Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production. It instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. For the collectivization of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. Once collectivization takes place, money would be abolished to be replaced with labour notes and workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on job difficulty and the amount of time they contributed to production.
Collectivization advanced in Western Ukraine, and Khrushchev implemented more policies that encouraged collectivization and discouraged private farms. These sometimes backfired, however: a tax on private livestock holdings led to peasants slaughtering their stock. With the idea of eliminating differences in attitude between town and countryside and transforming the peasantry into a "rural proletariat", Khrushchev conceived the idea of the "agro-town". Rather than agricultural workers living in villages close to farms, they would live further away in larger towns which would offer municipal services such as utilities and libraries, which were not present in villages.
To eradicate the intended target (that is, the paranji), the Zhenotdel workers designated their time to organizing public demonstrations on a grand scale, where fiery speeches and inspirational tales would speak for women's liberation. If all went according to plan, Uzbek women would cast off their paranjis en masse. Usually, efforts to transform women were scheduled to follow or even accompany collectivization in most regions. By aligning collectivization with the hujum, the idea was that the Soviets could more easily control and intervene in the everyday life of the Uzbeks.
The first phase of collectivization resulted in modest improvements in output. Famine along the mid-Yangzi was averted in 1956 through the timely allocation of food-aid, but in 1957 the Party's response was to increase the proportion of the harvest collected by the state to insure against further disasters. Moderates within the Party, including Zhou Enlai, argued for a reversal of collectivization on the grounds that claiming the bulk of the harvest for the state had made the people's food-security dependent upon the constant, efficient, and transparent functioning of the government.
The presence of armed CNT militiamen also had the effect of imposing fear on those who opposed collectivization. Those smallholders who refused collectivization were prevented from hiring any laborers and usually were forced to sell their crops directly to the committees, on their terms. They were also often denied the services of the collectivized businesses such as the barbershops and bakeries, use of communal transport, farm equipment and food supplies from communal warehouses. All of these economic pressures combined caused many tenant farmers and smallholders to give up their land and join the collectives.
Halyna Trybel happened to be a mother of Yuriy Yekhanurov. Soviet authorities, who wanted to create Polish laborers, future citizens of the Polish Soviet Republic, built several factories as well as power plants and telephone lines. This also brought about improvement in the quality of life, but all efforts were destroyed in the early 1930s, when collectivization began (see collectivization in the Soviet Union). Polish peasants opposed it fiercely, and thousands of them perished in the Holodomor (Enforced famine). Initially, ethnic Poles constituted around 70% of district's population, which in 1926 totalled around 41,000.
Because of the need to conceal of the assumption of control and the realities of an initial lack of control, no Soviet dekulakisation-style liquidation of rich peasants could be carried out in the non-Soviet Eastern Bloc countries. Nor could they risk mass starvation or agricultural sabotage (e.g., holodomor) with a rapid collectivization through massive state farms and agricultural producers' cooperatives (APCs). Instead, collectivization proceeded more slowly and in stages from 1948 to 1960 in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, and from 1955 to 1964 in Albania.
Collectivization in the Baltic republics of the Lithuanian SSR, Estonian SSR and Latvian SSR took place between 1947 and 1952. Unlike Soviet collectivization, neither massive destruction of livestock nor errors causing distorted output or distribution occurred in the other Eastern Bloc countries. More widespread use of transitional forms occurred, with differential compensation payments for peasants that contributed more land to APCs. Because Czechoslovakia and East Germany were more industrialized than the Soviet Union, they were in a position to furnish most of the equipment and fertilizer inputs needed to ease the transition to collectivized agriculture.
During the Great Leap Forward campaign of 1958 to 1961, China's leaders attempted to accelerate collectivization and dramatically increase the pace of industrial production throughout the country, particularly in rural areas. This mostly involved small-scale production, such as the smelting of "backyard" steel. It was thought that through collectivization and mass labour, China's steel production would surpass that of the United Kingdom within only 15 years from the start of the "leap." An experimental commune was established in Henan early in 1958, and soon communes spread throughout the country.
118–119 led Stalin to charge that Pauker had fatefully deviated into "peasantist, non-Marxist policies".Levy, pp. 199–200. Pauker's "Moscow faction" (so called because many of its members, like Pauker, had spent years in exile in Moscow) was opposed by the "prison faction" (most of whom had spent the Fascist period in Romanian prisons, particularly in the Doftana Prison). Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the de facto leader of the "prison faction", had supported intensified agricultural collectivization,Kligman and Verdery, Peasants Under Siege: The Collectivization of Romanian Agriculture, 1949–1962, pp.
Yakov Yakovlev, People's Commissar for Agriculture appointed in 1929 The situation changed quickly in the fall of 1929 and the winter of 1930. Between September and December 1929, collectivization increased from 7.4% to 15%, but in the first two months of 1930, 11 million households joined collectivized farms, pushing the total to nearly 60% almost overnight. To assist collectivization, the Party decided to send 25,000 "socially conscious" industry workers to the countryside. This was accomplished from 1929–1933, and these workers have become known as twenty- five-thousanders ("dvadtsat'pyat'tysyachniki").
During his rule the main accent was pointed on the atheism, while in the economic sector the finishing of collectivization by formation of kolkhozes and sovkhozes everywhere in the Moldavian SSR. A number of industrial units were built.
Between 1929 and 1932 there was a massive fall in agricultural production resulting in famine in the countryside. Stalin and the CPSU blamed the prosperous peasants, referred to as 'kulaks' (Russian: fist), who were organizing resistance to collectivization.
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times – Soviet Russia in the 1930s. Oxford, England ; New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Collectivization was under-planned; a lack of instructions, and unrealistic quotas were the reality.
Moscow, 1937. Mounted Kuban Cossacks on parade. Collectivization of agriculture reduced Soviet horse stocks from an estimated 34 million in 1929 to 21 million in 1940. 11 million of these were lost to advancing German armies in 1941–1942.
These novels portray the life in his homeland in the 1920s and 1930s: the establishment of socialism, forced collectivization, and dekulakization. Melezh attempted to depict the history of this era truthfully, within the constraints imposed by the Soviet regime.
In 1954, Yangtze River had a huge flood that only occurred once a century, and in order to save major cities including Wuhan, Honghu was designated as the flooded area, resulting in nearly a million local residents becoming refugees after the entire county was flooded. As the flood subsided and refugees returned to begin rebuilding, another political disaster struck the county that was already devastated by the flood: on May 5, 1955, Mao Zedong personally claimed that the time was critical for collectivization, and ordered the immediate start of collectivization, which must be completed within three years. The local communist party secretary Mr. Li Jinyu ()(1922 - October 8, 2002) was assigned to the area in 1955 and witnessed the devastation first hand. Li strongly opposed Mao's policy and openly claimed that there must be prerequisite conditions for collectivization and Honghu had not met any of them.
After the universal agricultural collectivization, land codes of the Soviet republics lost their significance. See Agriculture in the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the USSR, a new land code was enacted, allowing private land ownership. See Agriculture in Russia.
The grim brutality of forced collectivization, followed by agrarian collapse and a massive famine in 1932-33 essentially terminated any chance for a reestablishment of the so-called smychka between urban-oriented Communist movement and the peasantry in ensuing years.
Stories that the Communists believed short hair gave women a more urban and industrial look insulted peasant women.Lynne Viola, "Bab'i bunti and peasant women's protest during collectivization," in The Stalinist Dictatorship, ed. Chris Ward. (London; New York: Arnold, 1998), 218–19.
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialization of the largely rural country, and collectivization of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labor camps,Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov.
It presented collectivization as a positive thing. Vojtěch Jasný directed Return to Paradise Lost in 1999. It is a loose continuation to All My Compatriots. It stars Vladimír Pucholt as a Czech émigrée who returns home after fall of Communist regime.
About one million kulak households (some five million people) were deported and never heard from again. Forced collectivization of the remaining peasants was often fiercely resisted resulting in a disastrous disruption of agricultural productivity. Forced collectivization helped achieve Stalin's goal of rapid industrialization but it also contributed to a catastrophic famine in 1932–33. A similar view was presented by Stephen Wheatcroft, who has given more weight to the "ill-conceived policies" of Soviet government and highlighted that while the policy was not targeted at Ukraine specifically, it was Ukraine who suffered most for "demographic reasons".
Yugoslavia began collectivization and forcing the peasants to start collective farms as early as 1947, in an effort to appease its communist ally the Soviet Union, when Joseph Stalin accused Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito of deviating from Socialism in the direction of capitalism. Then, in June 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from the Cominform. To disprove the claim of revisionism, the leadership in Belgrade decided instead to speed up collectivization, demonstrating that it was not Yugoslavia but the Soviet Union and its allies that had strayed from the path of Stalinism. Agricultural production was down by more than half over pre-war figures.
Rural society in the 1980s was a combination of cooperatives (approximately 73% of the agricultural labor force), state farms (18%), and private farms (9%). This represented a dramatic change from the First Republic with its politically active middle-sized farmers, small landholders, and differentiated labor force. Collectivized agriculture has not lacked occupational specialists, but there is no doubt that the socialist regime has streamlined rural society. Differences have persisted, but a dramatic leveling has taken place. Collectivization began in 1949 with the Unified Agricultural Cooperatives Act. The KSC pushed collectivization efforts early in the 1950s and again later in the decade.
During the Great Leap Forward, many farmers were forced to work in primitive backyard furnaces in order to produce poor-quality steel. In the autumn of 1957 Mao suggested a nationwide programme of mass collectivization, in which China's farmers would be forcibly relocated to large agricultural communes and all private property would be eliminated. Mao's theories on mass collectivization became the basis of the Great Leap Forward,Domes 78 a national economic plan that began in 1958 which caused a man-made famine across the country that lasted for several years. By 1959, tens of millions of people had starved to death.
Land reform was undertaken in Romania according to the Soviet model of collectivization; as in other Communist states, the government wished to deprive the church of its land, because the church was a major land owner in the country. The Romanian Government was very cautious to avoid acting in a confrontational manner on this issue, and therefore it arranged it such that priests went on an individual basis to publicly state that they could not work the land and because they wished to support the Communist transformation of Romania, they were therefore freely giving their land to the people. The Patriarch applauded the measure, and called on the peasantry to follow suit by giving up their land to collectivization. In his pastoral letter on collectivization, the Patriarch applauded the 'high' level of religious freedom present in Romania, wherein the state not only guaranteed but 'defended' the church, and he denounced the previous concordat in Romania that had brought injustice to the church.
This plan anticipated a decrease in grain area and an increase of yield and area for other crops. By July 1, 1931, 65.7% of Ukrainian SSR peasant households and 67.2% of arable land were reported as collectivized, while the main grain and sugar beet production areas were collectivized at levels of 80-90%. The decree of Central Committee of the Communist Party on August 2, 1931 clarified the all-over collectivization term—in order to be considered complete, the all-over collectivization did not have to reach 100%, but could not be less than 68-70% of peasants households and 75-80% of arable lands. According to the same decree, all-over collectivization was accomplished in the following areas: Northern Caucasus (Kuban), with 88% of households and 92% of arable lands collectivized; Ukraine (South), with 85% and 94% respectively; Ukraine (Right Bank), with 69% and 80%; and Moldavian ASRR (part of Ukrainian SRR), with 68% and 75%.
His novel "Hatsavan" (1937—47) is dedicated to the process of collectivization. During World War II Zarian published a large number of poems and notes, in 1943 finishing his poem "The voice of Homeland". In 1946 his historical tragedy Ara Geghetsik was published.
His experimental research in improved crop yields earned him the support of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, especially following the famine and loss of productivity resulting from crop failures and forced collectivization in several regions of the Soviet Union in the early 1930s.
Compendium of Soviet Law for 1931. Moscow, 1932 As of the beginning of October 1931, the collectivization of 68% of peasant households, and 72% of arable land was complete.С.В. Кульчицький, Опір селянства суцільній колективізації (pdf), Ukrainian Historical Journal, 2004, № 2, 31-50.
After the universal agricultural collectivization, land codes of the Soviet republics lost their significance. In 1970-1971, the Soviet Union adopted new land codes in all of the republics. The 1970 Land Code of the RSFSR was adopted on December 1, 1970.
Earth (, translit. Zemlya) is a 1930 Soviet film by Ukrainian director Alexander Dovzhenko, concerning the process of collectivization and the hostility of Kulak landowners. It is Part 3 of Dovzhenko's "Ukraine Trilogy" (along with Zvenigora and Arsenal). Earth is regarded as Dovzhenko's masterpiece.
The move towards collectivization gained momentum in the mid-1950s and by 1960, 99.5% of herders had "voluntarily" joined a negdel. The number of negdels was gradually decreased so that in time they became identical to sums both area and population-wise.
Gerő led the country for a brief period, known as the 'Gerő Interregnum', from 18 July 1956 to 24 October 1956, just over three months. He had been Rákosi's close associate since 1948, and was involved in party expulsions, the industrialization and collectivization of Hungary.
Soviet leadership had long sought to suppress Tatar nationalism in the USSR. Tatars were frequently charged with "bourgeois nationalism" and other revisionist crimes. Tatar leadership was executed or imprisoned, which many fled the USSR to Turkey for refuge. Collectivization of Tatar agriculture began in 1921.
Collectivization and social change in the Bulgarian northwest in the 40s - 50s of the XX century. Sofia, Ciela, 2009. . pp. 125. In 1978, Sratsimirovo was separated from the municipality of Dunavtsi and joined the municipality of Gramada.Decree № 45 of 16 January 1978 Promulgated. DV.br.
In 1928, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and the Comintern ordered the collectivization of Mongolian agriculture. This led to an economic crisis, which resulted in uprisings in the West and the South.Kuzmin, S.L. and Oyuunchimeg J. Vooruzhennoe Vosstanie v Mongolii v 1932 g. Moscow, MBA Publ.
Collectivization continued. During the second five-year plan Stalin came up with another famous slogan in 1935: "Life has become better, life has become more cheerful." Rationing was lifted. In 1936, due to a poor harvest, fears of another famine led to famously long breadlines.
A tavern, three toy shops, a wheelwright and a blacksmith were available until the Second World War. Mendhausen was always a farming village. During the 1950s and 1960s, the collectivization of agriculture led to the elimination of individual farms. In 1969, a dairy farm arose.
DEFA- Spielfilme 1946–1992. . Page 109. Helmut Pflügl and Raimund Fritz wrote that it was one of "surprisingly few" East German films to deal with the problems that arose due to the nationalization and later collectivization of the former feudal estates.Helmut Pflügl, Raimund Fritz.
During the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s, the number of cooperatives declined. Land was not returned to private cultivation, but rather the cooperative enterprises themselves were consolidated. Farmers suffered through the 1950s: compulsory collectivization took their property, and the 1953 currency reform eradicated their savings.
Tynyshpaev was employed there until January 1931. While this would imply that Tynyshpaev worked in regions hit by the disastrous effects of collectivization, there is no record of his observations at that time (1929-1931). Tynyshpaev was also involved in construction of Almaty-1 station.
Prymorsk Raion () is one of the 20 raions (districts) of Zaporizhia Oblast in southern Ukraine. The administrative center of the region is the town of Prymorsk. Population: . In October 1930 peasant in the raion rioted for three weeks against forced collectivization by the Soviet authorities.
In certain cases, such as the Great Leap Forward in China (which produced the largest famine in absolute numbers), North Korea in the mid-1990s, or Zimbabwe in the early-2000s, famine can occur because of government policy. forced collectivization of agriculture was one of the main causes of the Soviet famine of 1932–1933. In 1932, under the rule of the USSR, Ukraine experienced one of its largest famines when between 2.4 and 7.5 million peasants died as a result of a state sponsored famine. It was termed the Holodomor, suggesting that it was a deliberate campaign of repression designed to eliminate resistance to collectivization.
Merle Fainsod estimated that, in 1952, collective farm earnings were only one-fourth of the cash income from private plots on Soviet collective farms. In many cases, the immediate effect of collectivization was to reduce output and cut the number of livestock in half. The subsequent recovery of the agricultural production was also impeded by the losses suffered by the Soviet Union during World War II and the severe drought of 1946. However, the largest loss of livestock was caused by collectivization for all animals except pigs. The numbers of cows in the USSR fell from 33.2 million in 1928 to 27.8 million in 1941 and to 24.6 million in 1950.
In the 1930s, the Party started the collectivization, which automatically put the "kulak" label on the well-off families living in Siberia for a long time. Naturally, raskulachivanie applied to everyone who protested. From the Central Russia many families were exiled in low-populated, forest or swampy areas of Siberia, but those who lived here, had either to escape anywhere, or to be exiled in the Northern regions (such as Evenk and Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrugs and the northern parts of Tomsk Oblast). Collectivization destroyed the traditional and most effective stratum of the peasants in Siberia and the natural ways of development, and its consequences are still persisting.
Private ownership meant independence and self-sufficiency, collectivization meant negotiation and uncertainty. Although pensions for members of co- operatives were a legal requirement after 1958, some elderly potential members were not convinced of the long-term financial security of co-operatives, and chose to leave their farms to seek industrial work where they were sure of a pension. In the end, however, psychological factors might have been the deciding influence. Demoralized after two successive (and harsh) collectivization campaigns and the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the peasants were less interested in resisting, and as membership levels increased, those who remained likely grew worried about being left out.
Lumans, pp. 398–399 Some managed to escape arrest and joined the partisans. Reconstruction of a Gulag shack in the Museum of the Occupation of Latvia, Riga In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization.
Collectivization was essentially completed by 1960. Large numbers of farmers, particularly the young, left agriculture for more attractive industrial jobs. In the 1960s, the active farm population consisted largely of women and older men. Under communist rule, agriculture received much less attention and investment funding than industry.
"Dizzy with Success: Concerning Questions of the Collective-Farm Movement" () is an article by Joseph Stalin that was published in Pravda on March 2, 1930. In the article, Stalin claimed that agricultural collectivization had been carried out with excessive zeal, leading to "excesses" that had to be corrected.
Collectivization worked for some but not others. Larger farms were organized on 3 levels of hierarchy which actually reduced worker participation in decision making. Younger workers left for better jobs in the cities and productivity fell. Reforms in the 1970s saw more investment and improvements began to appear gradually.
Large landholders unwilling to join cooperatives and unwise enough to demur were condemned as "kulaks" and evicted without compensation. Subsequent criticism was muted. By 1960, when collectivization was essentially complete, 90% of all agricultural land was in the state sector—a proportion that slowly increased to 95% in 1985.
The rise of Josef Stalin and termination of Lenin's New Economic Policy influenced political developments in the MPR with the 1928 MPRP Seventh Party Congress ushering in the "Leftist Period." Soviet advisors arranged for Choibalsan to be "kicked upstairs" to be Chairman of the Little Hural (i.e. titular head of state) from where, in 1929 and 1930, he supported implementation of Soviet-backed leftist policies of more rapid collectivization, land expropriation, and persecution of the Buddhist faith. At the Eight Party Congress in 1930 Choibalsan contributed to a ramping up leftist socialist reforms when again encouraged by Soviet agents, he introduced personally formulated decrees that intensified land confiscation and forced collectivization measures.
In the late 1950s, number of collective farms fell to 1 800, and Poland was the only country of the Soviet Bloc which tolerated private ownership of the arable land. In 1958, Moscow ordered the resumption of collectivization, but unlike her neighbors, Poland refused.Ivan T. Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe, page 156 By 1960, collectivization in Poland was ended, never to be resumed,The history of Poland, page 139 and Engels' opinion that peasants would spontaneously create collective forms of agricultural production because of the threat of the big landed estates was not confirmed in Poland.Sociologia Ruralis, volume 22, Issue 3-4 Preservation of individual agriculture was a key factor in future events.
In the 1920s, before the collectivization of the country, he was able to study veterinary medicine in Bishkek, an extraordinary opportunity for him as the child of an impoverished day laborer. When the country was collectivized, he was at university, but had contracted tuberculosis and was forced to spend time recuperating in sanatoriums on the lake and in Georgia. In his early stories he sang the praises of collectivization, which for many poor laborers (including his family) was a protection against oppression by landowners and other groups in power, a situation he knew very well. Sydykbekov became known as one of the first Kyrgyz writers of prose, and he began by publishing uncontroversial texts.
While rumors of impending collectivization were officially denied in 1940 and 52,000 landless peasants were given small plots of up to 10 ha, in early 1941 preparations for collectivization began.The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 The small size of land plots and imposition of the production quotas and high taxes meant that very soon independent farmers would go bankrupt and had to establish collective farms. Arrests and deportations to Soviet Union began even before Latvia officially become a part of it. Initially they were limited to the most prominent political and military leaders like President Kārlis Ulmanis, War minister Jānis Balodis and army chief Krišjānis Berķis who were arrested in July 1940.
Since 1954 it has been part of the Khmelnytskyi region. During the 1930s collectivization of farms was enforced under Soviet rule. By June 10, 1932, 83.4% of the farms in the district had been collectivized. By 1935 the process was complete and there were no longer any privately owned farms.
Immediately following the occupation, Soviet authorities began rapid Sovietization of Lithuania. All land was nationalized. To gain support for the new regime among the poorer peasants, large farms were distributed to small landowners. However, in preparation for eventual collectivization, agricultural taxes were dramatically increased in an attempt to bankrupt all farmers.
Smith, p. 323. In 1926 the village of Einlage was abandoned to make way for the flooding from the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station dam. Many other Chortitza Mennonites suffered under the dekulakization programs of the 1920s and the collectivization of 1930. Confiscated land was given to peasants, usually Communist Party members.
Chief changes in the lives of rural Chinese people included the incremental introduction of mandatory agricultural collectivization. Private farming was prohibited, and those engaged in it were persecuted and labeled counter- revolutionaries. Restrictions on rural people were enforced through public struggle sessions and social pressure, although people also experienced forced labor.
However, Ket traditions continued to be suppressed and self-initiative was discouraged. Collectivization was completed by the 1950s and the Russian lifestyle and language forced upon the Ket people. The population of Kets has been relatively stable since 1923. According to the 2002 census, there were 1,494 Kets in Russia.
Mao additionally criticized Stalin for making the assumption that socialist industrialization was a necessary precondition for the collectivization of agriculture and consequently over- prioritizing the development heavy industry in an unbalanced way.Gilbert Rozman (1987). The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978-1985. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 145–146.
The Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established in 1934. Confrontations between the Chechens and the Soviet government arose in the late 1920s during collectivization. It declined by the mid-1930s after local leaders were arrested or killed. The broke out in early 1932 and was defeated in march.
"3 – Le Nicaragua (French)", Gilles Bataillon. Retrieved October 14, 2014. The Indians formed two rebel groups – the Misura and Misurasata. They were joined in the north by Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) and in the south by former Sandinistas and peasantry who, under the leadership of Edén Pastora, were resisting forced collectivization.
Religious persecution increased considerably in 1931-32 when all churches were closed. The Germans of Neu Samara endured more suffering through the collectivization and dekulakization programs. Herds of cattle died mainly because of the lack of supplies and feed. In early 1931 land was tilled using cows as draft animals.
The process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization. In some countries (including the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc countries, China and Vietnam), there have been both state-run and cooperative-run variants. For example, the Soviet Union had both kolkhozy (cooperative-run farms) and sovkhozy (state-run farms).
Rural Russia Under the Old Regime: A History of the Landlord-Peasant World and a Prologue to the Peasant Revolution of 1917. p. 120. The institution was effectively destroyed by the Stolypin agrarian reforms (1906–1914), the implementation of which would lead to the Russian Revolution and subsequent collectivization in the Soviet Union.
Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Once collectivization takes place, workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market.Bakunin Mikail.
Antseborenko was born into a peasant family near Poltava in the Ukrainian SSR in 1925. However, his parents were killed in 1933 during collectivization. He was therefore brought up in a kolkhoz. In 1939, he graduated from high school in Glushki and worked in a factory until the outbreak of war in 1941.
The Russian Review. Volume 58, Issue 2, pages 181—201, April 1999Sheila Fitzpatrick. Cultural Revolution Revisited The Russian Review. Volume 58, Issue 2, pages 202—209, April 1999 The cultural revolution in the 1930s was understood as part of a major transformation of society and the national economy, along with industrialization and collectivization.
Grigory Ivanovich Petrovsky (, Hryhoriy Ivanovych Petrovsky) (3 February 1878 - 9 January 1958) was a Ukrainian Soviet politician and Old Bolshevik. He participated in signing the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Petrovsky was one of the officials responsible for implementing Stalin's policies such as collectivization.
Cadres can be deployed in the field or employed in the office by the Party, State, or Securitate. They are often created to break apart existing class hierarchies among citizens of the Party-State. Cadres were present in a number of communist countries that enforced collectivization, including Romania, Soviet Russia, and China.
Ralea had appointed his mistress as cultural attaché, but she deserted her post and left to Mexico while Ioana Ralea took up residence in the Romanian embassy.Grigorescu & Ștefan, p. 27; Nastasă (2010), p. 267 With the looming threat of Soviet-style collectivization, Ralea informed the Americans that Romanian peasants valued individual property.
In 1920, following the Russian revolution, Soviet rule was established in Lakia. On 28 October 1922 the Kazi- Kumukh district was renamed Lak. On 29 March 1935 the district was split into the Lak and Kuli districts. Collectivization and "socialist construction in the area of national culture development" was then carried out.
These were former Soviet leaders, actual or presumed political enemies of Joseph Stalin, who were charged with opposing the policies of rapid industrialization, forced collectivization, and central planning, as well as international espionage, attempted overthrow of the Soviet Union, and planning to eliminate the Soviet leadership. He was sentenced to death and shot.
2, 1991, pp. 272 Farmers of Kazakhstan rejected collectivization, and protested, while Stalin raised quotas, meaning peasants would not be able to eat and would psychologically break them. Those who did not give up their grain were considered breaking Soviet law, which caused the famine. Death rates are estimated between 6 - 7 million.
Marples received his BA Honours from the University of London in 1975, his MA in History from the University of Alberta in 1980, and Ph.D. in Economic and Social History from the University of Sheffield in 1985. The title of his Ph.D. dissertation was Collectivization of agriculture in Western Ukraine 1944-1951.
Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. . The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine, and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and parts of southwestern Russia.
A "Blackboard" published in the newspaper "Under the Flag of Lenin" in January 1933 — a "blacklist" identifying specific kolhozes and their punishment in the Bashtanka Raion, Mykolayiv oblast, Ukraine. Black boards — synonymous with "boards of infamy", were an element of agitation-propaganda in the Soviet Union, and especially Ukraine in the 1930s, coinciding with the Holodomor, the artificial famine imposed by the Soviet regime as part of a policy of repression. The policy was part of the collectivization process and the fight with kulaks (kurkuls). The "black boards" were installed at entrances to a settlement and identified the residents that were accused of counter- revolutionary activity and who were the enemies of the people, allegedly trying to undermine the process of collectivization.
During the Civil War, the Spanish Communist Party gained considerable influence due to the Republican force's reliance on weapons, supplies and military advisers from the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the Communist party (now working as the dominant force within the PSUC) constantly proclaimed that it was promoting "bourgeois democracy" and was fighting in defense of the Republic, not for proletarian revolution. Opposition to collectivization and the camouflaging of the true nature of the Spanish revolution by the Communist party was mainly due to the fear that the establishment of a revolutionary socialist state would antagonize Western democracies. The PSUC had also become the major defender of the Catalan middle classes against collectivization, organizing 18,000 tradesmen and artisans into the Catalan Federation of Small Businessmen and Manufacturers (GEPCI).
Propaganda poster showing increased agricultural production from 1981 to 1983 and 1986 in East Germany Collectivization is a process pioneered by Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s by which Marxist–Leninist regimes in the Eastern Bloc and elsewhere attempted to establish an ordered socialist system in rural agriculture. It required the forced consolidation of small-scale peasant farms and larger holdings belonging to the landed classes for the purpose of creating larger modern "collective farms" owned, in theory, by the workers therein. In reality, such farms were owned by the state. In addition to eradicating the perceived inefficiencies associated with small-scale farming on discontiguous land holdings, collectivization also purported to achieve the political goal of removing the rural basis for resistance to Stalinist regimes.
Once collectivization was achieved and agricultural output per capita began to increase, the leadership embarked on the extremely ambitious programs of the Great Leap Forward of 1958–60. In agriculture this meant unrealistically high production goals and an even higher degree of collectivization than had already been achieved. The existing collectives were organized very rapidly into people's communes, much larger units with an average of 5,400 households and a total of 20,000 to 30,000 members on average. The production targets were not accompanied by a sufficient amount of capital and modern inputs such as fertilizer; rather, they were to be reached in large measure by heroic efforts on the part of the peasants, often beaten into submission by overzealous party cadres.
By the end of the 19th century, the indigenous Sami population had been mostly forced north by the Russians and the Komi and Nenets people who migrated here to escape a reindeer disease epidemics in their home lands. The Sami peoples were subject to forced collectivization, with more than half of their reindeer herds collectivized in 1928–1930. The collectivization efforts in the 1930s lead to the concentration of the reindeer herds in kolkhozes (collective farms), which, in turn, were further consolidated into a few large-scale state farms in the late 1950s–early 1970s. In addition, the traditional Sami herding practices were phased out in favor of the more economically profitable Komi approach, which emphasized permanent settlements over free herding.
At first, this group was aimed at propaganda only. Bodiu organized "meetings with the peasants" at homes of some of the participants, where he spoke of the danger of Sovietisation and forced collectivization. The authorities considered these actions as "criminal terror". Another „terrorist” method according to the authorities were intimidation letters addressed to the officials.
Downloaded from JSTOR. By 1971, the great majority of farmers in North Vietnam were organized into high-level cooperatives. In former South Vietnam after 1975, however, the collectivization movement was much slower to be implemented. By 1986, more than 90 percent of farmers in former North Vietnam were organized into cooperatives; by contrast only 5.
The agreement on lend-lease and reverse lend- lease. Jean Monnet, representative of the French Provisional Government signing agreements. Left to right: Henri Bonnet, French Ambassador, Joseph C. Grew, Undersecretary of State and Jean Monnet. In December 1939, Monnet was sent to London to oversee the collectivization of the British and French war industries.
Nationalization and collectivization brought fundamental changes in everyday life. Until the end of the 1970s, Szécsény was an administrative center, being the chief town of the district. When the public administration system was reformed, the function of the seat of the district became extinct. As a result, several institutions and offices were closed down, e.g.
This second wave of the large-scale deportations was aimed to facilitate collectivization, which was implemented with great difficulties in the Baltic republics. As a result, by the end of April 1949, half of the remaining individual farmers in Estonia had joined kolkhozes.Misiunas, Romuald J. & Rein Taagepera.Collectivization of Estonian Agriculture Estonica; retrieved 9 May 2013.
In April 1929, the Muslim villagers of mountainous Adjara rose in arms against compulsory collectivization and religious persecution. The Soviet troops were invoked and the revolt was quickly put down. Thousands of Adjarians were deported from the republic.Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639.
Fitzhugh, William, and Durbreui pp.39, 40 The Nivkh had long maintained trade and cultural relations with neighboring China and Japan. Previously within the Qing China sphere of influence, the Russian Empire annexed the region following two treaties in 1858 and 1860. Subsequently, traditional Nivkh lifestyle was significantly altered by subsequent colonization and collectivization.
241-244, 255-256, 261-262 his original perspective on Marxism remained strongly connected with party doctrine in its most essential pointsCioroianu, p.241, 248-251, 254-255 (including his intense advocacy of collectivization, using statistics to point out the existence of a class of chiaburi, the Romanian equivalent of the Soviet kulaks).Cioroianu, p.
In the Hungarian People's Republic, agricultural collectivization was attempted a number of times in the late 1940s, until it was finally successfully implemented in the early 1960s. By consolidating individual landowning farmers into agricultural co-operatives, the Communist government hoped to increase production and efficiency, and put agriculture under the control of the state.
After the Second World War Petrevene was included in the Lovech District of P. R. Bulgaria. In 1946 it had 1254 inhabitants. In 1948, during the communist rule in Bulgaria, a compulsory collectivization of the farmlands was imposed and a Collective Farm, TKZS (Bulg.: "ТКЗС") was established with Ivan Lakov as its first chairman.
AKG has the distinction of being the first non- state school in Hungary (established in 1988). Hungary had no private education since the collectivization that followed the second World War. It was established as an independent teachers' workshop. Its founders and organizers were all practicing educators, who created and developed the curriculum over two years.
His novella Bull Ravine (1932) dealt with the collectivization of the Chuvash village. Tuktash translated into Chuvash The Tale of Igor's Campaign (with I. Ivnik), M. A. Sholokhov's The Quiet Don (book 1), and the short stories of M. Gorky. He is also known as a compiler of Chuvash folklore. Ille Toktash died 20 January 1957 in Cheboksary (Chuvashia).
Others died, including over 20,000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres. The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands, introducing compulsory collectivization. They proceeded to confiscate, nationalize and redistribute private and state-owned Polish property. In the process, they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as "enemies of the people".
Following World War II, Czechoslovakia was under the influence of the USSR and, during the election of 1946, the communists would win 38% of the vote.Grogin, p. 133. The communists had been alienating many citizens in Czechoslovakia due to the use of the police force and talks of collectivization of a number of industries.Grogin, p. 134.
The thought process and reasoning behind collectivizing agriculture was that having a few larger "mechanized grain or livestock farms" seemed as though it would be much more functional than having several independent farms. In contrast, in regards to people, "the principle aim of collectivization was 'to concentrate the native population as much as possible'" and to scrap nomadism.
Accordingly, Stalin imposed collectivization of agriculture. Land held by the kulaks was seized and given to agricultural cooperatives (kolkhozes and sovkhozes). Lenin and his followers saw the NEP as an interim measure. However, it proved highly unpopular with the Left Opposition in the Bolshevik Party because of its compromise with some capitalist elements and the relinquishment of state control.
The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917—1929. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 Komsomol members, in particular, took it with enthusiasm. There was no shortage of cheap labor, because after collectivization, a large number of yesterday's rural inhabitants moved from rural areas to cities from poverty, hunger and the arbitrariness of the authorities.Hays Kessler.
Collectivization and the Flight From Villages – Socio-Economic Indicators, 1929–1939 // Economic History. Review / Edited by Leonid Borodkin. Release 9. Moscow, 2003. Page 77 Millions of people selflessly,"The enthusiasm and dedication of millions of people during the first five-year plan is not an invention of Stalinist propaganda, but the undoubted reality of that time".
Stalin's regime proceeded to eliminate the intelligentsia of Ukraine, to forcibly deport Ukrainian Kulaks who opposed its collectivization policies, and to orchestrate a deliberate mass starvation by hunger of Ukrainians, wherever they were found throughout the Soviet Empire.Genocide Revealed . Retrieved 3 December 2011. This documentary reinforces the view that the Holodomor was indeed an act of genocide.
In the period of rapid industrialization and mass collectivization preceding World War II, Soviet employment figures experienced exponential growth. 3.9 million jobs per annum were expected by 1923, but the number actually climbed to an astounding 6.4 million. By 1937, the number rose yet again, to about 7.9 million. Finally, in 1940 it reached 8.3 million.
The term appears as "expropriation of expropriators (ruling classes)" in Marxist theory, and also as the slogan "Loot the looters!" ("грабь награбленное"), which was very popular during the Russian October Revolution.Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: Russian Revolution, 1996, . The term is also used to describe nationalization campaigns by communist states, such as dekulakization and collectivization in the USSR.
Isidor Sârbu was born in the village of Corjova (Dubăsari District) of the Russian Empire. In the early 1930s, he had of arable land and of orchard. During the collectivization, he was considered a kulak. On March 14, 1933, Sârbu was arrested and brought to Tiraspol prison, where he spent three months and had his property and house confiscated.
The 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was convened in Moscow on 2 December 1927. This marked the first Soviet Communist Party Congress in two years, this despite the fact that party regulations called for annual meetings.Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968; p. 198.
At the time the Partnership "New Life", chaired by Harkusha Ivan Ivanovich, was first organized in the Sofiyivka district consisting of twelve households. It had three horses, a cook, a reaper, a thresher and three cows. Collectivization started, wealthy people were dekulakizated, The Soviet regime took away grain, livestock, tools. Each family paid prodnalog (food tax).
All land was nationalized, farms were reduced to , and extra land (some ) was distributed to small farmers.Anušauskas et al. (2005), pp. 120–121 In preparation for eventual collectivization, new taxes between 30% and 50% of farm production were enacted. The Lithuanian litas was artificially depreciated 3–4 times its actual value and withdrawn by March 1941.
Fur hats (hak) were worn in winter, with the furry tails and ears of the animals used often adorning the back and crown of the hat. Summer hats (hiv hak) were conical made from birch-bark. After Soviet collectivization, Nivkh mostly wear mass-produced Western clothing, but traditional clothing is worn for holidays and cultural events.
However, forced resettlement may sometimes be counter-productive where it increases resentment among an already restive population against the ruling regime. Villagization may also be used as part of a programme of collectivization of farming and other economic activity, as in Tanzania under the Ujamaa policy set out in the Arusha Declaration, and in Ethiopia, particularly under Mengistu's administration.
Farmers still had small pieces of land (not larger than 0.5 ha) around their houses where they grew food for themselves. Along with collectivization, the government tried to uproot the custom of living in individual farmsteads by resettling people in villages. However this process failed due to lack of money since the Soviets planned to move houses as well.
Anton is frustrated by one of the communist functionaries' constant demands, assaults him and is thrown to jail. The people become tired of the collectivization efforts. The Baroness von Holzendorf returns from the west, and begins to stir trouble. On 17 June 1953, the farmers revolt against the government, as part of a wave of statewide demonstrations.
This was especially the case during the Soviet regime. Soviet policies of collectivization, forced sedentarization (or sometimes refer to as Sedentism), "unpromising villages", and Russification of the education system compromised social, cultural, and mental well-being of the Evenks.Klokov, K.B., Khrushchev, S.A. (2010). Demographic dynamics of the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the Russian North, 1897-2002.
The collectivization of agriculture was completed in 1960, later than Ulbricht had expected. Following the death of President Wilhelm Pieck in 1960, the SED wrote the president's post out of the constitution. Taking its place was a collective head of state, the Council of State. Ulbricht was named its chairman, a post equivalent to that of president.
24 November 2007. A starved man on the streets of Kharkiv, 1933. Collectivization of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine known as the Holodomor. Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and the governments of other countries have acknowledged it as such.
The most famous of them was an ideologue of Russian Socialism, Nikolay Chernyshevsky. After the silver resources depletion in the late 1880s, population comprised Cossacks and peasants who took active part in Russian revolutions. The district in its modern form was established on January 4, 1926. In the 1930s, there was Cossack and peasant unrest caused by collectivization.
The Lusty Lady of San Francisco is a notable example of collectivization of strippers in the U.S. When the strippers of the establishment successfully unionized in 1996 through the Erotic Dancers' Alliance, the owners of the club closed it. In response, the strippers formed a cooperative in 2003 to run the club themselves, now renamed the Looking Glass Collective.
Hunger, disease, and mass executions during dekulakization led to at least 530,000 to 600,000 deaths from 1929 to 1933,Hildermeier, Die Sowjetunion, p. 38 f. though higher estimates also exist, Soviet era expert Robert Conquest estimating in 1986 that 5 million people may have died.Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.
Approximately 30% to 40% of all houses were turned to rubble.Dikötter (2010). p. 169. Frank Dikötter states that "homes were pulled down to make fertilizer, to build canteens, relocate villagers, straighten roads, make place for a better future, or punish their owners." In agrarian policy, the failures of food supply during the Great Leap were met by a gradual de-collectivization in the 1960s that foreshadowed further de- collectivization under Deng Xiaoping. Political scientist Meredith Jung-En Woo argues: "Unquestionably the regime failed to respond in time to save the lives of millions of peasants, but when it did respond, it ultimately transformed the livelihoods of several hundred million peasants (modestly in the early 1960s, but permanently after Deng Xiaoping's reforms subsequent to 1978.)"Woo- Cummings, Meredith (2002).
The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements Oxford University Press 2007, hardback, 320 pages The stated purpose of the campaign was to fight the counter-revolution and build socialism in the countryside. This policy was accomplished simultaneously with collectivization in the Soviet Union and effectively brought all agriculture in the Soviet Union under state control. May 1926 illustration to the Soviet categories of peasants: bednyaks, or poor peasants; serednyaks, or mid-income peasants; and kulaks, the those that possessed capital and significant wealth those who had much larger farms than most Russian peasants The "liquidation of the kulaks as a class" was announced by Stalin on December 27, 1929. The decision was formalized in a resolution, "On measures for the elimination of kulak households in districts of comprehensive collectivization", on January 30, 1930.
Estimated yields were expected to increase by 150%. The ultimate goal of collectivization was to resolve "grain problems" of the late 1920s. In the early 1920s only 3% of the peasantry of the Soviet Union were collectivised. Within the first five-year plan 20% of peasant households were to be collectivised, although in Ukraine the number was set at 30%.
Ukrainians and Bolsheviks fought over the city in the ensuing Civil War. In the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–20, Chernobyl was taken first by the Polish Army and then by the cavalry of the Red Army. From 1921 onwards, it was officially incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. Between 1929 and 1933, Chernobyl suffered from killings during Stalin's collectivization campaign.
According to Benjamin Valentino, available evidence suggests that between 50,000 and 100,000 people may have been killed in Bulgaria beginning in 1944 as part of agricultural collectivization and political repression, although there is insufficient documentation to make a definitive judgement. In his book History of Communism in Bulgaria, Dinyu Sharlanov accounts for about 31,000 people killed under the regime between 1944 and 1989.
At first, only factories with more than 100 workers were nationalized; later, this limit was reduced to only 10. In the agriculture, the government started a successful program of collectivization. From the early 1950s, more and more new factories were built. This rapid and forced industrialization followed the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy.
This operation was enforced with the help of NKVD forces. The fate of the native Kazakh people was the most tragic. Collectivization of the steppe, forced relocation, and confiscation pushed them to the city of Karaganda and its neighboring regions. Karaganda was just starting to build the coal mines, so many of these resettled people were used as cheap labor.
Despite Lenin's opinion that the NEP should last several decades at least until universal literacy was accomplished, in 1928, after only seven years of NEP, Lenin's successor Stalin introduced full central planning, re- nationalized much of the economy, and from the late 1920s onwards introduced a policy of rapid industrialization. Stalin's collectivization of agriculture was his most notable departure from the NEP approach.
For instance, over five million people lacked adequate nutrition and starved to death during the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, one of several Soviet famines.Davies and Wheatcroft, p. 401. For a review, see The 1932–33 famine was caused primarily by Soviet-mandated collectivization. Economic protection was also extended to the elderly and the disabled through the payment of pensions and benefits.
Some died of famine, others of diseases introduced from Europe. By the 19th century, the Kets could no longer survive without food support from the Russian state. In the 20th century, the Soviets forced collectivization upon the Ket. They were officially recognized as Kets in the 1930s when the Soviet Union started to implement the self-definition policy with respect to indigenous peoples.
More than 1.8 million peasants were deported in 1930–1931.Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. .Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, Lynne Viola, The Unknown Gulag.
The terriotry of the Bezhtas was nominally part of the Avar Khanate. In 1806, the Bezhtas were incorporated into the Russian empire. Tight colonial control of the region was enforced during the 1860's and 1870's. During Soviet rule, the Bezhtas witnessed collectivization, urbanization, education mainly taught in the Russian language, and a erosion of Islam and traditional Bezhta culture.
This Central Committee composition led the party and the country through the first five-year plan, Syrtsov–Lominadze affair, dekulakization, collectivization of agriculture, Ryutin Affair, Soviet famine of 1932–33 (which has led to accusation of "extermination by hunger" by the Ukrainian state), the beginning of the second five-year plan, purges of the last oppositional elements within the party and heightened repression.
Andrei Chikatilo was born on 16 October 1936 in the village of Yabluchne in the Sumy Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR. At the time of his birth, Ukraine was in the grip of a famine caused by Joseph Stalin's forced collectivization of agriculture.The Killer Department, p. 212 Chikatilo's parents were both collective farm labourers who lived in a one- room hut.
Peasants carried out each field-work job simultaneously. This resulted in a pattern `of parallel columns of men, women and adolescents from the various households working the narrow strips at sowing and harvesttime'.Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization (New York, Oxford University Press, 1994), p.25. Grain farming occurred in two bursts of activity.
Nevertheless, Anna Akhmatova's "Requiem" a poetic tribute to those who perished during Stalin's purges, appeared in its November 1987 issue. Sovetskaya Kultura (Soviet Culture), a journal with broad appeal, published particularly biting indictments of collectivization, industrialization, and the purges of the 1930s. In 1988 the journal published articles indirectly criticizing Lenin for sanctioning the establishment of the system of forced labor camps.
Soviet famine of 1932–33. Areas of most disastrous famine marked with black. American press with information about famine Pavlik Morozov (second row, in the middle): this is the only surviving photograph known of him. Due to the high government production quotas, peasants received, as a rule, less for their labour than they did before collectivization, and some refused to work.
The wave of Stolypin agrarian policies carried some Gagauz to Kazakhstan between 1912 and 1914, and later yet another group settled in Uzbekistan during the very troubled years of initial collectivization. So as not to lose their civil rights, they called themselves "Bulgars" in the 1930s; The Gagauz of the village of Mayslerge in the Tashkent District retain that designation to this day.
Cinema and Soviet Society: From the Revolution to the Death of Stalin, I.B. Tauris Publishers. London and New York. Print. 133. Kulaks were farmers resisting Stalin's crop collectivization, and Anka's lover uses the party card for iniquitous purposes. In the final scene of the movie she confronts him at gunpoint and, after he ignominiously begs forgiveness, she has him arrested by the authorities.
The second head is the Common Council was Shalaenko Gregoire, who was killed by the Germans during World War II; a village street is named for him. Collectivization mandated by the new government resulted in the crippling of agriculture; farmers became more like employees. Large landowners were deported; many never returned. World War II brought new suffering to the farmers.
Many members of the Roman Catholic clergy suffered persecution. The case of bishop of Ljubljana Anton Vovk, who was doused with gasoline and set on fire by Communist activists during a pastoral visit to Novo Mesto in January 1952, echoed in the western press. Between 1949 and 1953, a forced collectivization was attempted. After its failure, a policy of gradual liberalization was followed.
Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (;"Sholokhov". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. – 21 February 1984) was a Soviet-Russian novelist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature. He is known for writing about life and fate of Don Cossacks during the Russian Revolution, the civil war and the period of collectivization, primarily in his most famous novel, And Quiet Flows the Don.
In 1930 he published in media against the collectivization of Jewish settlements in Jewish national districts of Southern Ukraine and Northern Crimea. In 1935 Dimanstein was an editor of a propaganda book entitled Yidn in FSSR (Jews in the Soviet Union). From October 1936, Dimanstein was one of the editors of Forpost, a newspaper in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast's capital city of Birobidzhan.
Syrtsov's loyalty on the question of collectivization of agriculture was rewarded in 1929 when he was returned from Novosibirsk to Moscow to assume chairmanship of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR Syrtsov replaced collectivization opponent Alexey Rykov in this position, and seems to have been tapped to ultimately replacing Rykov as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (CPC) of the entire nation.Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party, p. 189. In connection with the move Syrtsov was made a candidate member of the Politburo of the by now renamed All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) [VKP(b)], a move which likely emphasized the designs of Stalin and his associates to promote Syrtsov as Chairman of the All-Union CPC. Syrtsov thereby became the youngest member of the Politburo both in terms of age and duration of party membership.
The fact of nominating of such settlements was published in the oblast newspapers listing the names of collective farms that resisted collectivization and the Soviet regime. However some of the archives reflect that "black boards" were used precisely as a repressive element in the fight not only against the collectivization resistance, but also against the nationality factor of the local population. For example, in 1932 the Vinnytsia Oblast Communist Party Committee suggested the local village of Mazurivka to be nominated to "black boards", because there was born one of the Petlyura's generals Khmara, while the village of Karpivtsi (Chudniv Raion) in Volyn was known as one of the Petlyura's. The village of Turbiv (Lypovets Raion), for example, deserved such a penalty for its "high infestation of the Petlyura element and participation in the Plyskiv affair in spring".
Stalin's collectivization policy proved to be as disastrous as Bukharin predicted, but Stalin had by then achieved unchallenged authority in the party leadership. However, there were signs that moderates among Stalin's supporters sought to end official terror and bring a general change in policy, after mass collectivization was largely completed and the worst was over. Although Bukharin had not challenged Stalin since 1929, his former supporters, including Martemyan Ryutin, drafted and clandestinely circulated an anti- Stalin platform, which called Stalin the "evil genius of the Russian Revolution". However, Sergey Kirov, First Secretary of the Leningrad Regional Committee was assassinated in Leningrad in December 1934, and his death was used by Stalin as a pretext to launch the Great Purge, in which about 700,000 people were to perish as Stalin eliminated all past and potential opposition to his authority.
Davies and Wheatcroft, p.490 On July 20, 1931 – as a response to the numerous regional requests for additional numbers of kulak deportations Politburo of VKP (b) concluded that the “strategic task of the Party was almost accomplished. All further deportations were recommended to be administered only to individuals.”Ivnitskyy "Tragedy of Soviet Village" This second forced "voluntary" collectivization campaign also invoked a delay in sowing.
On May 21, 1947, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks) authorized collectivization of Estonian agriculture. Initially it was implemented with great difficulties in the Baltic republics but it was facilitated by mass deportations of dissident farmers, termed 'kulaks'. As a result, by the end of April 1949, half of the remaining individual farmers in Estonia had joined kolkhozes.Eesti nõukogude entsüklopeedia (Estonian Soviet Encyclopedia).
After the liberation by the Soviet army and the rise of the Communist Party to power, the nationalization of local companies began in Bohdalice as well. The first of these was Lang's plant in 1950, which became Kovoslužba and then Strojírny. This was followed by the collectivization of agriculture and the establishment of the Bohdalice collective farm. The merger of Bohdalice and Pavlovice took place in 1964.
Many did not survive the labor camps. Many were deported as a result of the collectivization of all Soviet agricultural land in 1930/1931 by Stalin's first five-year plan. The German farmers were labelled kulaks (rich peasants) by the Communist regime, and those who did not voluntarily agree to give up their land to the Soviet farming collectives were expelled to Siberia and Central Asia.
Most Sami were forced to settle in the village of Lovozero, which became the cultural center of the Sami people in Russia. Those Sami resisting the collectivization were subject to forced labor or death. Various forms of repression against the Sami continued until Stalin's death in 1953. In the 1990s, 40% of the Sami lived in urbanized areas, although some herd reindeer across much of the region.
In 1937, the Nazi leadership transformed part of this institute into its own research institution located near Berlin, the Wannsee Institut. Achmeteli was made the director of this new institute. He was initially on friendly terms with Alfred Rosenberg and the authorities expected him to provide the expertise on Soviet economy. Under the pseudonym Konstantin Michael, he wrote a book on Soviet agriculture and forced collectivization.
45, No. 1-2, pp. 137-192.Pianciola, Niccolò, 2009, Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905-1936), Rome: Viella. Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country.
Early in February 1933 former National Secretary Ben Gitlow submitted his resignation from the Lovestone organization, having come to see the general line of mass collectivization and frenetic industrialization in the USSR as "basically wrong" with the matter a "decisive question of fundamental principle.""On the Case of Comrade Benjamin Gitlow: Statement of the National Committee", Workers Age, vol. 2, no. 9 (February 15, 1933), pg. 2.
There was an emphasis on rapid industrialization, the development of heavy industry, relegation of consumer production as non- essential and collectivization of agriculture. Soviet-type economies also used a larger proportion of their resources on investment than do market economies. The issue with this was that current consumption was undercut because of the over-investment. All these actions supported the purposes of the state, not the people.
Antanas Sniečkus, the leader of the Communist Party of Lithuania from 1940 to 1974, supervised the mass deportations of Lithuanians. The Soviets took control of political, economic, and cultural life in the three states. They rapidly implemented various sovietization policies: nationalization of private enterprises, land reform in preparation for collectivization, suppression of political, cultural, and religious organizations. Economic life was disrupted and standard of living decreased.
Families Kreshpan gained ground most of Agrarian Reform. They began to reach high yields, in the first years of the fifties. Even with the onset of collectivization, those who earlier of whom later joined by means of force in the Agricultural Cooperative of village. Even in this time of work trying to increase more and more yields in cereals and bread, farming and fruit growing.
In January 1929, five youths educated at the school would launch a coup with Soviet support and depose Kuular, imprisoning and later executing him. Salchak Toka would become the new head of the country. Under the new government, collectivization policies were implemented. A purge was launched in the country against aristocrats, Buddhists, intellectuals, and other political dissidents, which would also see the destruction of many monasteries.
However, anarchists were often used as a scapegoat by the authorities. Rarely was violence directed towards civilians. However, there are a few recorded cases in which anarchists enforced their own beliefs with violence; one observer reports incidents in which pimps and drug dealers were shot on the spot. Forced collectivization, while exceedingly rare, did occur on several occasions when ideals were dropped in favor of wartime pragmatism.
Karl Marx cited the kolonii as examples of workers taking control and lifting themselves up through hard work. Zionists in the early 20th century used Russian kolonii as models for Kibbutzim in Israel, particularly in the Second Aliyah after 1904. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Bolshevik government carried out collectivization efforts during 1920–1938, see Komzet and OZET. Many kolonii became kolkhozes during this period.
From 1919 onwards, the region was subject to collectivization and resettlement of the indigenous people. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, everything was done to start tin production as quickly as possible in Chukotka. Mining rapidly developed, and this industry would become its economic base. Also during the war, geologists discovered large reserves of gold that would be mined in the 1950s.
The economy collapsed in the wake of a failed attempt to collectivize the southern economy, some key party members such as Bùi Tín and Hoàng Văn Hoan defected. It was under his rule that Vietnam survived the subsidy period. Later in 1986, the Sixth Party's Congress passed the Renovation policy which recognized the failure of collectivization and liberalized the economy, opening a new chapter in Vietnam's history.
Hundreds if not thousands of others were imprisoned. Several were sentenced to death as enemies of the state, including the botanist Nikolai Vavilov. Scientific dissent from Lysenko's theories of environmentally acquired inheritance was formally outlawed in the Soviet Union in 1948. As a result of Lysenkoism and forced collectivization, 15-30 million Soviet and Chinese citizens starved to death in the Holodomor and the Great Chinese Famine.
But between 1950 and 1953, the Stalinist regime of Vulko Chervenkov used threats, violence, and supply discrimination to produce the fastest pace of collectivization in Eastern Europe. Sixty-one percent of arable land had been collectivized by 1952. The process was declared complete in 1958, when 92 percent of arable land belonged to the collective farms. This ended the first phase of Bulgarian postwar agricultural restructuring.
The 9th Panchen Lama died here. "It was only after the 13th Dalai Lama's death that IXth Panchen Lama was to return to Tibet. He died en route in Jyekundo on December 1, 1937." Prior to collectivization in 1958, the entire monastic population of present-day Yushu TAP amounted to more than 25,000 Buddhist monks and nuns, with approximately 300 incarnate lamas among them.
227-243, see p. 230-231 Some of the peasants and "weak elements" were arrested and deported "to the north". Many arrested kulaks and "well-to-do" farmers resettled their families to the Urals and Central Asia.Wheatcroft and Davies The term kulak was ultimately applied to anybody resisting collectivization as many of the so-called kulaks were no more well-off than other peasants.
Due to the allocation of resources for the industry along with decreasing productivity since collectivization, a famine occurred. In the construction of the industrial complexes, inmates of Gulag camps were used as expendable resources. But conditions improved rapidly during the second plan. Throughout the 1930s, industrialization was combined with a rapid expansion of technical and engineering education as well as increasing emphasis on munitions.
Two prominent commanders, Faizal Maksum and Ibrahim Bey, continued to operate out of Afghanistan and conducted a number of raids into the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929. Ibrahim Bek led a brief resurgence of the movement when collectivization fuelled resistance and succeeded in delaying the policy until 1931 in Turkmenistan, but he was soon caught and executed. The movement then largely died out.Ritter, William S (1990).
In 1920, the family moved to Barnaul (in Western Siberia), where Sergei graduated from a seven-year school, and, later, the Barnaul Agricultural College. He worked as an agronomist in the Tashtypsky district farm union of Khakassia in 1931, where he witnessed the tragic events of collectivization. In 1933-1939, Zalygin studied at the Omsk State Agrarian Institute at the Department of Irrigation and Reclamation.
It was often claimed that an American Fordson tractor (called "Фордзон" in Russian) was the best propaganda in favour of collectivization. The Communist Party, which adopted the plan in 1929, predicted an increase of 330% in industrial production, and an increase of 50% in agricultural production. The means of production (land, equipment, livestock) were to be totally "socialized", i.e. removed from the control of individual peasant households.
By no means was joining the collective farm (also known as the kolkhoz) voluntary. The drive to collectivize came without peasant support. The intent was to increase state grain procurements without giving the peasants the opportunity to withhold grain from the market. Collectivization would increase the total crop and food supply but the locals knew that they were not likely to benefit from it.
Fruit and vegetables accounted for only a small part of the cultivated area. Since the 1950s, the supply of livestock has gradually increased because of government encouragement. Producers have been urged to meet the demand for meat that accompanied the rise in income levels of the population. After the collectivization of agriculture, raising livestock increasingly became a large-scale operation, usually undertaken in conjunction with cropping.
Ochab remained a member of the new, reduced in size Politburo. He was seen as close to the factions of Zambrowski and Gomułka in the party. In May 1957, already after the previous collectivization of Polish agriculture had been largely reversed, he became the minister of agriculture. At that time Ochab supported individual farmers and their small associations, not the large cooperatives previously favored by the state.
Dragunsky was born on to a large Jewish family in Svyatsk; his parents were tailors. After completing school in Novozybkov he became a construction worker. As a member of the Komsomol he was made head of a district council and later sent to rural areas to participate in collectivization. He became a member of the Communist Party in 1931 and was drafted into the military in 1933.
During his work, he organized collectivization of local agriculture. In the first post-war years, Prytytski was close to being arrested under accusations of anti-Soviet espionage for Poland. In the 1960s, Prytytski has held senior posts in the Soviet Belarus. From 1962 to 1968 he was Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Belarus and Deputy Head of the Government of Belarus.
During the period of collectivization in the Soviet Union, enforced under Stalin between 1928 and 1940, the Soyot and other Siberian inhabitants were forced into a settled way of life with socialistic enterprises replacing reindeer husbandry. The Soyots were moved to Sorok, Khurga, Bokson and Orlik, the administrative center of Okinsky District. Many were moved to cattle-breeding farms and they switched to Buryat-style husbandry.
However, the collectivization of Polish farming never reached the same extent as it did in the Soviet Union or other countries of the Eastern Bloc.Wojciech Roszkowski, Reforma Rolna Encyklopedia.PWN.pl (Internet Archive) Female textile workers in a state-run factory, Łódź, 1950s Nationalisation began in 1944, with the pro-Soviet government taking over industries in the newly acquired territories along with the rest of the country.
The Soviet Union entered a series of five-year plans which began in 1928 under the rule of Joseph Stalin. Stalin launched what would later be referred to as a "revolution from above" to improve the Soviet Union's domestic policy. The policies were centered around rapid industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture. Stalin desired to remove and replace any policies created under the New Economic Policy.
Trotsky's supporters remained in exile, but their resolve began to waver in 1929 as Stalin turned against Bukharin and Rykov and adopted the policy of collectivization, which appeared to be close to the policies that the Left Opposition had advocated earlier. The Left Opposition attempted to field opposition candidates against the official Communist Party candidates in the 1929 elections, but to no avail.Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 1999.
Then, later, during Joseph Stalin's program of breakneck industrialization and forced collectivization, women were again at the forefront of the workers' strikes and peasant protests that resisted this brutal policy.Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin, p176-84, 202-9, 237-8; Jeffrey Rossman, Worker Resistance under Stalin, p6-7, 206, 232. Stalin's regime was, however, able to contain all resistance through starvation and repression.
Flag of the Soviet Union, with the iconic hammer and sickle. This version was used from 1936 to 1955. In 1929 Stalin proposed the first five-year plan. Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the collectivization of agriculture, and the restricted manufacture of consumer goods.
In 1926 he was named chief accountant for state receipts and expenditures and called for a tax hike on foreigners (i.e. Chinese merchants) to reduce their control of the economy. In 1928, the Seventh Party Congress ushered in the “Leftist Period.” Sambuu supported and played an active role in implementing Soviet backed leftist policies of more rapid collectivization, land expropriation, and persecution of the Buddhist Church.
The village has historically consisted of nine small tribes Makhmudovs, Mashadigurbanovs, Kalbalovs, Allahgululovs,Gayahlis, Yekenamazlis, Pustela, Yarahmadis, Hajimameds. During the collectivization of the twentieth century, these tribes were moved to one place, and the settlement was named after the Mahmudlu tribe. There was a time when this village was impenetrable jungle. Representatives of the Turkic- speaking of Mahmudlu tribe arrived in Azerbaijan at different times.
Criticism of the Spanish Revolution has primarily centered around allegations of coercion by anarchist participants (primarily in the rural collectives of Aragon), which critics charge run contrary to libertarian organizational principles. Bolloten claims that CNT–FAI reports overplayed the voluntary nature of collectivization, and ignored the more widespread realities of coercion or outright force as the primary characteristic of anarchist organization. He also emphasizes the generally coercive nature of the war climate and anarchist military organization and presence in many portions of the countryside as being an element in the establishment of collectivization, even if outright force or blatant coercion was not used to bind participants against their will. This charge had previously been made by historian Ronald Fraser in his Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War, who commented that direct force was not necessary in the context of an otherwise coercive war climate.
35 Unlike the Stalinist model applied in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, the collectivization was not achieved by mass liquidation of wealthy peasants, starvation or agricultural sabotage, but was accomplished gradually. This often included significant violence and destruction as employed by cadres, or Party representatives.Kligman & Verdery The program was launched at the plenary of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party of 3–5 March 1949, where a resolution regarding socialist transformation of agriculture was adopted along the lines of the Soviet kolkhoz. The collectivization strategy covered two directions: model collective structures were set up, such as Gospodării Agricole Colective (GAC; Collective Agricultural Institutions) and Gospodării Agricole de Stat (GAS; State Agricultural Institutions), aimed at attracting peasants; and the full propaganda system (newspapers, radio, mobile caravans, brochures, direct action by agitators) was put in motion in order to convince peasants to form collective farming units.
Resolutions were adopted in the Central Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party to confiscate the property of the exploiter class, to conduct agricultural collectivization "on an unconditionally voluntary basis," "to struggle for complete independence from the imperialist countries and to co-operate closely with the oppressed peoples and the working class of the whole world."Malaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia (1st ed.), Vol. VIII, col. 989. Cited in Tang, p. 422.
There were two basic forms of property in the Soviet Union: individual property and collective property. These differed greatly in their content and legal status. According to communist theory, capital (means of production) should not be individually owned, with certain negligible exceptions. In particular, after the end of a short period of the New Economic Policy and with collectivization completed, all industrial property and virtually all land were collective.
In 1976, Vietnam was officially unified and renamed Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRVN), with its capital in Hà Nội. The Vietnamese Communist Party dropped its front name "Labor Party" and changed the title of First Secretary, a term used by China, to General Secretary, used by the Soviet Union, with Lê Duẩn as general secretary. The Viet Cong was dissolved. The Party emphasized development of heavy industry and collectivization of agriculture.
The resistance of Latvian peasant colonists to forced collectivization at the end of the 1920s seemed to bear out this image. Through targeted deportations to the Gulag, such colonies were eliminated by 1933. A rigorous purge of the party and state apparatus of non-Russians began at that time. The Latvian Communist Party was dissolved in 1936, its members being persecuted and murdered as "nationalists" and "enemies of the people".
He completed his education later at the Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature in Moscow. His poem The Land of Muravia was written in 1934–36 and was favorably received by the critics. This poem, along with his other early narrative poem, The Road to Socialism (1931), were products of Tvardovsky's effort to come to terms with collectivization. He was awarded the Stalin Prize for The Land of Muravia.
Le PCF dans le Sud- Ouest : centre et périphérie Le Travailleur du Centre Ouest was printed in 5,000 copies. As of 1929, 62% of its subscribers lived in the country-side. For example, 3.2% of the inhabitants of Saint-Julien-le-Petit were subscribers, compared to 0.3% in Limoges and 1.9% in Saint-Junien. Le Travailleur du Centre Ouest supported collectivization as the solution for the agrarian crisis.
Although Chervenkov's personality cult model was similar to that of Stalin, he personally accepted it only as a necessity of the current political situation and strongly opposed any extremities. Republika Power Plant, one of the construction projects during the industrialisation By 1953, Bulgaria had cut ties with the West and 90% of its exports and imports involved Soviet partnership. Chervenkov's cabinet used intimidation and supply discrimination to increase collectivization rates.
In addition, Finland received Petsamo, with its ice-free harbour on the Arctic Ocean. The treaty did not prevent the Finnish government from allowing volunteers to cross the border to support the East-Karelian Uprising in 1921 however, nor expatriate Finnish communists from causing disturbances in Finland. In 1923 both countries signed the Border Peace Agreement, which normalized the border. In 1928, the Soviet Union began collectivization in Ingria.
With the greatest share of investment put into heavy industry, widespread shortages of consumer goods occurred while the urban labor force was also increasing. Collectivization employed at the same time was expected to improve agricultural productivity and produce grain reserves sufficiently large to feed the growing urban labor force. The anticipated surplus was to pay for industrialization. Kulaks who were the wealthier peasants encountered particular hostility from the Stalin regime.
From 1923 Volochysk is the administrative centre of Volochyskyi rayon (district). The process of “collectivization” (when individual land and labour were consolidated into collective farms by force) was one of the fastest in the region. As the result, big numbers of people were oppressed and sent to concentration camps in Siberia in 1930–1931. The first library for adults opened here in 1934, the library for children was opened in 1937.
238 (republished by the Romanian Cultural Institute's România Culturală ) or wealthy peasants known as chiaburi (the equivalent of kulaks). Gheorghe Mândrescu, "Grafica şi propaganda în primii ani ai regimului comunist în România. Exemple din colecţia Muzeului Naţional de Artă din Cluj-Napoca" , in Tribuna, Nr. 48, September 2004, p.21 The latter were especially controversial, since they coincided with the forced collectivization and the murderous campaign targeting the rural elites.
In A Critique of Soviet Economics, Chinese leader Mao Zedong sharply criticizes the economic views of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, arguing that the Soviet Union's collectivization of agriculture by means of state expropriation represented a "rightist deviation" by substituting the action of the state for the grass-roots action of the peasant masses.Gilbert Rozman (1987). The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978-1985. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 145.
Similarly to Marchlewszczyzna, limited Polish autonomy in the area was a real fact, with Polish-language schools, libraries and institutions. At the same time, the inhabitants were subject to intensive communist propaganda. Religious life was suppressed, and the campaign of collectivization, carried out in mid-1930s, met resistance of local Polish peasants. Unlike Marchlewszczyzna, which was the real center of Polish cultural life in the Soviet Union, Dzierżyńszczyzna's influence was limited.
The fast-track to collectivization incited numerous peasant revolts in Ukraine and in other parts of the Soviet Union. In response to the situation, Pravda published Stalin's article "Dizzy with success", which blamed overeager Party members and declared that "collective farms must not be established by force". Republished from Pravda No. 60, March 2, 1930. Soon, numerous orders and decrees were issued banning the use of force and administrative methods.
In Person: Vo-Tong Xuan (Viet Nam) Part of the problem in eradicating the bug infestation was the type of collectivization imposes on the farmers of southern Vietnam. He also helped to bring about reforms in the early 1980s that can be seen as catalysts to the Doi Moi reforms of 1986. His activities were a key driver of Vietnam becoming one of the world's largest rice exporters.
Retrieved April 25, 2020 Secondly, articulations of the commons, although historically present and multiple have struggled to come together as a unified front. For the latter to happen she argues that a "commoning" or "commons" movement that is effectively able to resist capitalist forms of organizing labour and our livelihoods must look to women to take the lead in organizing the collectivization of our daily lives and the means of production.
The size of the pool indicated the level of the group's collectivization. The larger the pool, the greater the collective work. In groups that did not have a common pool of rice and tools, productive labor was directed primarily to meeting the family's needs, and the relationship between the agricultural producers and the market or state organizations was very weak. The third category was classified as the family economy.
Award List scan at The People's Feat During the Great Patriotic War of 1941—1945 database His parents divorced when he was three years old. He was raised by a stepfather, Pavel Antonovich Litvinenko, the head of kolkhoz. His mother Claudia Chukhray took an active part in the collectivization and dekulakization of the Ukrainian SSR, then worked as an investigation officer at militsiya. In 1939, he was drafted to the army.
Villagers were afraid the old landowners/serf owners were coming back and that the villagers joining the collective farm would face starvation and famine. More reason for peasants to believe collectivization was a second serfdom was that entry into the kolkhoz had been forced. Farmers did not have the right to leave the collective without permission. The level of state procurements and prices on crops also enforced the serfdom analogy.
Sylvia Klötzer. Satire und Macht: Film, Zeitung, Kabarett in der DDR. Böhlau Verlag (2005). . p. 91. Johannes von Moltke noted that while "suffused with images of rural bliss... rhythms of nature and local tradition" typical to the genre of Homeland films, 52 Weeks "is not entirely irreconcilable with the belief in progress" and is an example to the East German agrarian pictures that focused on the benefits of the collectivization.
The film was made in accordance with the demands set forth by the East German establishment in the Cultural Conference of October 1957 and in the 2nd Cinema Conference of July 1958. Both called on filmmakers to concentrate on the theme of collectivization in agriculture, on the background of the ongoing campaign to establish the communal farms.Sabine Brummel. Die Werktätigen in DEFA-Spielfilmen: Propaganda in den Filmen der DDR.
Under Lenin, the New Economic Policy had allowed and used the concepts of profit and incentives for regulation of the Soviet economy. Stalin transformed this policy rapidly with the collectivization of farms and nationalization of industry the acceleration of central planning—as exemplified by "Five-Year Plans".Katz, Economic Reform (1972), pp. 8–17. Since about 1930, the Soviet Union had used a centralized system to manage its economy.
In 1925, he was moved to Kursk, where he was involved in educational activities and edited a local newspaper. In 1928, the Soviet authorities allowed him to return to Georgia and even consulted him on local affairs. Lordkipanidze, however, started to overtly criticize the forcible collectivization and the creation of the highly unpopular Transcaucasian SFSR in which the Georgian SSR was merged with Armenian SSR and Azerbaijan SSR.
The Soviet collectivization campaign of the 1920s and 1930s made this otherwise non- notable village a part of a larger subtropical agricultural area. A tea kolkhoz farm created at Ochkhamuri triggered an influx of migrants which significantly increased the settlement's population. Jaoshvili, Vakhtang (1968), Население Грузии ("The Population of Georgia"), p. 121. Tbilisi: Metsniereba In 1954, the village was given the status of an urban-type settlement (Georgian: daba).
Voschev follows the peasant's trail. Kozlov unexpectedly shows up at the worksite wearing an expensive suit, the result of having been appointed chairman of the labor union council. Pashkin, who is now Kozlov's driver, tells the group that the peasants in a nearby village are looking to collectivize their farms. The workers decide that Kozlov and Safronov, even though they hate each other, will lead the collectivization process.
A single stud was found in 1958 in Užventis. The stud was transferred to the Vilnius State Stud Farm, where a new generation of Žemaitukas horses was bred. A new challenge was presented by the dissolution of the Soviet Union and rapid de-collectivization in 1990. Horses, that belonged to the kolkhozes (collective farms), were distributed to private owners who often showed little interest in the survival of the breed.
The nationalization begun in 1948, together with the collectivization of agriculture (1949–62), were decisive in undoing the capitalist economy and establishing a socialist economy based on state-owned or cooperative property. After the fall of communism in Romania, the state has tried to compensate homeowners and enterprise owners who could not recover their houses, industries, or lands. A special fund dedicated to compensation was created in 2005: Fondul Proprietatea.
After the USSR recaptured Bessarabia and Transnistria, both regions were devastated by the war. Chişinău, the capital city of Moldova, was almost entirely destroyed from the bombing campaigns. But the Bessarabian region also faced additional hurdles, as noted by Leonid Brezhnev: Because it was not part of the USSR during the 1920s, Bassarabia remained undeveloped in comparison with its Soviet counterparts. Hence, rapid collectivization and sovietization followed the Second World War.
The reform held no promise of gain for most northerners; rather, many northern farmers perceived land reform as an attack on their rights to rist land. Resistance intensified when Zemecha members campaigned for collectivization of land and oxen. Land reform had the least impact on the lowland peripheries, where nomads traditionally maintained their claims over grazing lands. The new proclamation gave them rights of possession to land they used for grazing.
The initial collectivization drive was accompanied by an intensification of the class struggle in the villages, through the elimination of wealthy peasants (chiaburi, also referred to by the Russian term kulaks); members of this class were intimidated, beaten, arrested and imprisoned, on the grounds that they had employed the labour of poor peasants to work their land. On the grassroots level, the USSR used cadres, members of the proletarian and peasant class who were to promote communism among the public. The party-state used various tactics to convince peasants of the benefits of collectivization, including propaganda such as films and operas, denunciations of suspected class enemies and saboteurs, and encouraging peasants to write petitions in order to inculcate them in socialist norms. "Persuasion work" (muncă de lămurire) was initially a major force for collectivizing the countryside, although these efforts were hapless due to the small size of the agitation workers cadre and their lack of knowledge on agricultural issues. Kligman & Verdery, p. 286-89.
Collectivization was a system, first implemented in Soviet Russia, of taking land from peasants for government use, and then redistributing this land into large, government run farms. This worked, to a degree, in Russia. However, in Romania this system was met with much more opposition and a lack of support from the general population. The cadres in Romania, at least at the beginning, were of a rather small number, so one of the most important cadres was an agitator, whose job it was to go around from village to village in efforts to “whip up support” for the new party. Cadre is a very general term, and refers to many positions within the communist bureaucracy, in addition to agitators, cadres were also responsible for the logistical aspects of collectivization, such as collecting quotas and getting people to join the collectives, as well as policing the state and making sure citizens were “good communists”.
A second forced "voluntary" collectivization campaign was initiated in the winter–summer of 1931 with significant assistance of the so-called "tug-brigades" composed from kolkhoz udarniks. Many "kulaks" along with families were deported from Ukraine. According to declassified data, around 300,000 peasants in Ukraine out of a population of about 30 million were subject to these policies in 1930–31. Ukrainians composed 15% of the total 1.8 million 'kulaks' relocated Soviet- wide.
After the retreat of the Germans, about 30,000 partisans remained in hiding in the Estonian forests, waging a guerrilla war until the early 1950s. After re- occupation, the Soviet nationalization policy of 1940 was reimposed, as well as the collectivization of farms. Over 900,000 hectares were expropriated in the few years following reoccupation, while much of that land was given to new settlers from Russia or other locations in the Soviet Union.
A distinction was made between the elimination of the Kulaks as a class and the killing of is the individuals themselves;Deutscher, Isaac, Stalin, p324, Penguin, (1966) nevertheless, at least 530,000 to 600,000 deaths resulted from dekulakization from 1929 to 1933,Hildermeier, Die Sowjetunion, p. 38 f. and Robert Conquest has estimated that there could have been as many as five million deaths.Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.
Disorder in the Ukraine?, TIME Magazine, 12 December 1927 The revolt was caused by the collectivization campaign and the lawless environment in the cities caused by the oppressive Soviet government. Following the Soviet invasion of Poland, the administrative center of the oblast was moved from the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi to the city of Khmelnytskyi. Kamianets-Podilskyi was occupied by the German troops on 11 July 1941 in the course of Operation Barbarossa.
Rudenko was seven years old when his father died in a mining accident. With his mother and two siblings, he worked on the family farm until they were forced to give their land during the process of collectivization. He was traumatized by the Holodomor, and remarked that it remained with him his entire life. He began to write as a child, and had some of his poems published by the local newspapers.
Following the disastrous collectivization efforts of the late 1920s, Lysenko's "new" methods were seen by Soviet officials as paving the way to an "agricultural revolution." Lysenko himself was from a peasant family, and was an enthusiastic advocate of Leninism. The Party-controlled newspapers applauded Lysenko's "practical" efforts and questioned the motives of his critics. Lysenko's "revolution in agriculture" had a powerful propaganda advantage over the academics, who urged the patience and observation required for science.
Shortly after their collectivization, TRG began committing several crimes which included extortion, murder, kidnapping, robbery, burglary, home invasion, drugs and weapons trafficking. Some of the Tiny Rascal members were originally members of the Asian Boyz, a rival gang, and transferred gangs due to friction between other fellow Tiny Rascal members. Throughout the early 90s, The Tiny Rascals had a violent rivalry with the Long Beach-based East Side Longos MUIE who were predominantly Hispanic.
During the collectivization and ethnic cleansing, the Soviets captured, killed and deported Ingrian peasants, provoking widespread criticism by the Finnish media in 1930. Two years later, the nationalist Lapua Movement unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the Finnish government in the Mäntsälä rebellion. Nevertheless, during the 1930s, the diplomatic climate between Finland and the Soviet Union gradually improved. From the 1920s, the Soviet Union had offered different non-aggression pacts with Finland but they were all rejected.
Stein departed Helsinki empty-handed on 6 April. The Finns had many reasons to turn down the Soviet proposals. Finland had started negotiations for a military co-operation with Sweden, and the Finns had great hopes for the joint Finnish–Swedish defense for the Ålands islands and did not want to jeopardize these negotiations. In addition, the violent collectivization, purges, show trials and executions in Stalin's Soviet Union had given the country a bad reputation.
At the 4th Party Congress, the first since the reunification of Vietnam, Đỗ Mười was elected to the Politburo as an alternate member. In July 1977, the Committee for the Transformation of Industry and Trade was established with Nguyễn Văn Linh serving as Chairman and Đỗ Mười serving as Deputy Chairman. The goal of the Committee was to initiate the socialist transformation of southern Vietnam by socialising the economy through nationalisation and collectivization.
In the early 1990s, anarchist groups less linked to the underground music scene began to appear. In Lima the anarcho-syndicalist groups "Proletarian Autonomy" and "Collectivization" emerged. In 2001, after many years, an anarchist newspaper "Disobedience" began to be printed in Lima, which continues to appear to this day, maintaining a perspective of critical anarchism. The Libertarian Workshop was formed, which brought together activists from different generations, including Víctor Gutiérrez, Ch. Zénder and L. Villavicencio.
The industrialization plan relied on high taxation, fixed prices, war reparations, Soviet credits, and export of food and raw materials. Forced collectivization of agriculture was initiated in 1949. At that time 94% of agricultural land was privately owned, and by 1950 96% was under the control of the social sector. A rapid improvement of food production and the standard of living was expected, but due to bad results the program was abandoned three years later.
In 1902, Cossacks and Tatars founded the village on the lands of the Cossack settlement Prechistenskaya Orenburg Governorate. It had the operational mosque (closed in the 30th of XX century, were not saved up to now). In 1929, in the period of collectivization, the kolkhoz Kyzyl Bayrak (the Red Banner) was organized. Since 1970, the third department of the Agapovsky state farm (now Agapovskoe CJSC) operated on the territory of the settlement.
Russian officials strongly opposed the practice of shamanism and the concept of shamans as religious leaders. Shamans were religious conservatives and responsible for general resistance against Soviet reform (doctors, schools, collectivization). They were also responsible for assisting White supporters who fled after the Russian Civil War, which sparked Soviet anger. The shamans felt a strong need to protect the native way of life: shamanism had long provided a sense of communal solidarity.
Gracchus Babeuf and his comrades denounced the privileged who benefited from the Revolution. They advocated a radical reform of society: the abolition of private property and equality for all of France. To realize their ideal, they planned to overthrow the Directory. The purpose of the Conspiracy was to continue the revolution, and to lead it to the collectivization of lands and the means of production, to obtain "perfect equality" and "common happiness".
Mao's social and cultural programs, including collectivization, were most popular in the early 1950s. However, China's strained relations with new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev and newfound contradictions between the Chinese and Soviet schools of communism seeded a novel and radical drive to reform China's economic system in its entirety. This split developed after Stalin's death in 1953 when new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced him. The "secret speech" in 1956 stunned the communist world.
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 1997. . pp. 71, 307, 81. The groundwork for the Soviet policy concerning nationalities was laid out in Stalin's 1913 work Marxism and the National Question. Stalinist policies in the Soviet Union included rapid industrialization, Five-Year Plans, socialism in one country, a centralized state, collectivization of agriculture and subordination of interests of other communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The village arose in the early 20th century on the site where were situated outbuildings residents Krutoe (later – Bolshoe Krutoe, burned by the German invaders in 1942 and not revived). There was a brick factory in Maloe Krutoe before the Second World War. During the period of collectivization in 1930, there was built a kolkhoz (collective farm) named after Lenin. October 13, 1941 Maloe Krutoe was occupied by German and Finnish troops.
Rabbi Levi Yitzchok Bender. Eventually, Rosen and Rabbi Levi Yitzchok Bender became the joint leaders of the Breslover community in Uman. Rosen displayed his commitment to his flock during a government-engineered famine in Ukraine engineered by Joseph Stalin's forced collectivization of agriculture (see Holodomor). Rosen organized shipments from the bread lines in Moscow to the starving community in Uman, and also appealed to the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee for assistance.
As a result of land reform following World War I the land within the village was broken up into smaller parcels. In further land reform following World War II 621 families were allotted 1800 kilo-hectares. The 1950s saw the collectivization and privatization of the village's agricultural lands. Private land ownership was reinstated during the transition from socialism in 1993-1994 and the collective was replaced by a 20-member agricultural production cooperative.
Damdinsüren was born in Mongolia 1908, in what is today the Dornod Aimag (province). As a young man, he was politically active in the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League, where he was elected into the Central Committee in 1926, and eventually became an editor of its publications. Later he became the chairman of the Council of Mongolian Trade Unions and was involved in the collectivization and seizures. He joined the MPRP in 1932.
It was first published in Berlin, but the use of the books (written in Russian) was suppressed under Stalin in the 1930s. While working at the Agrarian Institute of the Communist Academy, he opposed Stalin's extreme measures concerning the collectivization and industrialization, until his arrest in July 1930. He sentenced at the 1931 Menshevik Trial, an early show trial by Stalin. Sukhanov was exiled to Tobolsk with a 10-year prison sentence.
Hugh Thomas, p. 704. On April 25 a force of Carabineros forced patrols of CNT in Puigcerdà to hand over control of the customs house; Juan Negrín, the Finance Minister, had resolved to end this anomaly under which the CNT controlled that important border.Hugh Thomas, p. 705. Puigcerdá had become a center of espionage, falsification of passports and clandestine leakage and its mayor, Antonio Martin, while insisting in general collectivization, raised his own livestock.
Arise Gheorghe, Arise Ioan! () is a poem by Radu Gyr. In 1958 Radu Gyr was imprisoned and sentenced to death (commuted to life sentences and pardoned a few years later) by the Communist authorities because of his subversive poem. The poem had asked for peasants to oppose in every way the regime's agricultural policies: it had been issued as the last wave of brutal collectivization was taking hold of the rural landscape.
International agencies and donors generally condemned the policy. Many foreign donors suspended aid flows to Ethiopia, as they were unwilling to support a collectivization drive resemblant of dekulakization and the creation of Soviet state farms. Others donors reluctant to send aid felt that such development programs could no longer be considered "humanitarian activities." In 1988, after considerable pressure from the World Bank, the regime relaxed market regulations within the new village cooperatives.
In political contexts a cadre (, , ) consists of a small group of people. The word may also refer to a single member of such a group. In a Socialist government, a cadre is a group of people trained to carry out the goals of the Party-State and disseminate and enforce the official pedagogy. These groups are meant to stimulate loyalty and obedience to party rules and regulations by mobilizing citizens and encouraging collectivization.
In the 1930s, the Soviet Union, creating more simple menus, began developing state public catering establishments as part of its collectivization policies. A rationing system was implemented during World War II, and people became used to public catering. After the Second World War, many businessmen embraced catering as an alternative way of staying in business after the war. By the 1960s, the home-made food was overtaken by eating in public catering establishments.
They became really popular during the Stolypin reform in the early 20th century. During the collectivization, however, residents of such settlements were usually declared to be kulaks and had all their property confiscated and distributed to others (nationalized) without any compensation. The stanitsa likewise has not survived as an administrative term. The stanitsa was a type of a collective community that could include one or more settlements such as villages, khutirs, and others.
The removal of the bell from St Volodymyr's Cathedral Central Kiev USSR 1930 Collectivization did not just entail the acquisition of land from farmers but also the closing of churches, burning of icons, and the arrests of priests. Associating the church with the tsarist regime, the Soviet state continued to undermine the church through expropriations and repression.Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin, 49. They cut off state financial support to the church and secularized church schools.
Hamlet Isakhanli is a member of the well known Hajibayramli clan. His grandfather was a famous guerilla Isakhan Hajibayramli (1897–1930), who organized an armed rebellion against the Soviets during the collectivization period (in the late 1920s to 1930) in the territories of Georgia and Armenia. Isakhan is retained in the memory of the old generation for his bravery and chivalry. His 100-year anniversary was celebrated in both Azerbaijan and Georgia.
Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force.
Government officials expropriated grain and other produce from rural Cossack families, leaving them to starve and die. Many families were forced from their homes in the severe winter and froze to death. Mikhail Sholokhov's letters to Joseph Stalin document the conditions and widespread deaths, as do eyewitness accounts. Besides starvation, the collectivization and dekulakization campaigns of the early 1930s threatened Cossacks with deportation to labor camps, or outright execution by Soviet security organs.
The Communist Party authorities carried out the market reforms in two stages. The first stage, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, involved the de-collectivization of agriculture, the opening up of the country to foreign investment, and permission for entrepreneurs to start businesses. However, a large percentage of industries remained state-owned. The second stage of reform, in the late 1980s and 1990s, involved the privatization and contracting out of much state-owned industry.
This film documents the failure of Western development policy in Africa, and shows how a community of impoverished Ethiopian farmers are working themselves out of poverty through collectivization and micro-finance initiatives. It won the 2010 One World Media MDGs Award, being described by judges as "superbly shot and uplifting ... a compelling piece of work that drew the viewer into the heart of a community as it struggled to shake off a dependency culture".
The main themes of his works are the revolution in the Siberian villages, collectivization, and World War II. Two of his novels were filmed. Eternal Call «Москва», 1959, N 10 was the base of the TV series with the same name.Что такое «план Даллеса» Another TV series was based on his novel Shadows Disappear at Noon (:ru:Тени исчезают в полдень). The two novels are represented in a monument at the author's birthplace Shemonaikha.
However, the "official" result (due to the interference of Kaganovich) saw Stalin with just two opposing votes (Radzinsky, 1996). In 1930, Kaganovich became a member of the Soviet Politburo and the First Secretary of the Moscow Obkom of the Communist Party (1930–1935). He later headed the Moscow Gorkom of the Communist Party (1931–1934). He also supervised the implementation of many of Stalin's economic policies, including the collectivization of agriculture and rapid industrialization.
The development of these forces took place in three stages. 1970 to 1972 was a period of organization and recruitment, during which Khmer Rouge units served as auxiliaries to the PAVN. From 1972 to mid-1974, the insurgents formed units of battalion and regimental size. It was during this period that the Khmer Rouge began to break away from Sihanouk and his supporters and the collectivization of agriculture was begun in the "liberated" areas.
As this new social structure arose, conflicts occurred among some of the majority of the populations. In Turkmenistan, for example, the Soviet policy of collectivization shifted their production from cotton to food products. Such a change caused unrest within a community that had already existed prior to this external adjustment, and between 1928 and 1932, Turkmen nomads and peasants made it clear through methods like passive resistance that they did not agree with such policies.
Many armies passed through town in the period from 1917 to 1920, when Ukraine gained its independence from Russia for a short period of time. They represented different powers: Russian Bolsheviks, Ukrainian Central Council (Tsentralna Rada), Mahno movement and the White movement. With the end of the war, the Communist Party assumed complete control of the country. The Bolsheviks leader Joseph Stalin launched a command economy, rapid industrialization and collectivization of its agriculture.
It deals with the experiences of the Cossacks before and during World War I and the Russian Civil War. Another novel, Virgin Soil Upturned, which earned a Lenin Prize, took 28 years to complete. It is composed of two parts, Seeds of Tomorrow (1932) and Harvest on the Don (1960), and reflects life during collectivization in the Don area. The short story "The Fate of a Man" (1957) was made into a popular Russian film.
View of Village Yutsa Yutsa () is a rural locality (a selo) in Predgorny District of Stavropol Krai, Russia. Population: The exact date when Yutsa was established is unknown, but estimated to be in the 1850s–1860s. The official foundation date is considered to be 1885, by the Baptists. During collectivization over a thousand Spiritual Christians were relocated here, mostly Molokane and Pryguny from Salsky District, Rostov oblast who were born in Kars Oblast (now Turkey).
Dekulakization (, raskulachivanie; , rozkurkulennia) was the Soviet campaign of political repressions, including arrests, deportations, and executions of millions of kulaks (prosperous peasants) and their families in the 1929–1932 period of the first five-year plan. To facilitate the expropriations of farmland, the Soviet government portrayed kulaks as class enemies of the USSR. More than 1.8 million peasants were deported in 1930–1931.Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.
Instances of cannibalism were reported. The last major famine in the USSR happened mainly in 1947 as a cumulative effect of consequences of collectivization, war damage, the severe drought in 1946 in over 50 percent of the grain-productive zone of the country and government social policy and mismanagement of grain reserves. The regions primarily affected were Transnistria in Moldova and South Eastern Ukraine. Between 100,000 and one million people may have perished.
The road E-83 passing through Petrevene After the democratic changes of 1989 in Bulgaria Petrevene has remained within the Lovech District of the Republic of Bulgaria. The TKZS was closed (unlike other nearby villages which have kept theirs and privatized them), and became derelict. Petrevene's agricultural output and capacity were reduced severely. The collectivized farmfields were then divided as they were prior to the collectivization and returned to their original owners or their heirs.
Despite an intense state campaign, collectivization, which was initially voluntary, was not popular amongst peasants: as of early 1929, only 5.6% of Ukrainian peasant households and 3.8% of arable land was “collectivized”. In the early of 1929, the methods employed by the specially empowered authority “UkrKolhozcenter” changed from a voluntary enrollment to an administrative one. By October 1, 1929, a plan for the creation of kolkhozes was “outperformed” by 239%. As a result, 8.8% of arable land was “collectivized”.
It was founded in 1951 as a result of the ongoing Soviet policy of collectivization. The kolkhoz (collective farm) that was founded around Vayegi brought together several groups of previously nomadic herders. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, small rural localities like Vayegi were extremely hard hit economically. In 2000, for example, when the monthly living wage across Chukotka was estimated at 3,800 rubles, the average wage in Vayegi was in the range of 700–800 rubles.
Kuular's policies were reverted and the country's traditionally nomadic cattle-breeders were put in collectivization programs. Similarly to the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia, Buddhist lamas, aristocrats, intelligentsia and other political dissidents were purged and Buddhist temples and monasteries destroyed. As part of this process the written language in Tuva was changed from Mongol script to the Latin-based alphabet in June 1930. Religious symbols, such as the Khorlo, were also removed from the flag and emblem.
Many officials felt the overpowered Soviet institution was abusing its power and making it difficult for collectivized agriculture to succeed under strict procedures. Soviet peasants met the same criticism as internal departments, peasants were reported as drunks, debauchers, and saboteurs who went against the Communist Party and its attempts for mass collectivization. Most of these reports were false and wrongly depicted the life of the peasantry, but justified to place extreme quotas on the agriculture sector.
Chastushki cover a very wide spectrum of topics, from lewd jokes to political satire, including such diverse themes as love songs and Communist propaganda. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, chastushki varied considerably in content from region to region. In some areas hit particularly hard by the grain requisitioning of the Soviet regime during the Civil War, such as Riazan, peasant chastushki tended to be bitterly hostile.Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization.
Mikheil Kakhiani (; 1896 – December, 1937) was a Soviet and Georgian politician. He served as First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party from August 1924 to May 1930. A strong supporter of Joseph Stalin, Kakhiani ensured that after the 1924 August Uprising there would be no dissent from Georgia towards the Bolsheviks. He launched the collectivization of Georgian farms in 1931 and farmers were relocated to state-run farms while their produce, farming tools, and fields were destroyed.
In 1886, a railway station was built on this site; at the time, the nearest settlement was the village of Zhuliany (Ukrainian Жуляни), so the railway station was given the name "Zhuliany" after the village. In 1912, people started settling around the station. During the Russian Civil War (1917–1921) the Red and White armies fought here. The population increased during the times of Joseph Stalin's forced collectivization policies (1928–1940), when peasants were settled near the station.
Jonathan D. Smele: Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926, 2015, Lanham (Maryland) 2015, p. 1197. He tried to put his country on a Theocratic and Nationalistic path, tried to sow closer ties with Mongolia, and made Buddhism the state religion.Frank Stocker: Als Vampire die Mark eroberten: Eine faszinierende Reise durch die rätselhafte Welt der Banknoten in 80 kurzen Geschichten, (online) 2015, p. 69. He was also resistant to the collectivization policies of the Soviet Union.
Collectivization was the policy to reduce nomadic lifestyles and force development of sedentary occupations. National groups were clustered into collectives, which were composed of a cluster of villages centered around a main outpost. The collective center was built usually on a river inlet to facilitate ease of access. The goal was that the outlying villages would no longer become necessary: native groups would ideally be attracted to the consumer goods of the center and the lifestyle it presented.
Electricity, schools, roads and other infrastructure were built. Several kolkhozi (collective farms) were established near Medzhybizh. In the early 1930s, pressure from the government to break the peasant resistance to collectivization resulted in famines throughout Ukraine. Recently a museum dedicated to the memory of the many local inhabitants who died during the Holodomor was opened in Medzhybizh containing original documents from the area relating to the shooting of all villagers who opposed entering the kolhoz collective farms.medzhibozh.
Clergy that had annual income surpassing 3000 rubles could not remain in nationalized or municipalized buildings and they had to be evicted by April 8, 1929. No further leases of such buildings to clergy of any income were permitted, and it was also made illegal for them to reside in the homes of others. The only way they could live then was in private houses that they rented, of which after the collectivization nothing remained except semi- rural cottages.
Beginning with de-collectivization in 1956, Poland was the only member of Comecon where the private sector predominated in agriculture. The state maintained indirect control, however, through the state agencies that distributed needed input materials and purchased agricultural produce. Compulsory delivery quotas were maintained for farms until the beginning of the 1970s. The state also retained significant influence on the process of cultivation, restrictions on the size of farms, and limitations on the buying and selling of land.
While some joined voluntarily, others, especially in the beginning of the revolution, were forced to join the collectives by anarchist militias. The anarcho-syndicalist periodical Solidaridad Obrera reported that: "Certain abuses have been committed that we consider counterproductive. We know that certain irresponsible elements have frightened the small peasants and that up to now a certain apathy has been noted in their daily labors." The voluntary nature of the rural collectivization varied from region to region.
Soviet advisers noted with concern that Ghelmegeanu was influencing Groza to unseal his agreements with the PCdR.Cioroianu, p. 161 During his time as a diplomat, Ralea pressed the Americans to intervene in Romania and balance out Soviet influence, as a guarantee against the collectivization of peasant property.Cioroianu, p. 127 Returning to Romania after the full imposition of a communist regime, he was awarded a seat in the Great National Assembly with the formal elections of 1948.
Whereas in the traditional pattern of transhumant animal husbandry, Lak males and their animals walked over the treacherous mountain passes and forded rivers, the herds are now taken by truck to their winter pastures in the lowlands and similarly brought back in the spring. Traditionally, extended families held the limited amount of agricultural land, the pastures, and the herds in common and did not have a strong sense of individual ownership. The Laks nevertheless resisted Soviet collectivization policies.
It closely resembled Soviet cooperatives in organization, although members were guaranteed a share of profits and membership was (nominally) completely voluntary. By 1947, only 3.8 percent of arable land had been collectivized. After the communists won the first postwar election and the peace was concluded in 1947, pressure on private landholders increased. Although most small farmers had joined collectives, by 1949, only 12 percent of arable land was under state control — mainly because the collectivization program alienated many peasants.
British scientist Don Filzer believes that this was due to the fact that as a result of collectivization and a sharp decline in the standard of living of the rural population, human labor was greatly devalued.Filtzer D. Soviet Workers and Stalinist industrialization. — London: Pluto Press, 1986. Vadim Rogovin notes that the desire to fulfill the plan led to a situation of overstretching forces and a permanent search for reasons to justify the non-fulfillment of excessive tasks.
This represented an attempt to "proletarianize" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the Party. In 1925, the party had 1,025,000 members in a Soviet population of 147 million. In 1927, membership had risen to 1,200,000. During the collectivization campaign and industrialization campaigns of the first five-year plan from 1929 to 1933, party membership grew rapidly to approximately 3.5 million members.
He said, "Socialism is the feudalism of the future".Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine, Oxford University Press New York (1986) He felt that only the harshest reaction could prevent that scenario. He also predicted that Germany would grow strong enough to make up to two wars against Russia and that China also would eventually threaten Russia's power. He also claimed that technology would one day lead to universal destruction.
Reindeer pulling a sleigh, Russia Summer pastures are located on watersheds, while winter pastures are located in river basins. Hunting for wild deer has traditionally served as a by-catch for reindeer herders and was conducted seasonally by small groups of hunters in river crossings. Nomadism is of key importance to the Evenk culture. As a result of Soviet collectivization, the nomads forcibly became sedentary, which resulted in the disintegration of social structures and cultural identity.
Surplus products, as well as surplus livestock, were sold to kolkhozy and sovkhozy and also to state consumer cooperatives. Statistics may actually under-represent the total contribution of private plots to Soviet agriculture. The only time when private plots were completely banned was during collectivization, when famine took millions of lives. Although the Soviet Union was the world's second leading agricultural producer and ranked first in the production of numerous commodities, agriculture was a net drain on the economy.
IX He also cites fellow critic Alexandru Piru, who defines Baconsky's early productions as bearing "the strong imprint of journalism". This series included controversial stanzas about communization, the Romanian collectivization process, and class struggle against wealthy peasants known as chiaburi (Romanian for kulaks). Bogdan Creţu, "A. E. Baconsky: un destin contorsionat, oglindit în propria operă" , in Convorbiri Literare, October 2007 Other portions of his work were dedicated to industrialization policies, around subjects related to Brad factories.
After major Red Army campaigns and concessions regarding economic and Islamic practices in the mid-1920s, the military fortunes and popular support of the Basmachi declined.Michael Rywkin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge: Soviet Central Asia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1990), 41. Resistance to Russian rule and Soviet leadership did flare up again, to a lesser extent, in response to collectivization campaigns in the pre-WWII era.Martha B. Olcott, "The Basmachi or Freemen's Revolt in Turkestan, 1918-24," Soviet Studies, Vol.
Born March 3, 1919 in Korocha, Kursk Governorate (now Belgorod region) in a peasant family. In 1931, because of the collectivization, the parents of A.V. Pogorelov escaped from the village to Kharkiv, where his father become a worker at the construction of the Kharkiv tractor plant. In 1935, A.V. Pogorelov won the first prize at the Mathematical Olympiad in Kharkiv State University. After high school graduation in 1937, he entered the mathematical department of the Kharkiv State University.
Since the birth of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, China has undergone several economic transformations. Gradual reforms have shifted agricultural production in rural areas from private farming to collectivization and lastly back to household production.Oi, J., C. (1999). Two Decades of Rural Reform in China: An Overview and Assessment. The China Quarterly, 159, 616-628. This is seen in two main policy eras: central planning from the 1950s until 1978, and decentralization after 1978.
Article 107 of the criminal code was the legal means by which the state acquired grain. The Soviet government responded to these acts by cutting off food rations to peasants and areas where there was opposition to collectivization, especially in Ukraine. For peasants that were unable to meet the grain quota, they were fined five- times the quota. If the peasant continued to be defiant the peasants' property and equipment would be confiscated by the state.
In areas where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, collectivization met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. Restrictions on migration proved ineffective and half a million migrated to other regions of Central Asia and 1.5 million to China. Of those who remained, as many as a million died in the resulting famine.
The Bolsheviks had limited ties with the Georgian peasantry, which was overwhelmingly opposed to collectivization and dissatisfied over land shortages and other economic troubles. The situation in the country was further aggravated by a famine prevailing in many areas and the summer 1921 outbreak of cholera, which carried off thousands of victims. The desperate shortage of food and the breakdown of medical services resulted in heavy mortality, Catholicos Patriarch Leonid being among the dead.Lang, p. 238.
The changes, implemented in the name of egalitarianism, enjoyed broad societal approval and support. The structure of Polish economy was established in the late 1940s and the early 1950s. Soviet-style planning begun in 1950 with the Six-Year Plan. The plan focused on rapid development of heavy industry ("accelerated industrialization", after the outbreak of the Korean War driven by Soviet military demands at the expense of many cancelled consumer-oriented investments) and the (eventually futile) collectivization of agriculture.
The economy of Neu Samara has been based on collective farming since collectivization of private property. After a few years with only one collective farm for the whole settlement, each village formed its own collective. In the 1950s there was another expansion of collective farms. In the end, all of the German villages except Ischalka divided into one of three collectives: "Komsomolez" centered in Bogomasowo, "Karl Marx" centered in Podolsk and "Saweti Lenina" centered in Pleschanowo.
After major Red Army campaigns and concessions regarding economic and Islamic practices in the mid-1920s, the military fortunes and popular support of the Basmachi declined.Michael Rywkin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge: Soviet Central Asia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1990), 41. Resistance to Soviet/Russian rule did flare up again to a lesser extent in response to collectivization campaigns in the pre-WWII Era.Martha B. Olcott, "The Basmachi or Freemen's Revolt in Turkestan, 1918-24," Soviet Studies, Vol.
One woman, for instance, is alive only to the pain she feels when stray dogs chew on her feet. Others rip their plants out of the ground by the roots, refusing to let their property be taken into collectivization. The rest of the peasants spend the night involuntarily vomiting. Zhachev and Nastya visit the village, and Yelisey introduces them to the local blacksmith: an anthropomorphic bear who touts a keen ability to sniff out and kill kulaks.
Postyshev wrote in his report that the majority were exiled or shot. The highest ranking were paraded through elaborate show trials. As the purges progressed after 1933, affecting millions throughout the Soviet Union, Postyshev's crackdown spread beyond perceived "Ukrainianizers," "nationalists," and opponents of collectivization. Eventually it came to include the liquidation of entire classes such as kulaks, priests, people who had been members of anti-Bolshevik armies, and even ethnic Ukrainians who had travelled abroad or immigrated from Galicia.
New attempts at collectivization were begun with different tactics and another name - the cooperatives in the early 1930s had been called khamtral, i.e. collective, kolkhoz - in the mid-1930s, but initially only on a very small scale: while there were 139 negdels country-wide in 1950,H.Barthel, Mongolei - Land zwischen Taiga und Wüste, Gotha 1990, p. 108f in 1949 ten negdels in Khövsgöl combined had no more than 4,700 animals, with the smallest negdel only owning 43.
In addition to being established as a brand new settlement, Snezhnoye was also created as a sovkhoz (a state farm) from the very beginning, despite the usual practice being the collectivization first into kolkhozes, which were transformed into sovkhozes at a later date.Gray (2003), p. 327 The name "Snezhnoye", literally meaning "snowy", is after the Chukchi word keyelivtyn (), used by the Chukchi to refer to the area and also meaning "snowy".Electoral Commission of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.
From 1925 to 1928, Kaganovich was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukrainian SSR. He was given the task of "ukrainizatsiya" – meaning at that time the building up of Ukrainian communist popular cadres. He also had the duty of implementing collectivization and the policy of economic suppression of the kulaks (wealthier peasants). He opposed the more moderate policy of Nikolai Bukharin, who argued in favor of the "peaceful integration of kulaks into socialism".
Salchak Toka was a member of the Communist University of the Toilers of the East (, Kommunisticheskiy universitet trudyashchikhsya Vostoka) in Moscow and Kyzyl. In 1929 the current head of state Donduk Kuular was removed from power and arrested by the Soviets. Meanwhile, five Tuvan graduates of the Communist University of the Toilers of the East were appointed commissars extraordinary to Tuva. Their loyalty to Stalin ensured that they would pursue policies, such as collectivization, that Donduk had ignored.
Thousands of industrial and mining enterprises were constructed, including 156 major facilities. Industrial production increased at an average annual rate of 19 percent between 1952 and 1957, and national income grew at a rate of 9 percent a year. Despite the lack of state investment in agriculture, agricultural output increased substantially, averaging increases of about 4 percent a year. This growth resulted primarily from gains in efficiency brought about by the reorganization and cooperation achieved through collectivization.
In October 1955, Mao Zedong called for an acceleration of agricultural collectivization around China. While Mao had explicitly exempted Tibet from this campaign, he had also left many decisions to local officials and warned them that those who were not able to carry out the cooperatives would simply be replaced. Li advocated enthusiastically the establishment of socialist cooperatives in 1955. This led to friction with Tibetans in the western part of Sichuan province, otherwise known as the Kham region.
The distributive effects of the post-war land reform were eliminated by the collectivization drive of the late 1950s-early 1960s, and by 1962 less than 18% of agricultural land had remained in family farms and household plots, while the rest had shifted to Soviet-style collective and state farms). By 1971, independent family farms had virtually disappeared and individual farming survived only in household plots cultivated part-time by cooperative members (approximately 6% of agricultural land).
Since 2000, Krytyka (as Krytyka Press) publishes books on history, political science, literary studies, art as well as belles lettres and memoirs. Among the large projects are the Chronicle of Collectivization and Holodomor in Ukraine. 1927 - 1933 and complete works of Panteleymon Kulish. Krytyka Press is the publisher of a number of magazines in Ukrainian studies including Mediaevalia Ukrainica: Mentality and History of Ideas, Ukrainian Review of Humanities, Ukrayina Moderna, East-West: Historical-Cultural Collection and Sentencia.
Grogin, p. 133. However, by the summer of 1947 the KSČ had alienated whole blocs of potential voters. The activities of the police—headed by Interior Minister Václav Nosek, a Communist—were acutely offensive to many citizens; farmers objected to talk of collectivization, and some workers were angry at Communist demands that they increase output without being given higher wages. The general expectation was that the Communists would be soundly defeated in the May 1948 elections.
Tismăneanu & Vasile, p.32 In his speeches to the PMR sections, Răutu described the cadre verification policy as inspired by the 19th CPSU Congress and its talk of "ideological work" being paramount in the consolidation of socialism.Tismăneanu & Vasile, p.267-270 He declared Pauker a saboteur of collectivization and her associate Vasile Luca guilty of "criminal activity".Tismăneanu & Vasile, pp.275–276, 281 In large part, "processing" meant a clampdown on writers with supposed (and supposedly concealed) "fascist" sympathies.
Sergey Skubko born in 1922 in Stachevka, a Cossack settlement in the Russian Far Eastern Primorsky Krai (near the Chinese border). Died in Moscow in 2007. His family was stripped of property during collectivization and moved to Vladivostok in 1930. Sergey Skubko was engaged in thereceipt of American land-lease aid in the port of Vladivostok during the Second world war (he spoke good English). Arrived in Moscow from Vladivostok in 1945 to get higher education.
A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses during the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s. The long-term demographic consequences of collectivization and the Second World War meant that the Soviet Union's 1989 population was 288 million rather than 315 million, 9% lower than it otherwise would have been. In addition to the deaths, the famine resulted in massive population movements, as about 300,000 Kazakh nomads fled to China, Iran, Mongolia and Afghanistan during the famine.Kokaisl, Petr.
Under the UN Oil for Food program, Iraq imported large quantities of grains, meat, poultry, and dairy products. The government abolished its farm collectivization program in 1981, allowing a greater role for private enterprise in agriculture. Iraqi agriculture suffered substantial physical disruption from the Gulf War, and economic disruption from sanctions imposed by the United Nations (August 1990). Sanctions curtailed imports by cutting off Iraq's petroleum exports, and embargoing those agricultural production inputs deemed to have potential military applications.
The fast-track to collectivization incited numerous peasant revolts in Ukraine and in other parts of the USSR. In response to the situation, the Soviet regime stepped back: the March 2, 1930, issue of "Pravda" published the Stalin's article "Dizzy with success". Soon, numerous orders and decrees were issued banning the use of force and administrative methods. Some of “mistakenly dekulakized” received their property back, and even some mistakenly deported returned home but in insignificant numbers-–most remained where they had been deported.
The People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia enforced the collectivization () of its agricultural sector between 1946 and 1952. The policy, as per directions issued in February 1946, aimed to consolidate individual landholdings and labour into collective farms (Peasants' Work Cooperatives). The Yugoslav government followed the pattern of the Soviet Union, with two types of farms, the state farms and collective farms. The peasants' holdings were operated under government supervision, the state farms owned by the governments were operated by hired labour.
With the Soviet Union's assistance, new industrial plants were built and agricultural production eventually fell to a point where industry was beginning to produce enough capital that China no longer needed the USSR's support. The declared success of the First-Five Year Plan was to encourage Mao to instigate the Second Five-Year Plan in 1958. Mao also launched a phase of rapid collectivization. The CPC introduced price controls as well as a Chinese character simplification aimed at increasing literacy.
Many of the consumer goods produced during this time were of such low quality that they could never be used and were wasted. A major event during the first Five Year-Plan was the famine of 1932–33. The famine peaked during the winter of '32–'33 claiming the lives of an estimated 3.3 to 7 million people, while millions more were permanently disabled. The famine was the direct result of the industrialization and collectivization implemented by the first Five Year-Plan.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1994; pg. 28. In other places, particularly those in close proximity to Moscow under Stalin's leadership, "Soviet chastushki" favorable to Stalin's Bolshevik government were sung and recited. In the early 1920s chastushki were used by Young Communists in organized village gatherings as a form of anti-religious propaganda, subjecting the church and the rural clergy to ridicule using the traditional rural poetic form.Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance.
In 1958–59 the SED placed quotas on private farmers and sent teams to villages in an effort to encourage voluntary collectivization. In November and December 1959 some law-breaking farmers were arrested by the Stasi. An extensive economic management reform by the SED in February 1958 included the transfer of a large number of industrial ministries to the State Planning Commission. In order to accelerate the nationalization of industry, the SED offered entrepreneurs 50% partnership incentives for transforming their firms into VEBs.
From shortly after the Mongolian Revolution of 1921 until 1990, the Mongolian state was titled the People's Republic of Mongolia and modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)—was officially permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of livestock, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.
Arguably, this was the beginning of the political Turkification of Tatars (Antonov, 1995). The general tendencies remained the same in the next period (1940 to the early 1950s), except that Bulgaria recovered Southern Dobruja, whose Tatar population had decreased by half. In the communist period, collectivization and industrialization destroyed the traditional lifestyle of the Tatars too. The natural but slow assimilation into the Turkish community endogamy was no longer possible considering the small number of the Tatar population - was intensified by modernization.
His rule featured harsh repression of all deviation from the party line, arbitrary suppression of culture and the arts along the lines of Socialist realism, and an isolationist foreign policy. He also became the object of a personality cult. In 1950, a collectivization campaign was launched. By early 1951, Chervenkov had expelled one in five party members, including many high officials, in his campaign for complete party discipline. Out of 460,000 members, 100,000 were expelled from the party by 1953.
In 1863 as a result of secularization of monastery estates in Romania and the Agrarian Law imposed by Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1820–1873) the monastery lost ownership of Tâmburești and the peasants regained possession of their lands. This reform also led to Tâmburești being completely separated in two neighboring villages: Pietroiu and Cocargeaua. During the early years of the communist regime (1949–1962) in Romania, Borcea (Pietroiu and Cocargeaua) went through a processes of collectivization of agriculture. Personal property (lands, agricultural machinery etc.
Writer Manfred Petzold submitted his script to DEFA on 19 July 1958, under the title Celestial Wink. Beside of complying with the ideological demands of the time, by portraying the collectivization of farms in a positive manner - Joshua Feinstein cited the picture among DEFA's "mission films", that had unambiguous political aimsJoshua Feinstein. The Triumph of the Ordinary: Depictions of Daily Life in the East German Cinema, 1949-1989. . p. 274. \- it also took a highly critical position of the Catholic Church.
Within the Soviet Union, forced changes in agricultural policies (collectivization), confiscations of grain and droughts caused the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga Region and Kazakhstan. The famine was most severe in the Ukrainian SSR, where it is often referenced as the Holodomor. A significant portion of the famine victims (3.3 to 7.5 million) were Ukrainians. Another part of the famine was known as Kazakh catastrophe, when more than 1.3 million ethnic Kazakhs (about 38% of the population) died.
In 1940 agriculture represented 61 percent of national income, and it employed approximately 90 percent of the labor force. In the 1950s, agriculture began to adopt its present structure and modern techniques, based in part on material and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and East European countries. In the 1950s, the hay-making machine stations were reorganized as livestock machine stations. In 1955 negdels replaced the arad producers' associations. By 1959 the state had accomplished the collectivization of agriculture.
In ten years, agricultural cooperatives had more than doubled, from 139 in 1950 to 354 by 1960. Ownership of livestock and sown areas changed dramatically as a result of collectivization. In 1950, according to Mongolian government statistics, state farms and other state organizations owned approximately 0.9 percent of livestock and 37.8 percent of sown areas; negdels had about 0.5 percent of livestock and no sown lands; and private owners some held 98.3 percent of livestock and 62.2 percent of sown areas.
Reversal of these policies led to a growth in livestock numbers, which peaked in 1941 at 27.5 million head. World War II brought new commitments to provide food and raw materials for the Soviet war effort. With the levy of taxes in kind, livestock numbers fell to about 20 million in 1945, and they have hovered between 20 million and 24 million head since then. Collectivization and advances in veterinary science have failed to boost livestock production significantly since the late 1940s.
That was a policy which was developed originally by Alexander Tsiurupa in 1917–18, which became a standard repressive policy of using food as a weapon in many communist countries afterward associated with collectivization and mass famines. Despite poor harvests due to drought, in 1946 Khrushchev set excessive grain collection quotas for Ukraine which resulted in a massive famine.Веселова, О.М., Марочко, В.І., Мовчан, О.М. Голодомори в Україні : 1921-23, 1932-33, 1946-47. Злочини проти народу.- Дрогобич : Видавнича фірма «Відродження», 2008.
The Bishop's maternal grandfather was Dominic Hoerner (born near Odessa, Ukraine), who was deported around 1931 to Kazakhstan with his family. Joseph and Paulina Werth (and their son Johannes) were part of a trainload of 30000 ethnic Germans gathered up during the collectivization and dumped in the middle of the Kazakhstan steppe in the middle of winter of 1929. Those who survived did so by digging holes in the earth. By the time the next load arrived, 12,000 had died.
Of the resulting industrial output, Republican military commander Vicente Rojo Lluch said "Notwithstanding lavish expenditures of money on this need, our industrial organization was not able to finish a single kind of rifle or machine gun or cannon."Hugh Purcell, p. 98, Colonel Vicente Rojo Lluch as quoted in Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Revolution, (1970) Anarchic communes often produced more than before the collectivization. Yields were increased by as much as 50% as a result of newly applied scientific methods.
The turning point in the struggle against the UPA came in 1947, when the Soviets established an intelligence gathering network within the UPA and shifted the focus of their actions from mass terror to infiltration and espionage. After 1947 the UPA's activity began to subside. On May 30, 1947, Shukhevych issued instructions joining the OUN and UPA in underground warfare. In 1947–1948 UPA resistance was weakened enough to allow the Soviets to begin implementation of large-scale collectivization throughout Western Ukraine.
Their action covers the years before World War I, the Civil War, the collectivization . The main heroine of the trilogy uniting storylines is Gulyemesh ( Yemesh), whose name translates from the Bashkir means " wild rose " (" berry "). In this manner undoubtedly concluded autobiographical features, but at the same time managed to show Z. Biisheva it typical features Bashkir women, their courage, fortitude, strength of spirit, poetry. Also a great place in the novels assigned image world of childhood, the formation of character .
Anarchic communes often produced more than before the collectivization. The newly liberated zones worked on entirely libertarian principles; decisions were made through councils of ordinary citizens without any sort of bureaucracy. The CNT-FAI leadership was at this time not nearly as radical as the rank and file members responsible for these sweeping changes. As Eddie Conlon wrote in a publication for the Workers' Solidarity Movement: Another aspect of the revolution was the rise of an anarcha-feminist women's movement, the Mujeres Libres.
Small local farm in Lääne County In 1991 roughly 12 percent of the labor force was employed in agriculture, producing 15.4 percent of Estonia's GDP. Estonia has some 1.3 million hectares of agricultural land, nearly 1 million hectares of which are arable. During the Soviet era, arable land decreased by nearly 405,000 hectares, much becoming forest. Collectivization in the late 1940s and 1950s brought great hardship to Estonian agriculture, which during the first independence period had been the mainstay of Estonian society.
In Russia, the age-old ways of life of the Sámi were brutally interrupted by the collectivization of the reindeer husbandry and agriculture in general. Most Sámi were organized in a single kolkhoz, located in the central part of the Peninsula, at Lovozero (Sámi: Lojavri). The Soviet state made an enormous effort to develop this strategically important region, and the Sámi people witnessed their land being overrun by ethnic Russians and other Soviet nationalities, including Nenets and other Arctic peoples.
A warning against the use of violent means in the process of collectivization was issued by Communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej in 1951. Moreover, after the marginalization of Ana Pauker and Vasile Luca, he accused the two of instigating provocative measures and "trampling on the free consent by the peasants" during the process. In 1961 the Romanian leader also condemned the large number of public trials against peasants "in the name of the struggle against Kulaks" during the first phase of collectivization.Jowitt, p.
The Stakhanovite movement began during the Soviet second 5-year plan in 1935 as a new stage of socialist competition. The emergence of the Stakhanovite movement can only be understood with the knowledge of the rapid industrialization and forced collectivization that had transpired seven years prior. The movement took its name from Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov, who had mined 102 tons of coal in less than 6 hours (14 times his quota) on 31 August 1935. However, Stakhanovite followers would soon "break" his record.
After Yeltsin's decision to lift price caps generated massive inflation and plunged many Russians into poverty, Gorbachev openly criticized him, comparing the reform to Stalin's policy of forced collectivization. After pro-Yeltsin parties did poorly in the 1993 legislative election, Gorbachev called on him to resign. In 1995 his foundation held a conference on "The Intelligentsia and Perestroika". It was there that Gorbachev proposed to the Duma a law that would reduce many of the presidential powers established by Yeltsin's 1993 constitution.
Ket people were subjected to collectivization and then eventually sent to Russian-only boarding schools from the 1930s to 1960s. Now, Ket is taught as a subject in some primary schools, but only older adults are fluent and few are raising their children with the language. Kellog, Russia is the only place where Ket is still taught in schools. Special books are provided for grades second through fourth but after those grades there is only Russian Literature to read that describes Ket culture.
In establishing the RCP, many characteristics of the Soviet model were imitated as groundwork for the Party. Because the Romanian Communist Party was politically weak, it required significant assistance from the Soviet Union. As a result, the party had many Soviet advisors within its bureaucracy, and based much of its structure on the Soviet blueprint. Collectivization also provided a seemingly easy way to unite the masses under a single umbrella of social, political, economic control as well as limit individuality.
The government would take a majority of the crops and pay extremely low prices. The serfs during the 1860s were paid nothing but collectivization still reminded the peasants of serfdom. To them, this "second serfdom" became code for the Communist betrayal of the revolution. To the peasants, the revolution was about giving more freedom and land to the peasants, but instead, they had to give up their land and livestock to the collective farm which to some extent promoted communist policies.
To encourage collectivization high taxes were enforced and new farms were given no government support. But after 1945 the Party dropped its restrained approach as the voluntary approach was not yielding results. Latvians were accustomed to individual holdings (viensētas), which had existed even during serfdom, and for many farmers, the plots awarded to them by the interwar reforms were the first their families had ever owned. Furthermore, the countryside was filled with rumours regarding the harshness of collective farm life.
"Strengthen working discipline in collective farms" – Soviet propaganda poster issued in Soviet Uzbekistan, 1933 Illustration to the Soviet categories of peasants: bednyaks, or poor peasants; serednyaks, or mid-income peasants; and kulaks, the higher-income farmers who had larger farms than most Russian peasants. Published Projector May 1926. The Soviet Union implemented the collectivization () of its agricultural sector between 1928 and 1940 during the ascension of Joseph Stalin. It began during and was part of the first five-year plan.
The Fourth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party, held in 1963 Poland welcomed Gomułka's rise to power with relief. Gomułka promised an end to police terror, greater intellectual and religious freedom, higher wages, and the reversal of collectivization; and to some degree he fulfilled these promises. Production of consumer goods was somewhat increased. The party elite as well as academic and literary intelligentsia experienced greater freedom and significant gains, felt as "a certain diversity and revitalization of elite public life".
Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1987). At the time of the Depression, the Soviet economy was growing steadily, fuelled by intensive investment in heavy industry. The apparent economic success of the Soviet Union at a time when the capitalist world was in crisis led many Western intellectuals to view the Soviet system favorably. Jennifer Burns wrote: Despite all of this, The Great Depression caused mass immigration to the Soviet Union, mostly from Finland and Germany.
One of the authors of "Sakharov collection", later published in six languages (preface to the German edition wrote Heinrich Böll and Leo Kopelev ). He participated in helping families of political prisoners. He was one of the compilers, authors and publishers of the magazine "Searches and Reflections" (Moscow, 1980-1981) . His first publication on the assessment of the Soviet population losses during the civil war, collectivization and World War II was published in the journal « Cahiers du monde russe » in Paris in 1977.
The 1st Academy Awards for film were held in Los Angeles, while the Museum of Modern Art opened in New York City. The Peruvian Air Force was created. In Asia, the Republic of China and the Soviet Union engaged in a minor conflict after the Chinese seized full control of the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway, which ended with a resumption of joint administration. In the Soviet Union, General Secretary Joseph Stalin expelled Leon Trotsky and adopted a policy of collectivization.
In 1930 the rayon (district) was established with Helenendorf as its administrative centre. Expropriation of the colonists property and collectivization in Heleendorf began in 1926 with the show trial of three community leaders, Gottlob Hummel, Heinrich Vohrer and Fritz Reitenbach, on charges of counter-revolutionary and nationalist activities. They were convicted, their property confiscated and they were sent to a labor camp in Kazakhstan. By 1935, over 600 German families in the area had been convicted of "espionage" and sent to labor camps.
49 While the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie at first led to improved conditions, such as land reform, but these improvements did not last. Cheating and deceiving had become "normal" ways used by most town merchants in dealing with Gedeo peasants. They were told by Political Commissars when to harvest, when to sell and whom to sell to, and these officials eventually tried to enforce agricultural collectivization on the Gedeo. In response, farmers clashed with government soldiers in 1981 near Rago-Qishsha.
Since the Sami culture is strongly tied to the herding practices, this resulted in the Sami people gradually losing their language and traditional herding knowledge. Most Sami were forced to settle in the village of Lovozero; those resisting the collectivization were subject to forced labor or death. Various forms of repression against the Sami continued until Stalin's death in 1953. In the 1990s, 40% of the Sami lived in urbanized areas, although some herd reindeer across much of the region.
Jágr resides in the Czech Republic during the off-season. His father, also named Jaromír Jágr, owns a chain of hotels and serves as president of HC Kladno. Jágr wears the number 68, which he has worn through his entire career, in honour of the Prague Spring that occurred in Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his grandfather, who died while in prison that same year, and had earlier been imprisoned for opposing the collectivization of his farm in the post-war Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia.Prague Spring – 1968.
During the Great Leap Forward, the Chinese Communist Party made a series of economic reforms, where the most disastrous of them was the collectivization of the administration of private property, specially, the rural lands. Fengyang County, along with much of the rest of the country, experienced a period of famine, due to the inefficiency of the model. A quarter of the country's population died from starvation. In Xiaogang village alone, 67 villagers died of starvation out of a population of 120 between 1958 and 1960.
In 1920–1940, the town of Kirovsk and several work settlements were established on the peninsula. The Sami peoples were subject to forced collectivization, with more than half of their reindeer herds collectivized in 1928–1930. In addition, the traditional Sami herding practices were phased out in favor of the more economically profitable Komi approach, which emphasized permanent settlements over free herding. Since the Sami culture is strongly tied to the herding practices, this resulted in the Sami people gradually losing their language and traditional herding knowledge.
Alexander Yakovlev notes that in this article, a different point of view was expressed from the views of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels on the way of combining personal interest with the public, since Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were opposed to the ideas of the old cooperators (Fourier, Considerant, Saint-Simon). Roy Medvedev notes that the Leninist principles of voluntariness and gradualism in the co-operation of the peasantry were grossly violated by Joseph Stalin during collectivization, which caused enormous economic and moral damage.
Joseph Stalin inherited and upheld the New Economic Policy (NEP) from Vladimir Lenin. In 1921, Lenin had persuaded the 10th Party Congress to approve the NEP as a replacement for the War Communism that had been set up during the Russian Civil War. In War Communism, the state had assumed control of all means of production, exchange and communication. All land had been declared nationalized by the Decree on Land, finalized in the 1922 Land Code, which also set collectivization as the long-term goal.
1952, agrarian reform was launched in Shipai. Almost 1124.77 mu of land was confiscated from landlords and other 2922.05 mu from farmers, entrepreneurs, capitalists, tenants, and clan, all of which were then redistributed to peasants with no or few lands. In the wake of reform since 1953, several movements had been launched in succession, such as collectivization, the Great Leap Forward, the movement to establish people's communes, and finally the Cultural Revolution. During these years, lands were centralized, economy fell, people starved and tradition ruined.
Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the USSR until the Saur Revolution of 1978. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialization and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivization programs, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, from western areas of the USSR to Central Asia and Siberia.
Between 1950 and 1953, state-owned arable land increased from 12% to 61%. Despite these collectivization efforts, the 1949–1953 Five-Year Plan failed to achieve its target, marking −0.9% growth in agriculture for the period, although at the same time industry marked a 20.7% growth, while total economic growth amounted to 8.4%. Even before the death of Stalin, Chervenkov had already begun moving away from the Stalinist line. The official approval of Dimitar Dimov's novel Tobacco marked a slight loosening of Party control over cultural activities.
She was regarded as one of the suffragette movement's most militant members. She was a supporter of the Soviet Union's collectivization of agriculture and published a book, Agriculture in Soviet Russia (1931), on the subject and an article claiming she "completely failed to find" any "signs of famine" during her 1933 visit to the Ukraine and that "nowhere" did she "find the word 'famine' used by the people themselves".Joan Beauchamp, "Bread", in: Russia To-day, October 1933, pp. 4-5. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
First, the magazine came out once, then twice a month, with a circulation of 5 to 50 thousand copies.Жирков Геннадий Васильевич, доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры истории журналистики Санкт-Петербургского государственного университета/ Советская журналистика в тотальном наступлении на Церковь (1928−1930-е гг.) (Soviet Journalism in the Total Struggle against the Russian Church (1928−1930))/ Выпуск №1. 2015г. / The magazine covered issues of the anti-religious movement during the period of collectivization. Pyotr Krasikov, Yemelyan Yaroslavsky, Demyan Bedny, Dmitry Moor and others collaborated in the magazine.
By 1926, according to the census, Kazakhstan was home to 860,000 Ukrainians. In the 1930s during the Soviet process of collectivization, approximately 64,000 Ukrainian kulak (relatively wealthy peasant) families were forcibly resettled in Kazakhstan. The first western Ukrainians were forcibly deported to Kazakhstan from the regions of Galicia and Volhynia when the Soviet Union annexed western Ukraine in 1939-1940. They were followed by more deportees from western Ukraine, people who were accused of or having been members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists.
In the early 1950s, problems within the country were causing dissatisfaction among East German citizens. These included confusion within the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) following the death of Joseph Stalin, economic pressures resulting from collectivization, payment of reparations, an increasingly disadvantageous comparison with West Germany, and resentment of Soviet presence and influence. This dissatisfaction triggered a spontaneous general uprising that started in East Berlin on June 17, 1953, and rapidly spread throughout much of the country. The rebellion was quickly suppressed by Soviet troops.
From the 6th Plenary Session onwards, the CPC led by Wan Li began supporting the de-collectivization of agriculture. At the beginning, Wan chose a conservative reformist approach, stating that: > Prudence is necessary when approaching the reform of the commune > institutions. We should not require each level to reform from top to bottom > by prescribing a time limit for fulfilment. Until suitable new > organizational forms can replace production brigades and teams, we should > not recklessly change existing forms and bring about a disorderly situation.
PCR report, in Ţurlea, p. 35 In early November 1946, Communist sources show that the BPD counted an important part of the gains in the rural areas to be obtained from the Front's electorate (the poor and middle peasant categories).Pauker, quoted by Shutov, Soviet Embassy Document of 20 November 1945, in Pokivailova, p. 13 By the time of the election, Groza's party had just been pressured into supporting Communist tenets, after it a brief conflict had erupted over the PCR's designs of collectivization.
Many Christian thinkers have sought an accommodation with socialism and its program to end poverty and oppression. For those espousing a Christian Marxism this means a Marxism emptied of everything: atheism, materialism, collectivization or one- party rule. In the US John A. Ryan proposed a Catholic alternative to state socialism that inspired a Bishops’ "Program for Social Reconstruction" in 1919 that came close to FDR's New Deal. More recently, Catholic bishops have moved decisively against capitalism, helping the poor with statist programs, rather like secular socialists.
In December 1927, Time reported a number of anti- Soviet uprisings among peasants and factory workers in Tiraspol and other cities (Mogilev-Podolskiy, Kamyanets-Podolskiy) of southern Ukrainian SSR. Troops from Moscow were sent to the region and suppressed the unrest, resulting in ca 4000 deaths. The insurrections were at the time completely denied by the official Kremlin press.Disorder in the Ukraine?, Time, December 12, 1927 Collectivization in the MASSR was even more fast-paced than in Ukraine and was reported to be complete by summer 1931.
Upon his release, Ryutin was assigned work in as an economist for an electrical production unit. In the interim, the Soviet economy had gone from bad to worse. The grain shortage of 1928 had given way to complete disorganization of agriculture by the ill-conceived collectivization campaign of 1929-30, which — exacerbated by drought — had ultimately resulted in a massive famine in the Ukraine, Kazakhstan and parts of southern Russia in 1932 and 1933. The entire Soviet economy was in a state of crisis.
But in the northern highlands, where title to farm land was shared amongst members of descent groups, many people resisted land reform. Despite the Derg's efforts to reassure farmers that land reform would not affect them negatively, northerners remained suspicious of the new government's intentions. Their resistance to this change increased when Zemecha members campaigned for collectivization of land and oxen. Government attempts to implement land reform also created problems related to land fragmentation, insecurity of tenure, and shortages of farm inputs and tools.
An opera company was even created at the Tivoli theater, in an attempt to bring the genre closer to the general public. It can be said that it was one of the sectors that functioned the best economically, even building some cinemas such as the "Ascaso" (today "Vergara"). Others were reformed or finished building such as the "Durruti" cinema (now "Arenas" cinema). At the political level, the collectivization of cinema was a new way of understanding art radically opposed to the bourgeois and capitalist system.
At the same time, the pace of collectivization in the countryside was accelerated under the plan. By the end of 1985, Hanoi reported that 72 percent of the total number of peasant households in the South were enrolled in some form of cooperative organization. Despite the plan's emphasis on agricultural development, the industrial sector received a larger share of state investment during the first two years. In 1982, for example, the approximate proportion was 53 percent for industry compared with 18 percent for agriculture.
Opinions on Yakir are mixed, even today. As a young Civil War commander, he is thought to have used excessive force and violence (flamethrowers, machine guns) against civilian members of the resistance as well as the Cossack population, and was also involved in requisition. Later, during the years of agricultural collectivization, he launched what are alleged as punitive raids against starving peasants. It is the opinion of many that he was personally liable for the great famine in the Ukraine between 1932 and 1933.
In her native village Eva lived through the revolution and civil war, the NEP and the collectivization ... And now Eva lives in a deserted village. Most of the villagers move to the city where living is simpler and easier and life is always seething. And even the mother of Eva's beloved grandson who has come from the city, wants to take him away with her. But the boy remains with his grandmother who believes that the village where their ancestors lived will be reborn ...
On 5 June, the eruption of the Six-Day War started riots in Tunis: the American Cultural Center, the Great Synagogue and shopping avenue of London were looted and burned. On 25 January 1969, ordered to give in to the cooperative all their lands and orchards, Ouerdanin inhabitants revolted and opposed themselves to tractors. The uprising ended up with two deaths and dozens of injured, as the law enforcement forces fired. All around the country, troubles erupted for the same reasons: the refusal of an authoritary collectivization.
Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards. The Soviet Union began Russification, with hundreds of thousands of Russians and people of other Soviet nationalities being induced to settle in Estonia, which eventually threatened to turn Estonians into a minority in their own land. In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%. Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.
In 1915, Altai railway passed near Berdsk, it connected Novo-Nikolaevsk, Barnaul and Biysk. The full mobilization during the World War I and the civil war after the revolution heavily struck the town: its population diminished by 1/3. During the Civil War it was a place of military command and administrative center of White movement and also a place of strong resistance of underground communists. The following collectivization was another serious strike, given that the only kind of farmers in Siberia were private independent owners.
Villagization was a land reform and resettlement program in Ethiopia implemented by the Derg in 1985 that aimed to systematize and regulate village life and rural agriculture. Villagization typically involved the relocation of rural communities or nomadic groups to planned villages with communal farmland. Land reform stood as one of the Derg's foremost priorities, and villagization occurred within the context of broader policies of resettlement and the collectivization of agriculture. A nominally Marxist-Leninist state, the Derg modeled villagization on Soviet and Tanzanian precedents.
Mengistu Haile Mariam, Chairman of the Derg and President of Ethiopia Villagization aimed to radically transform rural life in Ethiopia while combatting drought and increasing agricultural productivity. The Mengistu regime saw villagization as a way to quickly achieve the collectivization of agriculture and rural modernization. By relocating dispersed communities and nomadic groups into larger, planned villages, the state could more easily supply modern services such as clean water, clinics, schools, and electricity. With state assistance villages would also act as hubs for technological improvements in agriculture.
In May 1950, Velika Kladuša was the scene of a major peasant revolt when the Cazin uprising, an armed anti- state rebellion, occurred. The event most affected neighboring Cazin, as well as Slunj, which were all part of Communist Yugoslavia at the time. The peasants revolted against the forced collectivization and collective farms by the Yugoslav government on the farmers of its country. Following a drought in 1949, the peasants of Yugoslavia were unable to meet unrealistic quotas set by their government and were punished.
Their governments created the Australian Wheat Board and the Canadian Wheat Board as monopsony marketing boards, buying all the wheat in those countries for export. Together, those two boards controlled a large percentage of the world's grain trade in the mid-20th century. Additionally, farmers' cooperatives such the wheat pools became a popular alternative to the major grain companies. At the same time in the Soviet Union and soon after in China, disastrous collectivization programs effectively turned the world's largest farming nations into net importers of grain.
Archangel reindeer Reindeer breeding of the Kola Sami in the North-West of Russia underwent a transformation in the 19th century with the arrival of 65 Komi reindeer herders with their 600 deer. Reindeer herding on the basis of semi- grazing was transformed into large-scale farms with a focus on productivity. Collectivization in the 30s of the last century continued the further transformation of reindeer husbandry as the size of the herds increased. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, reindeer husbandry was neglected.
Furthermore, mass relocation of people and the collectivization of villages during the 1980s resulted in many farmers abandoning large real estates and areas of the crop production. The nationalization of cashew nut processing factories also contributed to the serious challenges of the industry as these governmental institutions were new and faced a steep learning curve in this respective industry. Economic reforms began to take place after this near collapse with the goal of reviving the troubled industry. There has been a remarkable recovery since then.
Under Deng Xiaoping, urbanization in China has expanded at an unprecedented speed since the declaration of "Reform and Open Policy". new policies in China's economy shifted the approach from collective farming to household-based production quotas, in many ways reversing decades of collectivization efforts. In many areas of China, especially southern and coastal China, the standard of living improved dramatically after Deng's reforms. Township and Village Enterprises brought industrial production to rural areas—predominantly along the southern coasts, helping open these rural communities to greater economic prosperity.
The state retained both its powers and its role in the rural economy in the 1980s. Decollectivization, like the collectivization of the 1950s, was directed from the top down. Sometimes, apparently, it was imposed on communities that had been content with their collective methods. But in permitting households and communities greater leeway to decide what to produce and in allowing the growth of rural markets and small-scale industries, the state stepped back from the close supervision and mandatory quotas of the 1960s and 1970s.
Women were the primary vehicle for rumours that touched upon issues of family and everyday life.Viola, "The Peasant Nightmare," 760. Fears that collectivization would result in the socialization of children, the export of women's hair, communal wife-sharing, and the notorious common blanket affected many women, causing them to revolt. For example, when it was announced that a collective farm in Crimea would become a commune and that the children would be socialized, women killed their soon-to-be socialized livestock, which spared the children.
The transfer was not formally finalized until 1946. The territory was subjected to forcible collectivization, accompanied by rampant robbery and destruction, including the demolition of farmsteads and mass mortality among livestock. Kulaks, nationalists, and "bandits" (often those accused of being Forest Brothers) were deported with their families (2728 persons in early 1949 and 1563 persons in May 1950), primarily to Krasnoyarsk. Officials from Russia proper replaced local administrators even at the village level, and even some who had fought for the Soviets were mistreated.
The policy aimed to integrate individual landholdings and labour into collectively-controlled and state-controlled farms: Kolkhozy and Sovkhozy accordingly. The Soviet leadership confidently expected that the replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones would immediately increase the food supply for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for the processing industry, and agricultural exports. Planners regarded collectivization as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed from 1927.McCauley, Martin, Stalin and Stalinism, p.
The troikas were tasked with administering quick punishment of anti-Soviet elements, without public trial or investigation. The sentences that were doled out, executions, were to be held in secret. In January 1930, as part of the collectivization program, the Soviet Politburo authorized the state police to screen the peasant population of the entire Soviet Union. Normal legal procedures were suspended and the corresponding OGPU order of the 2nd of February, specified the measures needed for "the liquidation of the kulaks as a class".
The regime embarked on the campaign of collectivization (State Agricultural Farms were created), although the pace of this change was slower than in other Soviet satellites. Poland remained the only Eastern Bloc country where individual peasants would continue to dominate agriculture. A Soviet-Polish trade treaty, initiated in January 1948, dictated the dominant direction of Poland's future foreign trade and economic cooperation. In 1948, the United States announced the Marshall Plan initiative to help rebuild postwar Europe and thus gain more political power there.
He has not received any mandates from management and is worried about both underachieving and overachieving, fearing that the peasants will use smaller animals like goats in order to prop up capitalism. Chiklin and Voschev find an old man laying on the ground. He is trying to will himself to death, claiming that his soul disappeared when his horse was taken into collectivization. They leave for a literacy class taught by the activist, who teaches women and young girls how to write socialist words and slogans.
Nazarbayev was born in Chemolgan, a rural town near Almaty, when Kazakhstan was one of the republics of the Soviet Union, to parents Abish Nazarbayev (1903–1971) and Aljan Nazarbayeva (1910–1977). His father Abish was a poor laborer who worked for a wealthy local family until Soviet rule confiscated the family's farmland in the 1930's during Joseph Stalin's collectivization policy. Following this, his father took the family to the mountains to live out a nomadic existence. His family's religious tradition was Sunni Islam.
The mass collectivization drive of the late 1920s and early 1930s pushed the peasantry from individual household production into an archepeligo of collective farms. The question of internal organization was important in the new kolkhozes. The most basic measure was to divide the workforce into a number of groups, generally known as brigades, for working purposes. `By July 1929 it was already normal practice for the large kolkhoz of 200-400 households to be divided into temporary or permanent work units of 15-30 households.
1965 Ukase granting amnesty to Operation North deportees, including the Inochentists. After Bessarabia was again incorporated in the Soviet Union as the Moldavian SSR, the Inochentists gathered their ranks and established a new center in the city of Bălți. "Misterioșii adepți ai ieromonahului eretic Inochentie", in România Liberă online edition, May 22, 2010; retrieved August 15, 2011. They were accused by the Soviet authorities of sabotaging the state plan for agricultural deliveries and resisting the collectivization of agriculture by withholding grain from the authorities.
The fact that the Great Depression was driving down the price of grain and other raw materials, which is most likely a result of Collectivization. The Soviet Union then decided that the workers necessary for further industrialization should be given most of the available food. From this rapid industrialization a new working class emerged in the Soviet Union. This new society was to be an industrial working class, which could be considered much of the population with the purpose of becoming a technologically advanced industry.
Also banned was Yuri Lyubimov's production of "Fyodor Kuzkin" at Taganka Theatre; it was only in 1986 that the play could be premiered there. In 1973 Kuzkin was at last published in a small almanac called Forest Roads, under the new title Alive. In 1980 Boris Mozhayev finished his magnum opus Peasant Men and Women a two- part epic telling the story of collectivization at Ryazanshchina, the subsequent peasant mutiny and its brutal suppression. The first part of it was published by Nash Sovremennik in 1973.
A believer in Labor Zionism from his youth, in 1951 Lewin emigrated again, this time to Israel, where he worked for a time on a kibbutz and as a journalist. In his thirties, he took up academic studies, receiving his Bachelor of Arts from Tel Aviv University, in 1961.Kaiyi Chen, Finding Aid for the Moshe Lewin Papers , University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1998. That same year, Lewin was awarded a research scholarship to the Sorbonne in Paris, where he studied the collectivization of Soviet agriculture.
This first serious attempt at collectivization corresponded with the first Five Year Plan, and both bore the marks of Stalinist agricultural policy. Both economic and direct police pressure were used to coerce peasants to join co- operatives, but large numbers opted instead to leave their villages. In the early 1950s, only one quarter of peasants agreed to join co-operatives. Even once collectivized, farms were subject to harsh compulsory deliveries (production quotas in physical units passed down from central planning) and incredibly low agricultural producer prices.
In 2004 the main agricultural crops were wheat, barley, corn, rice, vegetables, dates, and cotton, and the main livestock outputs were cattle and sheep. The Agricultural Cooperative Bank, capitalized at nearly 1 G$ - by 1984, targets its low-interest, low-collateral loans to private farmers for mechanization, poultry projects, and orchard development. Large modern cattle, dairy, and poultry farms are under construction. Obstacles to agricultural development include labour shortages, inadequate management and maintenance, salinization, urban migration, and dislocations resulting from previous land reform and collectivization programs.
It was performed at the close of the 2010 Olympic ceremony in Vancouver, conducted live by Valery Gergiev, to present the 2014 Winter Olympics, which were held in Sochi, Russia.Sochi takes over from Vancouver as next Winter Olympics host city, Voice of Russia, March 1, 2010. At the 2014 opening ceremony in Sochi, the theme was used again during a scene depicting national industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union. The dancers wore red and black costumes while they interacted with huge figurative tractors, giant ditch-diggers, gears, and similar engine parts.
He served briefly as First Secretary from December 11, 1928 until January 30, 1929. He was expelled from Central Committee in 1932 for his role in the "Leftist Deviation" in which certain party leaders were blamed for overzealously and prematurely attempting to implement socialist policies of forced collectivization and property confiscation and was named minister of health from 1932 to 1934. In 1937 he was arrested on charges of counterrevolution, accused of heading the "Badrakh Group" along with Zolbingiin Shijee that sought to create a breakaway autonomous Dörvöd region in present-day Uvs Province.
Tucker rejected the view that Stalinism was an "unavoidable," "ineluctable," or "necessary" product of Leninism. He highlighted the similarities between tsarist and Stalinist nationalism and patrimonialism, as well as the warlike brutality of the "Revolution from Above" in the 1930s. The chief causes of this revolution were Stalin's voracious appetite for personal, political, and national power and his relentless quest for personal, political, and national security. The chief consequences were the consolidation of Stalin's personal dictatorship, the creation of a military-industrial complex, and the collectivization and urbanization of the peasantry.
During the Second Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the party in 1929 the right-wing leadership, which had intended to retain Tibetan Buddhism as a state religion in the old sense, in contradiction to the proclaimed constitution, was completely destroyed. Under the watchword of "antifeudal revolution," the Eighth Congress paved the way for socialist reconstruction and collectivization. When, in April–May, 1930, the so-called "counterrevolution of the Tuvinian nobles and the Russian kulak-colonists" broke out with the intent "to overthrow the 'Revolutionary Government,'" it was also put down by force.
Deutscher, Isaac, Stalin, p. 322, Penguin, (1966) The Left Opposition had opposed the continued marketization of agriculture through the NEP, and, since 1924, had repeatedly called for investment in industry, some collectivization in agriculture and democratisation of the Party. Threatened by the growing power and revolt from the countryside led by the Kulaks and the strengthening bourgeoisie, the Fifteenth Congress of the All-Union Communist Party passed resolutions that supported for some of the planks of the Opposition’s platform, and on paper, the Congress’ views appeared very left, politically.
Stalin's proposals were set out in "Questions of Socialist Construction in the U.S.S.R", 1928. Leon Trotsky's version is set out in "A Sharp Turn: “The Five Year Plan in Four Years” and “Complete Collectivization”" in The Revolution Betrayed 1936 However, the Left Opposition was expelled. The new policies of industrialisation and collectivisation now adopted were given the slogan "socialist accumulation". The Communist party had publicly proposed collectivisation to be voluntary; however, official policy was almost always ignored in practice; threats and false promises were used to motivate peasants into joining the communes.
The Soviet period saw a rapid increase of the population, although most of it remained confined to urbanized territories along the sea coast and the railroads. The Sami people were subject to forced collectivization, including forced relocation to Lovozero and other centralized settlements, and overall the peninsula was heavily industrialized and militarized, largely due to its strategic position and the discovery of the vast apatite deposits in the 1920s. As a result, the ecology of the peninsula suffered major ecological damage. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the economy went into decline.
Support from Joseph Stalin increased Lysenko's momentum and popularity. In 1935, Lysenko compared his opponents in biology to the peasants who still resisted the Soviet government's collectivization strategy, saying that by opposing his theories the traditional geneticists were setting themselves against Marxism. Stalin was in the audience when this speech was made, and he was the first one to stand and applaud, calling out "Bravo, Comrade Lysenko. Bravo." This emboldened Lysenko, and gave him and Prezent free rein to slander any geneticists who still spoke out against him.
However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the period after this. Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era and presided over an environment of intense political persecution Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.
At the plenum, the regime announced its intention to develop nuclear energy, and the first nuclear reactor in the GDR was activated in 1957. The government increased industrial production quotas by 55% and renewed emphasis on heavy industry. The Second Five-Year Plan committed the GDR to accelerated efforts toward agricultural collectivization and nationalization and completion of the nationalization of the industrial sector. By 1958 the agricultural sector still consisted primarily of the 750,000 privately owned farms that comprised 70% of all arable land; only 6,000 LPGs had been formed.
The notorious leader of the Khmer Rouge, Pol Pot, worked as part of an international brigade building roads in Yugoslavia in the early 1950s. At the time, Yugoslavia had split from the sphere of the Soviet Union, and Pol Pot was very impressed with the mass mobilization of public works and cultural collectivization of the small communist nation. He recalled the trip with great fondness, and, once he gained power, sought to improve the relationship between Yugoslavia and Kampuchea.Ayres, David M. Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development, and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998.
Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to front the Stalinization of the country, and Rákosi de facto ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956. His government's policies of militarization, industrialization, collectivization, and war compensation led to a severe decline in living standards. In imitation of Stalin's KGB, the Rákosi government established a secret political police, the ÁVH, to enforce the new regime. In the ensuing purges approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were imprisoned or executed from 1948 to 1956.
Mehring books. . Stalin's hasty industrialization during the period of the First Five Year Plan and the brutality of the forced agricultural collectivization had led to an acute economic and political crisis in 1928–1933, a part of the global problem known as the Great Depression, and to enormous suffering on the part of the Soviet workers and peasants. Stalin was acutely conscious of this fact and took steps to prevent it taking the form of an opposition inside the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to his increasingly totalitarian rule.
Ulbricht embarked on the reform course not because he had suddenly become a reformer, but because he was desperately looking for a way to stabilize his regime. The old Stalinist Walter Ulbricht was not a natural reformer, after all, he himself had created the five-year plan system. Neither the first two five-year plans, nor the forced collectivization of 1960 had delivered the planned results. The first five- year plan was changed in spring of 1953 as the New Course was introduced and altered after the suppression of June 17 uprising in East Germany.
After World War II, Poland became a communist country, a satellite of the Soviet Union. Since collective farming is a key component of communist notion of agriculture, in June 1948, the Polish United Workers' Party decided to begin the process. From the very beginning, compulsory collectivization faced strong resistance of Polish farmers, who did not want to give up their land. Despite using different methods of persuasion, the progress was slow.Agrarian Policies in Communist Europe, page 63 By 1951, only 1% of arable land was collectivized, with some 23 000 farmers working there.
He was deputy prime minister during 1954 and from 1957 to 1965. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej Government ; accessed April 5, 2012 Chivu Stoica Government ; accessed April 5, 2012 Ion Gheorghe Maurer Government ; accessed April 5, 2012 Ion Gheorghe Maurer II Government ; accessed April 5, 2012 As the central committee's secretary for organizational matters during the 1950s, he was one of the architects of the Pauker–Vasile Luca group's fall in May–June 1952. He was the de facto overseer of cadre policy and was involved in the collectivization process.
The Soviets confiscated the remaining Ingush properties by collectivization and dekulakization and unified Chechnya and Ingushetia into Chechen-Ingush ASSR. During World War II Ingush youth were drafted into the Russian army. In August 1942, for three weeks, Nazi German forces captured half of the North Caucasus and were stopped only at two Ingush towns: Ordzhonikidze (modern-day Vladikavkaz) and Malgobek. The battle between Ingush and Germans intensified at Malgobek and the small town was captured and recaptured four times for another month until the Germans finally retreated.
By the early 1930s, Elista was transformed into a small city as the collectivization policies of Joseph Stalin forced many Kalmyks to abandon their traditional pastoral nomadic lifestyle in exchange for a modern, sedentary, and urban lifestyle. In October 1935, Elista was recognized as the capital of the Kalmyk ASSR. In late 1942, the city was briefly occupied by the German army. Because of alleged collaboration between the ethnic Kalmyks and the Germans, on December 27, 1943, the Kalmyk ASSR was dissolved and its ethnic Kalmyk residents were forcibly exiled to Siberia.
Periprava was one of the places of detention of Romanian writer Florin Pavlovici, described by him in his memoirs. Another writer who was imprisoned at Periprava was Mihai Rădulescu. Most of the prisoners were young, having been arrested after the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the ensuing student protests in Bucharest (many of the older politicians had been already exterminated by then at Sighet, Aiud, and other prisons). Many of the detainees were peasants who had resisted the collectivization of agriculture imposed by the communist authorities in the 1950s.
Crampton, Bulgaria, 283. Part of his objective was to offer each member of the dominant group an equitable distribution of property and access to the cultural and welfare facilities in all villages. The local BANU cooperative organizations known at the Druzhbi were to play a vital role in linking the peasant economy to the national and international markets in addition to offering the benefits of large scale agriculture without resorting to Soviet style collectivization. Stamboliyski founded the BANU Orange Guard, a peasant militia that both protected him and carried out his agrarian reforms.
Soviet repression of the Ingrian Finns started at the same time as the forced collectivization in the Soviet Union in 1928. Between 1929 and 1931 Soviet authorities deported 18,000 people from areas near the Finnish border, consisting of up to 16% of the total Ingrian Finnic population. All remaining Finns in four border parishes were deported in 1936 and replaced with Russians. In 1937 all Finnish-language schools, publications, broadcasts, and Ingrian Lutheran churches were closed down. During 1937-1938, 4,000 Ingrian Finns were shot and over 10,000 deported to prison camps.
Never divorcing her "first and one true love" or renouncing her marriage name, Zoe remained his confidant and secretary until the time of his death.Nastasă (2010), pp. 63, 83, 290–291 Claudian earned a doctorate at Iași in 1930; his thesis dealt with the agrarian problem in pre-1917 Russia and the role of Marxism in the social transformations undergone by Russia and Germany in 1917–1918. A fragment of the work, detailing the serf emancipation, the miry, and the ideological push for collectivization, was published in 1931 by Viața Românească.
Kravchenko wrote a memoir, I Chose Freedom, a best-seller both in the US and Europe, containing extensive revelations on collectivization in the Soviet Union, the Soviet prison camp system, and the use of penal labor which came at a time of growing tension between the Soviet Union and the West. The publication of I Chose Freedom was met with vocal attacks from the Soviet Union and by international Communist parties. Kravchenko had made a deal prior to working with respected journalist Eugene Lyons, that Lyons would not receive credit, only a percentage of royalties.
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Uglanov (December 5, 1886– May 31, 1937) was a Russian Bolshevik politician who played an important role in the government of the Soviet Union as a Communist Party leader in the city of Moscow during the 1920s. Uglanov was closely associated with the so-called "Right Deviation" associated with Soviet party leader Nikolai Bukharin and he fell from his leadership position during the mass collectivization campaign of 1929. Uglanov was arrested in the summer of 1936 and was executed the following spring during the secret police terror of 1937–38.
In 1930 another wave of Russian Mennonite immigrants arrived in the Chaco area from Russia (mostly via a temporary stop in Germany) and founded the Fernheim Colony, fleeing the persecution by the Communists and a bad economic situation that was caused by the collectivization in the Soviet Union and eventually led to the Holodomor. More Russian Mennonites fled to the west with the receding German Army fearing persecution, Russian forced labor camps and deportation. Some 3,500 of these Mennonites arrived in Paraguay and founded Neuland and Volendam colonies in 1947.
The formal organizers were accused of "wrecking" and sent to camps, and the shortage was officially presented as caused by their negligence and intentional sabotage. The actual measurement error, as estimated by statisticians in the 1990s, did not exceed 1.5% and such a disappointing result was caused by the huge loss of life that occurred during collectivization, the Famine of 1932-1933, including in the Ukraine (Holodomor), and the mortality rates in the Gulag.A. G. Volkov Census of 1937 Facts and Fictions originally published in Перепись населения СССР 1937 года. История и материалы/Экспресс-информация.
Seidman argues that most peasants opted for individual farming and collectives tended to exist within a sea of small- and medium- property holders and that even within the region of Aragon, which was considered more revolutionary than Catalonia and a CNT stronghold, only about 40% of land was collectivised. Collectivization in the countryside generally began with the establishment of CNT-FAI committees. These committees collectivized the soil of the rich and in some cases the soil of the poor as well. Farm buildings, machinery, transport and livestock were also collectivized.
According to Ralph Bates: "While there were plenty of abuses, forced collectivization, etc., there were plenty of good collectives, i.e., voluntary ones." A number of scholars and writers on the subject of the Spanish Civil War counter that the presence of a "coercive climate" was an unavoidable aspect of the war that the anarchists cannot be fairly blamed for, and that the presence of deliberate coercion or direct force was minimal, as evidenced by a generally peaceful mixture of collectivists and individualist dissenters who had opted not to participate in collective organization.
He was drafted into the Red Army in November 1928. Initially serving with the 13th Corps Sapper Battalion at Kazan, Arapov entered the Vladikavkaz (Ordzhonikidze from 1931) Infantry School in November 1929. While at the school, Arapov participated in the crushing of a Chechen uprising against collectivization in 1930 and in the same year became a member of the Communist Party. Arapov graduated from the Ordzhonikidze Infantry School in 1931 and became a machine gun platoon commander in the 9th Don Rifle Division's 25th Rifle Regiment at Novocherkassk.
Eugen Barbu's novel Principele ("The Prince", 1969), though set in the Phanariot era, clearly refers to Gheorghiu-Dej — there is even a project to build a canal that claims many of its builders' lives (a disguised reference to the Danube-Black Sea Canal). In Dumitru Radu Popescu's novel F, abuses committed during collectivization are explored. Augustin Buzura's novel Absenții ("The Absent Ones", 1970) went so far as to provide a critique of contemporary society, describing the spiritual crisis of a young doctor. To be sure, censorship remained in place.
Lysenko aimed to manipulate various plants such as wheat and peas to increase their production, quality, and quantity. However, Lysenko in particular more so impressed political officials with his success in motivating peasants to return to farming. The Soviet Union's collectivist reforms forced the confiscation of agricultural landholdings from peasant farmers and heavily damaged the country's overall food production, and the dispossessed peasant farmers posed new problems for the regime. Many had abandoned the farms altogether; many more waged resistance to collectivization by poor work quality and pilfering.
In 1929–30, peasants were induced to transfer land and livestock to state-owned farms, on which they would work as day-labourers for payment in kind. Collectivization in the Soviet Union, including the Ukrainian SSR, was not popular among the peasantry and forced collectivisation led to numerous peasant revolts. The first five-year plan changed the output expected from Ukrainian farms, from the familiar crop of grain to unfamiliar crops like sugar beets and cotton. In addition, the situation was exacerbated by poor administration of the plan and the lack of relevant general management.
When the BCP came to power, Bulgarian agriculture consisted primarily of 1.1 million peasant smallholdings. The party saw consolidation of these holdings as its most immediate agricultural objective. It dismantled the agricultural bank that had been a primary source of investment for the agriculture and food processing sectors before World War II. The first attempts at voluntary collectivization yielded modest results, partly because open coercion was impossible until a peace treaty was signed with the Allies. The labor-cooperative farm (trudovo-kooperativno zemedelsko stopanstvo—TKZS) received official approval in 1945.
March 9, 1930 at the Stalin plant, the Voroshilov plant, the Shosten plant in Ukraine, at the Krasnoye Sormovo plant near Nizhny Novgorod, at the Serp and Molot plant of Mashinootrest in Moscow, at the Chelyabinsk Traktorstroy and other enterprises. Industrialisation was largely carried out at the expense of agriculture (collectivization). First of all, agriculture had become a source of primary accumulation, due to low purchase prices for grain and subsequent export at higher prices, as well as due to the so-called "super tax in the form of overpayments for manufactured goods".
While a complex task, it is possible to group some of the causes that contributed to the Holodomor. They have to be understood in the larger context of Stalin's "social revolution from above" that took place in the Soviet Union at the time.С. Кульчицький, Проблема колективізації сільського господарства в сталінській "революції зверху", 2004. (S. Kulchytskyi, The problem of agricultural collectivization in Stalin's "revolution from above", 2004) Archived from the original (in Ukrainian); Google automated English translation PDF, 15 August 2019 Проблеми Історіїї України факти, судження, пошуки, №12, 2004, сс. 21–69.
It was not until the 1980s that the Soviet livestock numbers would return to their 1928 level. Government bureaucrats, who had been given a rudimentary education on farming techniques, were dispatched to the countryside to "teach" peasants the new ways of socialist agriculture, relying largely on Marxist theoretical ideas that had little basis in reality. Even after the state inevitably won and succeeding in imposing collectivization, the peasants did everything they could in the way of sabotage. They cultivated far smaller portions of their land and worked much less.
Special centers were established where the youth was indoctrinated towards hatred against the Polish state, all contacts with relatives within Poland were dangerous and could result in imprisonment. Newspapers printed out in the Polish language were de facto used to print anti-Polish propaganda. Following attacks on the Polish minority, from 18 February 1930 till 19 March 1930 over 100,000 people from Polish areas were expelled by the Soviet authorities. Following the collectivization of agriculture under Joseph Stalin, both autonomies were abolished and their populations were subsequently deported to Kazakhstan in 1934–1938.
The PCE did not organize in Catalonia, but saw PSUC as its Catalan referent. This setup has been replicated by other Catalan communist groups. The setup is somewhat similar to the relation between the Christian Democratic Union of Germany and Christian Social Union of Bavaria. The PSUC became the major defender of the Catalan capitalist classes against working-class collectivization efforts advocated by the rival National Confederation of Labour and Workers' Party of Marxist Unification, organizing 18,000 tradesmen and artisans into the Catalan Federation of Small Businessmen and Manufacturers (GEPCI).
In 1957, however, the party decided to accelerate the process, attributed by Kenneth Jowitt to the leadership's desire to prove its independence from the Soviet Union.Verdery 2003, p. 46 (The Soviet leader at the time, Nikita Khrushchev, opposed the program.)Jowitt, p. 213 At an extraordinary session of the Great National Assembly held between 27 and 30 April 1962, First Secretary Gheorghiu-Dej announced the end of the collectivization programme; 96% of the country's arable surface and 93.4% of its agricultural land had been included in collective structures.
The series is an analysis of a certain type of people who lived during the Interwar, World War II and Postwar periods. The series theme is a divide between rural people who supported different ideologies during the World War - Nazis, Soviets or Lithuanian Forest Brothers. The second theme is the agriculture reform called the collectivization of agriculture during which all private land was nationalised by the Soviet Union. The drama of the land nationalisation highlights Lithuanians as an agrarian society who were fighting for their own piece of land in this Earth.
On the orders of Gheorghiu-Dej Romania implemented also the massive forced collectivization of land in the rural areas. At the same time, he was the main instigator of the assassination of Ștefan Foriș in 1946, and the arrest of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu in 1948, both of whom had been his rivals inside the Party's leadership. Gheorghiu-Dej was also responsible for purging other party colleagues like Ana Pauker and her allies in the Secretariat: Vasile Luca and Teohari Georgescu, who was scapegoated and blamed for many political and economical failures during his rule.
One source indicates that pre-revolutionary Askhabad had no Turkmen residents at all, and that they lived in nearby auls. This began to change in the 1920s, following imposition of Soviet power, which brought with it forced collectivization. In 1926 Ashkhabad's population of 51,593 included 52.4% Russians, 11.3% Armenians, 4.3% Persians, 2.2% Turkmen, and 29.8% "other". By 1939, Ashkhabad counted 126,500 residents, including 11.7% Turkmen. The 1959 census recorded a population of 169,900, which grew to 338,000 by 1983, including 105 nationalities, of which ethnic Turkmen constituted 40 percent.
Agriculture in the Soviet Union was mostly collectivized, with some limited cultivation of private plots. It is often viewed as one of the more inefficient sectors of the economy of the Soviet Union. A number of food taxes (prodrazverstka, prodnalog, and others) were introduced in the early Soviet period despite the Decree on Land that immediately followed the October Revolution. The forced collectivization and class war against (vaguely defined) "kulaks" under Stalinism greatly disrupted farm output in the 1920s and 1930s, contributing to the Soviet famine of 1932–33 (most especially the holodomor in Ukraine).
A cadre can and has been used by more countries than just Russia; their primary role makes them indispensable in ideology shift among a population. They functioned in two fashions throughout Romania (in particular), first to spread the communist ideology throughout the country and monitor communism's opinions among the rural populations to ensure that the Romanians viewed communism popularly. Collectivization relied on cadres to keep the system in order. However, due to the shortage of cadres, massive Party surveillance, and inconsistent policies produced an environment full of distrust and abuse.
The Symphony No. 12 was inspired by a poem about the collectivization of farming, while No. 16 was prompted by the crash of the huge airliner Maxim Gorky and was known under the Soviets as the Aviation Symphony. This symphony, sketched immediately after the disaster and premiered in Moscow on 24 October 1936, includes a big funeral march as its slow movement, and the finale is built on Myaskovsky's own song for the Red Air Force, 'The Aeroplanes are Flying'. The Salutation Overture was dedicated to Stalin on his sixtieth birthday.
Oleksandr Yevdokymovych KorniychukLuckyj, G. Oleksandr Korniychuk. Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature; 1980, p442Shoemaker, M.W. Russia and The Commonwealth of Independent States 2014. Rowman & Littlefield. 2014 (, , May 25 [12 o.s.], 1905 – May 14, 1972) was a Ukrainian playwright, literary critic and state official (a Soviet Foreign Minister’s first deputy in 1943–1945). His most notable works were plays such as Zahybel eskadry (The Death of the Squadron) (1933), Platon Krechet (1934), Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1938), his pro-collectivization comedy In the Steppes of Ukraine (1940), and The Front (1942).
He also used his first speech in parliament to take a "reactionary" stance, arguing against collectivization and nationalization, and calling for the post office and the railways to be given to private enterprise. Prior to Fascism's accommodation of the political right, Fascism was a small, urban, northern Italian movement that had about a thousand members. After Fascism's accommodation of the political right, the Fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000 by 1921. The other lesson drawn by Mussolini from the events of 1921 was about the effectiveness of open violence and paramilitary groups.
Starting in 1921, Italian Fascism shifted from presenting itself as a broad-based expansionist movement, to claiming to represent the extreme right of Italian politics. This was accompanied by a shift in its attitude towards capitalism. Whereas in the beginning it had accommodated both anti-capitalist and pro-capitalist stances, it now took on a strongly pro-free-enterprise policy. After being elected to the Italian parliament for the first time, the Fascists took a stand against economic collectivization and nationalization, and advocated for the privatization of postal and railway services.
Large numbers of narrow strips were the consequence of a strict egalitarianism in sharing out land of differing qualities. Sometimes strips were too narrow for a harrow to travel along.D. J. Male, Russian Peasant Organization Before Collectivization: A Study of the Commune and Gathering 1925 - 1930 (Cambridge University Press, 1971), p.8; Stefan Hoch, Serfdom and Social Control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a Village in Tambov (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1986), p.23. Arable gony varied in length (from region to region) from 20 to 100 sazhen (1 sazhen = 2.13 metres or 6.9 feet).
A moderate, electorally-oriented faction controlled the Socialist Party of North Dakota throughout its existence. This group sought to appeal to the farmers of the state, putting together a program which would win their electoral support. Radical socialist ideas such as the collectivization of land were cast aside in favor of more modest economic reforms such as the establishment of state- owned grain elevators and flour mills and state-sponsored agricultural insurance to protect against natural catastrophes. In 1913 Henry G. Teigan was elected State Secretary of the Socialist Party of North Dakota.
In late 1920s Stalin abolished the New Economic Policy and returned to forced collectivization. In this context changes in cultural politics occurred as well. An early example was the Union for the Freedom of Ukraine process in 1930, a show trial of 474 people (mostly scientists), 15 of whom were executed and 248 sent to prison. The beginning of the mass extermination of the Ukrainian intelligentsia is May 1933, when Mykhailo Yalovy was arrested and the suicide of Mykola Khvylovyi took place in the Kharkiv house "Slovo" (word).
Cooperative members retained ownership of their land but secured a share in the cooperative by staking their plots along with those of other members in the common land pool. By 1956 the transformation of mutual aid teams into agricultural cooperatives was nearly complete. By the end of that year, moreover, the great majority of cooperatives had moved to a still higher stage of collectivization, having become advanced producers' cooperatives. These cooperatives contrasted with those of the earlier stage in that members no longer earned income based on shares of land owned.
Sometimes, the term "selysche" is also used in a more general way to refer to adjacent settlements near a bigger city including urban-type settlements (selysche miskoho typu) or villages. However, ambiguity is often avoided in connection with urbanized settlements by referring to them using the three-letter abbreviation smt instead. The khutir (хутір) and stanytsia (станиця) are not part of the administrative division any longer, primarily due to collectivization. Khutirs were very small rural localities consisting of just few housing units and were sort of individual farms.
With the advent of the Great Depression, collectivization of farming, anti- kulak campaign and purges of the 1930s, the family were forcibly separated and their movable goods redistributed. Pankratia, as "the son of a kulak", was able to keep the ancestral land to feed his family, but had to move to various villages around Tobolsk, while Ekaterina cared for the younger children in Kharmpavyl. The family would not be reunited until 1943, when Ekaterina died. In 1933, Vakhrusheva and Andrei moved to Ostyako-Vogulsk, so that she could study at the newly established normal school.
In 1948 collectivization began in earnest and was intensified after the March 1949 deportations and by the end of the year 93% of farms were collectivized.Valdis O. Lumans, Latvia in World War II, Fordham Univ Press, 2006, , p. 398. Collective farming was extremely unprofitable as farmers had to plant and harvest according to the state plan and not the actual harvest conditions. Farmers were paid close to nothing for their produce, as Stalinist system was based on squeezing them dry for the benefit of heavy industry and military needs.
Vyacheslav Molotov, an influential member of the Politburo, for his part declared: "Georgia provides a startling example of the breach between the Party and the mass of the peasantry in the country."Souvarine, p. 373 As a result, the Communist Party of Georgia chose, for the time being, to use peaceful persuasion rather than armed coercion to extend their influence over the peasant masses, and to moderate the attempts to enforce collectivization. The extension of the radical land reform and the relative freedom granted peasants reduced hostility to the new regime.
The General Line, also known as Old and New (), is a 1929 Soviet drama film directed by Sergei Eisenstein and Grigori Aleksandrov. The General Line was begun in 1927 as a celebration of the collectivization of agriculture, as championed by old-line Bolshevik Leon Trotsky. Hoping to reach a wide audience, the director forsook his usual practice of emphasizing groups by concentrating on a single rural heroine. Eisenstein briefly abandoned this project to film October: Ten Days That Shook the World, in honour of the 10th anniversary of the Revolution.
Like the other communist states, Poland was spending too much on heavy industry, armaments and prestige projects and too little on consumer production. The failure of Soviet-style collectivization returned the collectivized land to the peasants, but most of their farms were too small to be prosperous and productivity in agriculture remained low. Economic relations with West Germany were frozen due to East German interference and resistance to economic integration. Gomułka attributed the signs of economic decline to faulty implementation of the fundamentally correct directions issued by central organs of the party.
Among the main projects was the Lenin Steelworks and its supporting "socialist city" of Nowa Huta (New Steel Mill), both built from the scratch in the early 1950s near Kraków, of which Nowa Huta soon became a part. The land seized from prewar large landowners was redistributed to the poorer peasants, but subsequent attempts at taking the land from farmers for collectivization met wide resentment. In what became known as the battle for trade, the private trade and industry were nationalized. Within few years most private shops disappeared.
The various open opposition groups that had tried to oppose Stalin in the Communist Party had failed, and their former members barely had any power. The former leader of the Left Opposition Leon Trotsky was deported from the Soviet Union, Lev Kamenev and Grigori Zinoviev were expelled from the party, and the rights were sidelined. With growing opposition to Joseph Stalin and his collectivization policies, some bolsheviks decided to form underground opposition groups against him and the party leadership. The bloc was a loose alliance between many of them.
No historian who analysed the bloc has concluded with certainty who 'the liberals' were. Other groups were also mentioned: the Eismont group, the Sten–Lominadze group and the Safar(ov)–Tarkhan group, but not much is know about them except their mention in Trotsky's letters. It is know that Vissaron Lominadze formed an underground group, called by some "the Left-Right bloc" to oppose Stalin's policy of collectivization. It seems that after their defeat, they decided to join an even larger bloc in order to gather more forces against the government.
Another large group of Germans who immigrated to Paraguay are Russian Mennonites, Germans who immigrated to Russia under the rule of the ethnic German Czarina Catherine the Great. The Paraguayan Mennonite community left Russia in two waves: the first in the 19th century when their exemption from military service ended, and the second to avoid Stalin's collectivization programs. Russian Mennonites are different from another German-Russian group, the Volga Germans, through religion and reasons of immigrating to Russia. Russian Mennonites are religious Mennonites while the Volga Germans are religious Lutherans and Roman Catholics.
As secretary of the Kharkiv Oblast and city Party committees, Postyshev organized the purge of Trotskyists and Ukrainian national-communists as well as industrialization and collectivization campaigns in the region. In July 1930 he was promoted to the office of secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik) in Moscow and put in charge of propaganda and organization. Postyshev speaks at House of the Unions Sep 05 1931 In January 1933 Postyshev was once again sent to Ukraine as Stalin's personal representative, along with thousands of political appointees from Russia.
"Distrugerea țărănimii"; Roman jr. Coposu later testified having been impressed by the deep scars collectivization had left in the country,"Distrugerea țărănimii" as well as by the resilience of the Rubla deportees (see Bărăgan deportations) — "They traded in vegetables they had grown themselves while locals could not be convinced that these could actually grow on the Bărăgan".Coposu, in "Distrugerea țărănimii" In the 1990s, during debates over the overall number of victims of the Communist regime between 1947 and 1964, Coposu spoke of 282,000 arrests and 190,000 deaths in custody.
In practice, the poor generally welcomed the Soviets, and the elites tended to join the opposition, despite supporting the reunification itself. The Soviets eventually introduced complete Sovietization policies in Western Belorussia and Western Ukraine, including compulsory collectivization throughout the whole region. In the process, all political parties and public associations were ruthlessly destroyed and their leaders imprisoned or executed as "enemies of the people". The Soviet authorities also suppressed the anti-Polish Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists for an independent and undivided Ukrainian state, that had actively resisted the Polish regime since the 1920s.
His social determinism and idolatry before sociology excluded the possibility of free action or resistance. Hence the critical attitude of Zinoviev to dissidents, to their position of "personal feat". Zinoviev was accused of apologizing for Stalin and justifying collectivization under the guise of objectivity. He was blamed for anti–historicism and certain views that included ideas obsolete in social thought: the naturalistic vision of society, similar to the concept of Herbert Spencer; ideas about the inevitable social evolution (Marxism), its passage through certain stages; a mixture of archaic, Marxist and modern political concepts.
The appearance of the figure of Stalin was inevitable and necessary. Stalin's leaderism had a national basis, Stalinism was a form of democracy: people of power (nominees) occupied power positions, people exercised power directly, using denunciations. The ruin of the village during the collectivization produced a social upheaval, millions of people from the lower classes gained access to education and culture. Repression resulted from the activities of the masses: the horror of Stalinism was not in the victims, but in the fact that the executioners, beginning with Stalin, best fit the social environment.
Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich (; – 25 July 1991) was a Soviet politician and administrator and one of the main associates of Joseph Stalin. He is known for helping Stalin come to power, for his role in organizing, planning and supervising the forced collectivization policies said to have led to the Holodomor, and for his harsh treatment and execution of those deemed threats to Stalin's regime. He was project manager and led the original design team of the Moscow Metro, and Moscow's Metro was named after him until 1955.Metro.ru Original order on naming the Metro after Kaganovich.
Belarusian Central Rada, a pro-Nazi semi-government of Belarus operating from Minsk, June 1943. During World War II, some Belarusians collaborated with the invading Axis powers. Until the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in 1941, the territory of Belarus was under control of the Soviet Union, as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. However, memories of the Soviet repressions in Belarus and collectivization, as well as of the polonization and discrimination of Belarusians in the Second Polish Republic were still fresh, and many people in Belarus wanted an independent Belarus.
From the loosely structured, tiny mutual aid teams, villages were to advance first to lower- stage, agricultural producers' cooperatives, in which families still received some income on the basis of the amount of land they contributed, and eventually to advanced cooperatives, or collectives. In the advanced producers' cooperatives, income shares were based only on the amount of labor contributed. In addition, each family was allowed to retain a small private plot on which to grow vegetables, fruit, and livestock for its own use. The collectivization process began slowly but accelerated in 1955 and 1956.
Lithuanian SSR postage stamp, showing workers of a kolkhoz Collectivization in the Lithuanian SSR took place between 1947 and 1952. The 1990 per capita GDP of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was $8,591, which was above the average for the rest of the Soviet Union of $6,871. This was half or less of the per capita GDPs of adjacent countries Norway ($18,470), Sweden ($17,680) and Finland ($16,868). Overall, in the Eastern Bloc, systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics.
The problem was that none of the immigrants, except for Lubkov, knew the local language or socialized with the local people, and therefore had a strong dependence on Lubkov. In the end of the 1920s, Lubkov arranged for a land grant in eastern Rostov oblast, north of other Spiritual Christians (Dukhobortsy, Molokane, Pryguny) in the Tselinsky District. An about 300 people moved from Uruguay to the Soviet Union, to their village commune along the Manych River which they called New Israel. During Collectivization Soviets renamed it Red October (Krasnyy Oktyabr').
Adjarian men's clothing Many Adjarians converted to Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries when the Ottomans ruled over southwestern Georgian lands. The Georgian population of Adjara had been generally known as Muslim Georgians until the 1926 Soviet census listed them as Adjarians, separate from the rest of Georgians, counting 71,426 of them. In subsequent censuses (1939–1989) they were listed with other Georgians, as no official Soviet census asked about religion. In the 1920s, the suppression of religion and compulsory collectivization led to armed resistance against Communist authorities by Adjarians.
Another consequence of this is that peasants resisted by killing their farm animals rather than turning them over to the State when their farms were collectivized. The resistance to Stalin's collectivization policies led to the debatably genocidal famine in Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan as well as areas of the Northern Caucasus. Public machine and tractor stations were set up throughout the USSR, and peasants were allowed to use these public tractors to farm the land, increasing the food output per peasant. Peasants were allowed to sell any surplus food from the land.
Among other things, he opposed forced collectivization, and was skeptical of the Cominform. The Bierut faction had Stalin's ear, and on Stalin's orders, Gomułka was sacked as party leader for "rightist-nationalist deviation," replaced by Bierut. In December, soon after the PPR and Polish Socialist Party merged to form Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) (which was essentially the PPR under a new name), Gomułka was dropped from the merged party's Politburo. He was stripped of his remaining government posts in January 1949, and expelled from the party altogether in November.
His work is characterized by his knowledge of the life in the villages of the Soviet Union, his love for his native land, strong, live pictures and his skills of painting. As the reaction to the events, which moved the population of the Soviet Union at that time, Plastov showed in his pictures, how the village life had changed by the collectivization. As models of the Protagonists of his works Plastov chose characters of his homeland village. The outbreak of World War II inspired new motives for the work of Plastov.
Though he was a supporter of the Agrarian Reform which had recently been completed, Boshnjaku was against any collectivization or accumulation of land as state property. This public stance would cost him a lot. In 1947, he was arrested by the communist government, which accused him of implications with Anglo-American intelligence, and giving another life sentence. The arrest and trial went on the same time the so- called "Group of the representatives" (Alb: Grupi i Deputetëve), several opposition members being sentenced, although Boshnjaku was not connected to them.
Oxford University Press. .Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, Lynne Viola The Unknown Gulag. The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements Oxford University Press 2007, hardback, 320 pages The campaign had the stated purpose of fighting counter-revolution and of building socialism in the countryside. This policy, carried out simultaneously with collectivization in the Soviet Union, effectively brought all agriculture and all the laborers in Soviet Russia under state control.
Joseph Stalin announced the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class" on 27 December 1929. Stalin had said: "Now we have the opportunity to carry out a resolute offensive against the kulaks, break their resistance, eliminate them as a class and replace their production with the production of kolkhozes and sovkhozes."Robert Service: Stalin, a biography, page 266. The Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party formalized the decision in a resolution titled "On measures for the elimination of kulak households in districts of comprehensive collectivization" on 30 January 1930.
While it remains unclear how the Smallholders Party would have solved the problems resulting from their dwarf properties, the plans of the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP) soon became clear. The model of Stalinist collectivization would be adopted and applied with physical force if necessary. In July 1948, government regulations allowed the seizure of larger landholdings from nagygazdák (Hungarian [kulak]s). These regulations enabled over 800 square kilometers of land to be confiscated, 60% of which went to recently formed farming co-operatives, the rest going to private peasants.
After the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the re-establishment of political order, officials of the new Hungarian Socialist Workers Party (MSzMP) began to draw up a plan for a more gradual collectivization drive. Like Nagy's New Course, the changes suggested in the July 1957 Agrarian Theses were not drastic, but they made room for the possibility of further reforms. Some changes came almost immediately. The compulsory deliveries were not reintroduced and the purchasing prices introduced in 1957 were 80% higher than the compulsory prices had been.
Two months earlier, the Ukrainian poet Mykola Khvyliovy had shot himself. As early as 1926, Stalin had attacked Khvliovy for calling on Ukrainian writers to turn away from Moscow and orient themselves with Europe. Oleksandr Shumsky whom Stalin accused of protecting Khvyliovy, was arrested in 1933 and murdered on Stalin's orders in 1946. The reversal of indigenisation suspended the development of non-Russian languages and cultures at a moment when increasing numbers of peasants, driven by collectivization from the villages that had shielded them from the linguistic supervision of tsarist authorities, began to migrate to the cities.
Attempts were made to manage the problem with bread speculation by imposing a quota on all carried foods met with very limited success. On the request of Kosior such provisions were lifted by Stalin at the end of May 1932. The July GPU reports for the first half of 1932, mentioned the “difficulties with food” in 127 rayons (out of 484), acknowledged the fact that they did not have information for all regions. The Decree of Sovnarkom on “Kolkhoz Trade” issued in May, fostered rumors amongst peasants that collectivization was once again rolled-back as it had been in the spring 1930.
According to the most recent research, Gerasimovka was described in the Soviet press as a "kulak nest" because all its villagers refused to join the kolkhoz, a state-controlled collective farm during the collectivization. Pavlik informed on neighbours when they did something wrong, including his own father, who left the family for another woman. Pavlik was not a Pioneer, although he wanted to be one. Kelly believes there is no evidence that the family was involved in the murder of the boy, and that it was probably the work of other teenagers with whom Pavlik had a squabble over a gun.
The definition of rightists was not always consistent, sometimes including critics to the left of the government, but officially referred to those intellectuals who appeared to favor capitalism, or were against one- party rule as well as collectivization. According to China's official statistics during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period, the campaign resulted in the political persecution of at least 550,000 people. Researchers estimate that the actual number of victims is between 1 and 2 millions or even higher. Deng Xiaoping admitted that there were mistakes during the Anti-Rightist Campaign, and most victims had received rehabilitation since 1959.
The history of the Soviet Union between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the Second World War and of victory against Nazi Germany while the USSR remained under the firm control of Joseph Stalin. Stalin sought to destroy his political rivals while transforming Soviet society with aggressive central planning, in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture and a rapid development of heavy industry. Stalin's power within the party and the state was established and eventually evolved into Stalin's cult of personality, Soviet secret-police and the mass- mobilization. The Communist Party were Stalin's major tools in molding the Soviet society.
Bukharin and the Right Opposition were, in their turn, sidelined and removed from important positions within the Communist Party and the Soviet government from 1928-1930, with Stalin ditching the NEP and beginning the first Five-year plan. One of the last attempts of the Rightists to resist Stalin was the Ryutin Affair in 1932, where a manifesto against the soviet policy of collectivization and Stalin was circulated. It openly called for "The Liquidation of the dictatorship of Stalin and his clique". Later, some rightists joined a secret bloc with Leon Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to oppose Stalin.
Labor productivity fell as a result. A study by an overseas Vietnamese who surveyed ten rice-growing cooperatives found that, despite an increase in labor and area cultivated in 1975, 1976, and 1977, production decreased while costs increased when compared with production and costs for 1972 through 1974. Although the study failed to take weather and other variables into account, the findings were consistent with conclusions reached by investigators who have studied the effects of collectivization in other countries. Moreover, the study drew attention to the North's poor agricultural performance as a reason for Vietnam's persistent food problem.
Despite being the largest segment of the population they had no real strength, and thus could pose no serious threat to the state. By the time this was done, the collectivization plan resembled a very bloody military campaign against the peasant's traditional lifestyle. This social transformation along with the incredible economic boom occurred at the same time that the entire Soviet system, developed its definitive form in the decade of 1930. Many scholars believe that a few other important factors, such as foreign policy and internal security, went into the execution of the five-year plan.
He studied agronomy at the University of Tirana, and made his debut as a writer in 1965 with the novel Era e tokës, although he is best known for his 1971 novel Toka e Ashpër, describing the collectivization of a small village. After 1976, he also wrote screenplays in collaboration with Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re. In 1977, he won an award at the Second Albanian Film Festival for his script for ' (Confrontation, or The Face-Up). He later became the manager of the editorial board for the studio's feature films. In 1990 he became head of the Kinostudio, then renamed as "Albfilm".
In the history of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union the Left-Right bloc was a failed attempt of vocal opposition to the politics of forced collectivization Joseph Stalin. Vissarion Lominadze and Sergey Syrtsov were recognized as its leaders.Vadim Rogovin, "Power and Oppositions" (" Власть и оппозиции") The name is derived from the accusation in factionism of the group created by joining of two groups: the one accused in "right opportunism" and allegedly headed by Syrtsov and another one accused of "leftism" and "half- Trotskyism" allegedly headed by Lominadze. In Western literature the case is known as the Syrtsov-Lominadze Affair.
Waffen SS and the Regiment III of Cossacks during Warsaw Uprising. The regiment was composed of both Don and Kuban Cossacks The first collaborators were formed from Soviet Cossack POWs and deserters after the consequences of the Red Army's early defeats in the course of Operation Barbarossa. After the horrors of Collectivization and Decossackization, in summer of 1942, many of the Germans reaching Kuban were greeted as liberators.Stalin's Enemies "Combat Magazine" ISSN 1542-1546 Volume 03 Number 01 Winter Many Soviet Kuban Cossacks chose to switch to the German side either when in POW camps or on active service in the Soviet Army.
From 1929 to 1934, when Joseph Stalin was trying to collectivize agriculture, Kazakhstan endured repeated famines similar to what is by some proclaimed as HolodomorKazakhstan: The Forgotten Famine, Radio Free Europe, 28 December 2007 in Ukraine; in both republics and the Russian SFSR,Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet collectivization and the terror-famine, Oxford University Press US, 1987 p.196. peasants slaughtered their livestock in protest against Soviet agricultural policy.Robert Conquest, The harvest of sorrow, p.193 During that period, over one million residentsTimothy Snyder, 'Holocaust:The Ignored Reality,’ in New York Review of Books 16 July 2009 pp.14–16,p.
There were an estimated 600,000 monks and nuns in Tibet in 1950, and by 1979, most of them were dead, imprisoned or had disappeared. The Tibetan government in exile claimed that many Tibetans also died from famines in 1961–1964 and 1968–1973 as a result of forced collectivization, however the number of Tibetan deaths or whether famines, in fact, took place in these periods is disputed. Despite official persecution, some local leaders and minority ethnic practices survived in remote regions. The overall failure of the Red Guards' and radical assimilationists' goals was mostly due to two factors.
Khrushchev viewed this policy as very effective, and recommended its adoption elsewhere to Stalin. He also worked to impose collectivization on Western Ukraine. While Khrushchev hoped to accomplish this by 1947, lack of resources and armed resistance by partisans slowed the process. The partisans, many of whom fought as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), were gradually defeated, as Soviet police and military reported killing 110,825 "bandits" and capturing a quarter million more between 1944 and 1946. About 600,000 Western Ukrainians were arrested between 1944 and 1952, with one-third executed and the remainder imprisoned or exiled to the east.
Not only was the region rich in oil, but it was also the key to Iran and Iraq. From 1943 the Cossacks were kept mostly in the southern part of the front, where their use in reconnaissance and logistics proved invaluable. Many went on through Romania and into the Balkans during the final stages of the war. Most of the collaborators, who some say numbered over 250,000 (although current figures claim the true number was not even a third of that) were the Don Cossacks, who, formerly the largest and strongest host, suffered the worst under Soviet collectivization policies.
The Memorial for Chairman Mao's Inspection of the North Park Commune () is a historical site in the City of Jinan, Shandong, China. The memorial commemorates an inspection visit by Mao Zedong on August 9, 1958 during a tour of the provinces Hebei, Henan.David S. G. Goodman, "Centre and Province in the People's Republic of China: Sichuan and Guizhou, 1955-1965", CUP Archive, 1986 The purpose of the tour was to promote the idea of the People's Commune. During this visit, Mao made the statement "People's Communes are good" () which triggered the collectivization in the Great Leap Forward.
For example, CIDE, an academic focusing on public policy, worked at state level helping states comply with the reform. Fundar also focused on evaluating government responses to information requests, the appeals process and on training groups to analyze information released by the government. Despite the organizational size of the Transparency Collective, collectivization has nonetheless been an important factor in its effectiveness. The collective call for greater transparency was one of the reasons for the comprehensive reform of Article 6 of the Mexican constitution in 2007, which heralded a new level of progression for Mexico's right-to-know movement.
The abandonment of agricultural collectivization and the end of totalitarianism brought with them new problems, which grew worse the longer the communist party enjoyed a monopoly of power. These included increasing corruption and nepotism (a traditional feature of Lao political life), as ideological commitment faded and self-interest arose to replace it as the major motivation for seeking and holding office. The economic benefits of economic liberalisation were also slow to emerge. Unlike China, Laos did not have the potential for rapid economic growth through free market mechanisms in agriculture and the fostering of export-driven low-wage manufacturing.
During his visit in Budapest on March 15, 1948, the chairman of the Czechoslovak Constitutional National Assembly declared that the Hungarian people were not responsible for past oppression of Slovaks, crimes of Hungarian noblemen or the regime of Miklós Horthy. In October 1948, the Czechoslovak parliament restored Czechoslovak citizenship to Hungarians who were residents in Slovakia on November 1, 1938 and had not been convicted of crime. The return of property disappeared in the context of communist collectivization and so became irrelevant. On April 16, 1949, the two countries signed an agreement on friendship and cooperation.
He traveled to Iraq to cover the Iran–Iraq War (1984). He first worked as a freelance foreign correspondent reporting on Eastern Europe and the Middle East, but slowly expanded his coverage to all regions ignored in the popular press. His first book, Surrender or Starve: The Wars Behind The Famine (1988) contended the famine in Ethiopia in the 1980s was more complex than just drought, pointing the blame instead to the collectivization carried out by the Mengistu regime. Kaplan then went to Afghanistan to write about the guerrilla war against the Soviet Union for Reader's Digest.
A moderate faction within the party and Politburo member Liu Shaoqi argued that change should be gradual and any collectivization of the peasantry should wait until industrialization, which could provide the agricultural machinery for mechanized farming. A more radical faction led by Mao Zedong argued that the best way to finance industrialization was for the government to take control of agriculture, thereby establishing a monopoly over grain distribution and supply. This would allow the state to buy at a low price and sell much higher, thus raising the capital necessary for the industrialization of the country.
Borowski was born in 1922 into the Polish community in Zhytomyr, Ukrainian SSR (today Ukraine). In 1926, his father, whose bookstore had been nationalized by the communists, was sent to a camp in the Gulag system in Russian Karelia because he had been a member of a Polish military organization during World War I. In 1930, Borowski's mother was deported to a settlement on the shores of the Yenisey, in Siberia, during Collectivization. During this time Tadeusz lived with his aunt. Borowski and his family were targeted (as Poles) by the Soviet Union during Stalin's Great Terror.
The Confederal militias, which occupied Lower Teruel and Huesca, established defense committees that replaced the old city councils. In zones that had more anarchist presence before the war, collectivization of the land was carried out with great success. These first collectivizations were voluntary and were established from the lands that belonged to the members and those which had been requisitioned from those who were fugitive or missing. Those property-owners who wanted to keep possession of their land were not allowed to hire outside their families, and those lands they could not farm passed under community control.
He was featured in the series "Surma ei otsinud keegi" and "Viiekümnendad", the latter showing life after the Second World War, including collectivization, and Stalinist repressions in Estonia. Along with and , Järlik produced "" (1988), an important reflection of the democratization, freedom of expression and of the Singing Revolution in Estonia. Järlik participated in the foundation of the Popular Front of Estonia. He was also a member of the Congress of Estonia, the Constituent Assembly, the Estonian Supreme Soviet from 1990 to 1992, and was a member of the Riigikogu from 1992 to 1999 as a member of the Estonian Coalition Party.
Principele ("The Prince", 1969) by Eugen Barbu is an allegory referring to the Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej regime. The novel is set in the Phanariote era, describing a prince trying to build a canal (referring to the Danube–Black Sea Canal) without any consideration for his subjects, many of whom die during its construction.Deletant, p. 182 F (1969) by Dumitru Radu Popescu tried to divide the guilt for the abuses of the Stalinist era; the book is focused on a judicial enquiry on the collectivization of peasant holdings, trying to equate the reluctance to talk about the crimes with complicity.
Another problem faced by the CNT was that while many collectivized firms were bankrupt, they refused to use the banks because the financial institutions were under the control of the socialist UGT. As a result of this, many were forced to seek government aid, appealing to Juan Peiró, the CNT minister of industry. Socialists and Communists in the government however, prevented Peiró from making any move which promoted collectivization. After the initial disruption, the unions soon began an overall reorganization of all trades, closing down hundreds of smaller plants and focusing on those few better equipped ones, improving working conditions.
While Crimean Tatars were emigrating, the Russian government encouraged Russification of the peninsula, populating it with Russians, Ukrainians, and other Slavic ethnic groups; this Russification continued during the Soviet era.Vardys (1971), p. 101 Corpses of victims of the winter 1918 Red Terror in Evpatoria, Crimea After the 1917 October Revolution, Crimea received autonomous status inside the USSR on 18 October 1921, but collectivization in the 1920s led to severe famine from which up to 100,000 Crimeans perished when their crops were transported to "more important" regions of the Soviet Union. By one estimate, three-quarters of the famine victims were Crimean Tatars.
Not only were the lands collectivized, but collective labours were also undertaken, like the retirement home in Fraga, the collectivization of some hospitals (such as in Barbastro or Binéfar) and the founding of schools such as the School of Anarchist Militants. These institutions would be destroyed by the Nationalist troops during the war. The Committee held an extraordinary regional plenary session to protect the new rural organization, gathering all the union representatives from the supporting villages and backed by Buenaventura Durruti. Against the will of the mainly Catalan CNT National Committee, the Regional Defence Council of Aragon was created.
A National Land Council under the Council of Ministers was to oversee land distribution and arbitrate disputes, aided by a system of municipal land commissions. As elsewhere in the Bulgarian economy, agricultural reform encountered stout resistance from entrenched local Zhivkovite officials. Pre-collectivization land ownership records were destroyed, and farmers were threatened or bribed to remain in collectives rather than seeking private farms. Although the Arable Land Law was widely hailed as an equitable and useful economic reform, its association with the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP, formerly the BCP) majority brought criticism from the opposition Union of Democratic Forces (UDF).
By January 1, 1930, the percentage of collectivized households almost doubled to 16.4%. Despite the infamous January 5, 1930 decree, in which the deadline for the complete collectivization of the Ukrainian SSR was set for the period from the end of 1931 to spring 1932, the authorities decided to accelerate the completion of the campaign in autumn 1930. The high expectations of the plan were outperformed by local authorities even without the assistance of the 7,500 Twenty-Five Thousanders, and by March, 70.9% of arable land and 62.8% of peasant households were collectivized. The dekulakization plan also "over-performed".
Ivnitskyy "Tragedy of Soviet Village" This second forced-voluntary collectivization campaign also caused a delay in sowing. During winter and spring 1930–1931, the Ukrainian agricultural authority Narkomzem issued several reports about the significant decline of livestock caused by poor treatment, the absence of forage, stables, and farms, and "kulak sabotage". According to the first five-year plan, Ukrainian agriculture was to switch from an exclusive orientation of grain to a more diverse output. This included not only an increase in sugar beet crops; other types of agricultural production were expected to be utilized by industry, including cotton, which was established in 1931.
The history of the Soviet Union between 1927 and 1953 covers the period in Soviet history from the establishment of Stalinism through victory in the Second World War and down to the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. He sought to destroy his enemies while transforming Soviet society with aggressive economic planning, in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture and rapid development of heavy industry. Stalin consolidated his power within the party and the state and fostered an extensive cult of personality. Soviet secret- police and the mass-mobilization Communist Party served as Stalin's major tools in molding Soviet society.
In many cases, peasants bitterly opposed this process and often slaughtered their animals rather than give them to collective farms, even though the government only wanted the grain. Kulaks, prosperous peasants, were forcibly resettled to Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Russian Far North (a large portion of the kulaks served at forced labor camps). However, just about anyone opposing collectivization was deemed a "kulak". The policy of liquidation of kulaks as a class—formulated by Stalin at the end of 1929—meant some executions, and even more deportation to special settlements and, sometimes, to forced labor camps.
The split between the West and Soviet filmmaking became readily apparent with André Bazin's dismissal of montage and Cahiers du Cinéma's assertion of the primacy of auteurs. The belief that a still, highly composed, and individuated shot marked cinema's artistic significance was an affront to the dialectical method. That individual directors could compose and produce films by themselves (at least in terms of credit and authorship) made impossible the collectivization of filmmaking. Eisenstein's later work (Alexander Nevsky [1938] and Ivan the Terrible [1944–1946]), would undercut his earlier film's appeal to masses by locating the narrative on a single individual.
292 The Soviets finally moved to purge Dambadorj and other rightwingers at the Seventh Party Congress in 1928. The rise of Josef Stalin in the Soviet Union ushered in a "Leftist Period" in the Mongolian People's Republic wherein the party pushed more rapid collectivization, land expropriation, and persecution of the Buddhist Clergy. "Rightwingers" such as Dambadorj, Ajvaagiin Danzan, Tseveen Jamsrano, and N. Jadamba, all of whom had played a role in what was later called "the Period of Rightist Opportunity", were expelled from the party. Dambadorj was sent to Moscow as a trade representative attached to the Mongolian Embassy there.
The Cazin rebellion () was an armed anti-state rebellion of peasants that occurred in May 1950 in the towns of Cazin and Velika Kladuša in the Bosanska Krajina region, as well as Slunj in Croatia, at that time part of Communist Yugoslavia. The peasants revolted against the forced collectivization and collective farms set up by the Yugoslav government following a drought in 1949, after which they had been punished due to their inability to meet the quotas. The ringleaders were persecuted and some killed, including many innocent civilians. It was the only peasant rebellion in the history of Cold War Europe.
During the forced collectivization and other extreme socioeconomic changes of the first decades of Soviet rule, pastoral nomadism ceased to be an economic alternative in Turkmenistan, and by the late 1930s, the majority of Turkmen had become sedentary. Efforts by the Soviet state to undermine the traditional Turkmen way of life resulted in significant changes in familial and political relationships, religious and cultural observances, and intellectual developments. Significant numbers of Russians and other Slavs, as well as groups from various nationalities mainly from the Caucasus, migrated to urban areas. Modest industrial capabilities were developed, and limited exploitation of Turkmenistan's natural resources was initiated.
The contested lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including collectivization and five-year plans for the national economy, led to famine and political repression. The western part of modern Belarus remained part of the Second Polish Republic. After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and the Belarusian minority was no exception.
Stalin had initiated a project of mass rural collectivization which, in keeping with his Marxist- Leninist ideas, he believed would help convert the country into a socialist society. Gorbachev's maternal grandfather joined the Communist Party and helped form the village's first kolkhoz (collective farm) in 1929, becoming its chair. This farm was outside Privolnoye village and when he was three years old, Gorbachev left his parental home and moved into the kolkhoz with his maternal grandparents. The country was then experiencing the famine of 1932–33, in which two of Gorbachev's paternal uncles and an aunt died.
Upon establishing an anti-Castro movement Menoyo retreated back to the Escambray Mountains, the base of the last revolution. The movement became popular among farmers who did not support the collectivization enforced by the Castro government thus leading to the movement leading targeted attacks on agricultural hubs and field burnings. The act of raiding and crop burning is what gave the conflict the name of the "War Against the Bandits" among native Cubans. It was through these actions that the movement engaged the Castro regime as it was not strong enough to engage in a direct conflict revolution.
Rice production, a vital economic indicator in Cambodia's agrarian society, frequently fell far short of targets, causing severe food shortages in 1979, 1981, 1984, and 1987. The plan's 1987 target for the total area to be devoted to rice cultivation was 1.77 million hectares, but the actual area under cultivation in 1987 amounted to only 1.15 million hectares. After 1979 and through the late 1980s, the agricultural sector performed poorly. Adverse weather conditions, insufficient numbers of farm implements and of draft animals, inexperienced and incompetent personnel, security problems, and government collectivization policies all contributed to low productivity.
Each member family of a solidarity group was entitled to a private plot of between 1,500 and 2,000 square meters (depending upon the availability of land) in addition to land it held in common with other members. Individual shares of the group harvest and of the produce from private plots were the exclusive property of the producers, who were free to consume store, barter, or sell them. The solidarity groups evolved into three categories, each distinct in its level of collectivization and in its provisions for land tenure. The first category represented the highest level of collective labor.
While cadres encompassed a large swaths of the population and various segments of people, all were expected to abide by a certain behavioral code. While the following signs of “bad” cadres seem broad, it is important to understand that the Romanian Communist Party was very strict in it’s surveillance and punishment of cadres in the efforts to root out class enemies and disloyal employees to the state. Drinking, and other similar fraternization behavior among the cadres was frowned upon by the Party. Drinking and alcoholism could open up the cadres to bribery and undermine their ability to enforce quotas and collectivization.
A further justification given was the need to promote industrial development by facilitating the state's procurement of agricultural products and transferring "surplus labor" from rural to urban areas. In short, agriculture was reorganized in order to proletarianize the peasantry and control production at prices determined by the state. The Eastern Bloc possesses substantial agricultural resources, especially in southern areas, such as Hungary's Great Plain, which offered good soils and a warm climate during the growing season. Rural collectivization proceeded differently in non-Soviet Eastern Bloc countries than it did in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s.
By-passing him and his institution, the SED created an agricultural commission to promote collectivization. Disillusioned by this policy and affected by the revelations of the 20th Congress of the CPSU and the events of autumn 1956 in Hungary Vieweg criticized the existing agricultural policy of the SED. In November 1956, therefore, Vieweg proposed his own programme with the title "New agricultural programme for the development of agriculture in the building of socialism in the GDR". During the 30th Central Committee plenum on 30 January 1957 this programme was denounced by Walter Ulbricht as "restoration of capitalism in agriculture".
Collectivization and other political processes led to widespread famine and tens of millions of deaths. In the late 1970s, administrators in provincial-level units with extensive regions of low yields and consequent low standards of living began experimenting with new forms of tenure and production. In most cases, these took the form of breaking up the collective production team, contracting with individual households to work assigned portions of collective land, and expanding the variety of crops or livestock that could be produced. The experiments were deemed successful and popular, and they soon spread to all districts.
From 2003 to 2004, Professors Marianne Kamp and Russell Zanca researched agricultural collectivization in Uzbekistan in part by using oral history methodology to fill in gaps in information missing from the Central State Archive of Uzbekistan. The goal of the project was to learn more about life in the 1920s and 1930s to study the impact of the Soviet Union's conquest. 20 interviews each were conducted in the Fergana valley, Tashkent, Bukhara, Khorezm, and Kashkadarya regions. Their interviews uncovered stories of famine and death that had not been widely known outside of local memory in the region.
25, Longman Group, England, This problem became more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program, meaning that more food needed to be produced to keep up with urban demand.Davies, R.W., The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929–1930, Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1. In the early 1930s, over 91% of agricultural land became collectivized as rural households entered collective farms with their land, livestock, and other assets. The collectivization era saw several famines, many due to the shortage of modern technology in USSR at the time, but critics have also cited deliberate action on the government's part.
Soviet officials had hoped that by sending the twenty-five thousanders to the countryside that they would be able to produce grain more rapidly. Their hopes were that key areas in the North Caucasus and Volga regions would be collectivized by 1931, and then the other regions by 1932.McCauley 2008 Shock brigades were used to force reluctant peasants into joining the collective farms and remove those who were declared kulaks and their "agents". Collectivization sought to modernize Soviet agriculture, consolidating the land into parcels that could be farmed by modern equipment using the latest scientific methods of agriculture.
The number of pigs fell from 27.7 million in 1928 to 27.5 million in 1941 and then to 22.2 million in 1950. The number of sheep fell from 114.6 million in 1928 to 91.6 million in 1941 and to 93.6 million in 1950. The number of horses fell from 36.1 million in 1928 to 21.0 million in 1941 and to 12.7 million in 1950. Only by the late 1950s did Soviet farm animal stocks begin to approach 1928 levels. Despite the initial plans, collectivization, accompanied by the bad harvest of 1932–1933, did not live up to expectations.
Most historians agree that the disruption caused by collectivization and the resistance of the peasants significantly contributed to the Great Famine of 1932–1933, especially in Ukraine, a region famous for its rich soil (chernozem). This particular period is called "Holodomor" in Ukrainian. During the similar famines of 1921–1923, numerous campaigns – inside the country, as well as internationally – were held to raise money and food in support of the population of the affected regions. Nothing similar was done during the drought of 1932–1933, mainly because the information about the disaster was suppressed by Stalin.
After the Soviet Occupation of Latvia in June 1940, the country's new rulers were faced with a problem: the agricultural reforms of the inter-war period had expanded individual holdings. The property of "enemies of the people" and refugees, as well as those above 30 hectares, was nationalized in 1940–44, but those who were still landless were then given plots of 15 hectares each. Thus, Latvian agriculture remained essentially dependent on personal smallholdings, making central planning difficult. In 1940–41 the Communist Party repeatedly said that collectivization would not occur forcibly, but rather voluntarily and by example.
In 1819 the Archduke contracted his third and last marriage with Duchess Maria Dorothea of Württemberg, who bore him five children, of whom three survived infancy. After the death of Archduke Joseph in 1847, his children inherited the Üröm state, who even survived both World Wars. The chapel was sacked, the valuables taken away and the coffins were open, but the remains weren't profaned, so the clothing and jewelry remained intact. In 1945, due to the Collectivization in Hungary near the property some farmers were established until 1953, when in the Russian Orthodox Church took over the ownership of the site.
Andrei Platonov (, ; It used to be thought that Platonov was born on August 20/September 1, but recent scholarship has established the earlier date. See Thomas Seifrid, A Companion To Andrei Platonov's The Foundation Pit (Academic Studies Press, 2009: ), p. 4. - 5 January 1951) was the pen name of Andrei Platonovich Klimentov (), a Soviet Russian writer, philosopher, playwright, and poet, whose works anticipate existentialism. Although Platonov regarded himself as a communist, his principal works remained unpublished in his lifetime because of their skeptical attitude toward collectivization of agriculture (1929-1940) and other Stalinist policies, as well as for their experimental, avant-garde form.
The Soviet government resorted to the execution and mass deportation of defiant kulaks to Siberia in order to implement the plan. The centuries-old system of farming was destroyed in Ukraine, which was once called "The breadbasket of Europe". The immediate effects of forced collectivization were reduced grain output and almost halved livestock numbers, thus creating major famines throughout the USSR during 1932 and 1933. In 1932–1933, an estimated 11 million people, 3–7 million in Ukraine alone, died from famine after Stalin forced the peasants into collectives (see: Holodomor) (although this has been disputed).
Petrov applied for political asylum in 1954, on the grounds that he could provide information regarding a Soviet spy ring operating out of the Soviet Embassy in Australia. Petrov states in his memoirs (ghost written by Michael Thwaites) that his reasoning for defecting lay not in an imminent fear of being executed, but in his disillusionment with the Soviet system and his own experiences and knowledge of the terror and human suffering inflicted on the Soviet people by their government. He witnessed the destruction of the Siberian village in which he was born, caused by forced collectivization and the famine which resulted.
Before Soviet collectivization in the 1920s, the Orok were divided into five groups, each with their own migratory zone. However, following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1922, the new government of the Soviet Union altered prior imperial policies towards the Oroks to bring them into line with communist ideology. In 1932, the northern Oroks joined the collective farm of Val, which was specialised in reindeer breeding, together with smaller numbers of Nivkhs, Evenks and Russians. Following the Russo- Japanese War, southern Sakhalin came under the control of the Empire of Japan, which administered it as Karafuto Prefecture.
Only six months between a first abortion and a second abortion was permitted. In addition, renewed efforts were made to prosecute babki. This had first started with the legalization of abortion in 1920 and a fair number of babki were caught and punished as legal abortion gave them no excuse to continue operating. During the collectivization drives in the early 1930s, this was temporarily put on the back burner, but in 1934 new, stricter laws were passed on performing illegal abortions, including a circular of the RSFSR Procuracy and extensive stories on them in the major newspapers.
Three years later, now a secretary of the Northern Caucasian Association of Proletarian Writers (СКАПП), and the Communist Party official superintending the stocking up of wheat harvest in Kuban, he joined Na Podyome (On the Rise) magazine as its editor-in-chief. In 1928 he moved to Moscow to become the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers secretary. Writing under the pseudonym Stavsky, Kirpichnikov published several short novels, a book of short stories and numerous documentary sketches, highlighting collectivization, calling for ruthlessness in the class war and singing paeans to Stalin's internal politics.Writers of Moscow, the Great Patriotic War Fighters.
In 1924, the borders of political units in Central Asia were changed along ethnic lines determined by Vladimir Lenin's Commissar for Nationalities, Joseph Stalin. The Turkestan ASSR, the Bukharan People's Republic, and the Khorezm People's Republic were abolished and their territories were divided into eventually five separate Soviet Socialist Republics, one of which was the Uzbek Socialist Soviet Republic, created on 27 October 1924. The next year Uzbekistan became one of the republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). In 1928, the collectivization of land into state farms was initiated, which lasted until the late 1930s.
At this time, reportedly few Nivkh spoke Russian. The official Russian census reported similar numbers of ethnic Nivkhs in 1897 (4,500) and in 2002 (5,200). However, the number of native speakers among the ethnic Nivkhs dropped from 100% to 23.3% in the same period. All recorded native Nivkh speakers were bilingual in Russian, most of them were born in 1920-1940s, when a significant decline in the number of native Nivkh speakers occurred, due to Stalin's policy of collectivization imposed on indigenous economies, and in many cases, driving Nivkh individuals to hired labor, marking a departure from traditional means of subsistence.
The second major Soviet famine happened during the initial push for collectivization during the 30s. Major causes include the 1932–33 confiscations of grain and other food by the Soviet authorities which contributed to the famine and affected more than forty million people, especially in the south on the Don and Kuban areas and in Ukraine, where by various estimates millions starved to death or died due to famine related illness (the event known as Holodomor). The famine was perhaps most severe in Kazakhstan where the semi-nomadic pastoralists' traditional way of life was most disturbed by Soviet agricultural ambitions.Gráda, C. Ó. (2010).
He was dispatched to Arkhangai Province in 1930 to oversee collectivization of herders and confiscation of property belonging to nobles and the Buddhist Church. When violent uprisings in western Mongolia forced the curtailment of such policies in 1932, Sambuu deftly avoided the political blowback for the debacle that felled many of the party's most extreme leftists including Ölziin Badrakh, Zolbingiin Shijee and Prime Minister Tsengeltiin Jigjidjav. Between 1932 and 1936 Sambuu went on to work in provincial party administrative offices in Dundgovi, and Ömnögovi Provinces. In 1936, he led a department in the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock.
Scott contributed to the construction of Magnitogorsk as a welder working in treacherous conditions. His writing reflects the painful human price of industrial accidents, overwork, and the inefficiency of the hyperindustrialization program, the wretched condition of peasants driven from the land in the collectivization program and forced into becoming industrial laborers, and the harshness of Article 58 in the ideological purges. In Behind the Urals Scott recalls many examples of the danger workers faced in Magnitogorsk: > I was just going to start welding when I heard someone sing out, and > something swished down past me. It was a rigger who had been working on the > very top.
In response to these problems, the Generalitat, backed by the CNT approved a decree on "Collectivization and Workers' Control" on 24 October 1936. Under this decree all firms with more than 100 workers were to be collectivized and those with 100 or less could be collectivized if a majority of workers agreed. Violent confrontations between the workers' parties culminated in the defeat of the CNT-FAI and POUM in the 1937 May Days, against whom the PSUC unleashed strong repression. The local situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat partially lost its autonomous power within republican Spain.
At the Sixth Party Congress in early 1927 he was re-elected Chairman of the MRYL and a member of the MPRP Central Committee. The Central Committee elected him as a member of the MPRP Presidium and he was then chosen as its Chairman, making him titular head of state of Mongolian People's Republic. Damdinsuren would hold this post from January 16, 1927 to January 23, 1929. In 1928 the MPRP Seventh Party Congress ushered in the "Leftist Period" that signaled a more aggressive approach to implementation of Soviet backed leftist policies such as more rapid collectivization, land expropriation, and persecution of the Buddhist Church.
Soviet advisers arranged for Damdinsüren to be replaced by the more pliable Khorloogiin Choibalsan, who was "kicked upstairs" to be Chairman of the Little Hural. Damdinsüren was in turn named deputy prime minister and minister of agriculture and then minister of animal husbandry. In 1930, he was relieved of his duties as member of the MPRP Presidium of the Central Committee during the Eight Party Congress and named head of the propaganda department of the Secretariat of the Central Committee. During the collectivization campaigns of 1930–1931, he returned to Zavkhan Province where he took up position as secretary of the commune and the director of a collective farm.
He continued to work as instructors of Central Committees in the Ukrainian SSR and Russian SFSR. He also actively conducted collectivization. Ptukha served as the First Secretary of the Stalingrad Provincial Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1927 to 1928 and then served as the Executive Secretary of the Stalingrad District Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He was a delegate to the 15th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was elected a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at the 16th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
In the CNT's liaison commission with the Government of Catalonia and the loyalist military, they promised to stop the coup plotters with only a thousand armed militants. There was a double transformation of those defense cadres. That of the popular militias, who defined the Aragon front in the first days, establishing the collectivization of land in the liberated Aragonese towns; and that of the revolutionary committees that brought about a "new revolutionary order", in every neighborhood of Barcelona and in every town in Catalonia. Their common origin in the defense cadres meant that confederal militias and revolutionary committees were always very united and interrelated.
In 1925–1926, significant deposits of apatite were discovered in the Khibiny Mountains, and the first apatite batch was shipped only a few years later, in 1929. In 1930, sulfide deposits were discovered in the Moncha area; in 1932–1933 iron ore deposits were found near the upper streams of the Iona River; and in 1935, significant deposits of titanium ores were discovered in the area of modern Afrikanda. The collectivization efforts in the 1930s led to the concentration of the reindeer herds in kolkhozes (collective farms), which, in turn, were further consolidated into a few large-scale state farms in the late 1950s–early 1970s.Costlow & Nelson, p.
He said that since the productive forces in China were "backward", the relations of production were at a comparable level. While believing industry in China had become the "ownership of the whole people", Xue said agriculture was lagging far behind, which required ending the practice of paying wages based on collective efforts, supporting the re-introduction of individual incentives and increasing state investments in agriculture. Xue's suggestions were abandoned at the 6th Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee held in June 1981 because they failed to solve the problems facing agriculture. From the 6th Plenary Session onwards, the CPC led by Wan Li began supporting the de-collectivization of agriculture.
These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific 'Marxism-Leninism' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective." This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry.
Animals grazing on the Mongolian steppe lands From prerevolutionary times until well into the 1970s, animal husbandry was the mainstay of the Mongolian economy. In the traditional economy, livestock provided foodstuffs and clothing; after the 1921 revolution, livestock supplied foodstuffs and raw materials for industries and for export. Mongolia had 9.6 million head of livestock in 1918 and 13.8 million head in 1924; arad ownership was estimated to be 50 to 80 percent of all livestock, and monastic and aristocratic ownership to be 50 to 20 percent. Policies designed to force collectivization in the early 1930s met with arad resistance, including the slaughter of their own animals.
The local Jewish population was murdered during the Holocaust; after the war, members of the local nobility as well as wealthier peasants and non-Ukrainians were either executed or deported to Siberia by the communists, where they perished in the gulags. Farmers were forced to hand over their land for collectivization. After the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 and the collapse of the local kolkhoz, high unemployment forced many, especially young people, to leave for larger towns in flights of urbanization. The 2001 national census counted 164 inhabitants, and in 2009 the village consisted of around 40 houses, down from 300 in the past.
GDP trend from 1952 to 2015 From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet- style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses.
They were deemed exploiters of the people for hiring labour, which became a monopoly right claimed by the communist state. By bringing in Kaganovich in 1947 it is an indication that Stalin wanted someone who was a hardliner against the kurkuli that was already experienced in collectivization and repressive measures against farmers that were being imposed at the time and was willing to implement them ruthlessly. This makes Stalin, Khrushchev, and Kaganovich the main communist leaders responsible for the famine in Ukraine in 1946–47. During the 1920s in Ukraine Khrushchev had been rapidly promoted by Kaganovich through various senior posts and had been his protégé.
The Central Committee of the Polish Workers' Party decided in September 1948 to collectivize Polish farms, acting on the June 20, 1948 Bucharest resolution of the Cominform, which stipulated that collectivization should start in all Communist countries.CENA WYGRANEJ, Biuletyn IPN - nr 1/2002 In July 1948, during a Politburo meeting, the Minister of Industry and Commerce, Hilary Minc, gave a speech on private ownership in the Polish economy. Referring to Lenin's notion of the "permanent rebirth of capitalism", Minc announced the transformation of the Polish economy into a socialist one. The process of restructuring Polish agriculture was officially presented as protection for small farmers, whose position the rich kulaks allegedly endangered.
Despite widespread use of force, by 1951 only 2200 cooperatives operated in Poland - they occupied only 0.8% of arable land, and had some 23,000 members. The cooperatives were divided into groups, such as Associations of Land Cultivation (Zrzeszenia Uprawy Ziemi, ZUZ), which kept private ownership of tools and machines, and Farmer’s Cooperative Teams (Rolnicze Zespoły Spółdzielcze, RZS), in which both land and machines were collective. Most members of these cooperatives were poor peasants, who had received land during the land reforms of 1944 - 1948. Since the Polish peasantry mostly opposed giving up their land, in June 1952 several repressive measures were introduced against those who resisted collectivization.
He was one of the main organizers of collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which caused the death by starvation of millions of people. On 7 September 1937 he was arrested, and on 27 October 1937 sentenced to death on charges of participating in a counterrevolutionary terrorist organization and executed. In 1956 Khatayevich was rehabilitated and restored in the party. In a ruling on 13 January 2010 the Court of Appeal for Kyiv City found Khatayevich and other long-dead Bolshevik leaders Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Pavel Postyshev, Stanislav Kosior and Vlas Chubar guilty of "organizing genocide of the Ukrainian ethnic group".
Territorial losses of Finland to Soviet Union in conclusion to World War II; Porkkala was returned in 1956. During World War II, Stalin severely suppressed the native Finnish-speaking population (Ingrian Finns) by population transfers, collectivization and purges, such that border zones were to be free of Finnish peoples. The land border was later demarcated in the Treaty of Paris (1947) following the Continuation War (1941–44), in which Finnish Karelia, including Finland's second-largest city Vyborg, parts of Salla and Petsamo were ceded to the Soviet Union. The new border cut through Finnish territory proper, severing many rail lines and isolating many Karelian towns from Finland.
In July 1929, it remained official Soviet policy that the kulaks should not be terrorized and should be enlisted into the collective farms. However, Stalin disagreed: > Now we have the opportunity to carry out a resolute offensive against the > kulaks, break their resistance, eliminate them as a class and replace their > production with the production of kolkhozes and sovkhozes. A decree by the Central Committee on January 5, 1930 was titled "On the pace of collectivization and state assistance to collective-farm construction." Andrei Suslov argues that the seizure of peasants' property led directly to the destruction of an entire social group: the peasant‐owners.
By 1924, the year of Lenin's death, Nikolai Bukharin had become the foremost supporter of the New Economic Policy. The USSR abandoned NEP in 1928 after Joseph Stalin obtained a position of leadership during the Great Break. Stalin was initially noncommitted to the NEP; as early as 1918 Stalin was quoted calling it "...the beginning of the planned reconstruction of the outmoded social-economic system in a new socialist manner". Stalin then enacted a system of collectivization during the Grain Procurement Crisis of 1928 and saw the need to quickly accumulate capital for the vast industrialization programme introduced with the Five Year Plans starting in 1928.
The Mongolian People's Army Aviation drastically improved with Soviet training and vastly ameliorated within a time span of several years. In May 1925, a Junkers F.13 entered service as the first aircraft in Mongolian civil and military-related aviation. In March 1931, the Soviet Union donated three Polikarpov R-1s to the Mongolian People's Army, with Mongolia further purchasing three R-1s.沃尔格空气热心1996年11月/12月,第18-19页。 In 1932, an uprising broke out against Collectivization, which saw both Soviet and Mongolian-operated R-1s taking part in actions against the rebellion.
He was released on 17 January 1931 and allowed to re-join the party, but remained silently opposed to Stalin's regime. At the beginning of the 30s, against the backdrop of forced collectivization, widespread famine and mass deportation, the opposition to the Stalinist course strengthened within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Opposition currents began to reappear, such as the underground organization of Ivan Smirnov and a group formed by Georgy Safarov, Nikolai Uglanov. Even new illegal entities started appearing, such as the group formed by Sergey Syrtsov and Vissarion Lominadze and another formed by Aleksandr Petrovich Smirnov, Nikolai Borisovich Eismont and Vladimir Tolmachyov..
The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) has been responsible for hundreds of attacks on government and civilian targets. After the United People's Front of Nepal (UPF)'s Maoist wing, CPN-M, performed poorly in elections and was excluded from the 1994 election, the Maoists turned to insurgency. They aimed to overthrow Nepal's monarchy and parliamentary democracy, and to change Nepalese society, including a purge of the nation's elite class, a state takeover of private industry, and collectivization of agriculture. In Nepal, attacks against civilian populations occurred as part of Maoist strategy, leading Amnesty International to state: > The CPN (Maoist) has consistently targeted private schools, which it > ideologically opposes.
In 1981 the government structure included four Khmer Loeu province chiefs, all reportedly from the Brao group, in the northeastern provinces of Mondulkiri, Ratanakiri, Stung Treng, and Preah Vihear. According to a 1984 resolution of the PRK National Cadres Conference entitled "Policy Toward Ethnic Minorities," the minorities were considered an integral part of the Cambodian nation, and they were to be encouraged to participate in collectivization. Government policy aimed to transform minority groups into modern Cambodians. The same resolution called for the elimination of illiteracy, with the stipulations that minority languages be respected and that each tribe be allowed to write, speak, and teach in its own language.
As in most memoirs of political detention, the book follows the classic structure of arrest, interrogation under torture, show trial, sentencing, temporary prison, and the final destination of a prison or labor camp. In 1959, a friend and former university colleague, Dumitru Filip, receives critiques during a Workers Youth Union meeting. In response, he hands over to the secret police a number of letters, written by those who criticized him and not only, some years old, in which they spoke about the communist abuse during collectivization, the lying ongoing propaganda and intellectual quality of the communist officials. In this age, this was a very compromising material.
An overwhelming majority of more than 100 monasteries followed and still follow the teachings of the various Kagyupa schools, with some of their sub-sects only found in this part of Tibet. The Sakyapa were and are also strong in Yushu, with many of their 32 monasteries being among the most significant in Kham. The Nyingmapa’s monastic institutions amount to about the same number, while the Bönpo are only met with in one lamasery they share with the Nyingmapa. Prior to collectivization in 1958, the entire monastic population of present-day Yushu TAP amounted to more than 25,000 Buddhist monks and nuns, with approximately 300 incarnate lamas among them.
From its heyday in the 19th and early 20th century, the Tibetan carpet industry fell into serious decline in the second half of the 20th. The illegal Chinese invasion of Tibet that began in 1959 was later exacerbated by land collectivization that enabled rural people to obtain a livelihood without weaving, and reduced the power of the landholding monasteries. Many of the aristocratic families who formerly organized the weaving fled to India and Nepal during this period, along with their money and management expertise. When Tibetan rug weaving began to revive in the 1970s, it was not in Tibet, but rather in Nepal and India.
A body of 200 police officers, commanded by the Minister of Public Order of the Government of Catalonia, Eusebio Rodríguez Salas, went to the Telefónica central exchange and presented itself at the censorship department located on the second floor, with the intention of taking control of the building. The anarchists saw this as a provocation, since Telefónica was legally occupied by an anarcho-syndicalist committee, according to a decree about collectivization from the Generalitat itself. Rodríguez Salas, on his part, had authorization from the head of internal affairs of the regional government, Artemi Aiguader i Miró. The anarchist workers opened fire from the second floor landing of the censorship department.
The kulaks were divided into three categories: those to be executed for treason or imprisoned as decided by the local secret political police; those to be exiled for treason to Siberia, North, the Urals, or Kazakhstan, after determined to be traitors the government confiscation of their property occurred ; and those considered traitors or where guilty of terrorism to be evicted from their houses and used in labour colonies within their own districts. The combination of the elimination of kulaks, collectivization, and other repressive policies contributed to mass starvation in many parts of the Soviet Ukraine and the death of at least 7 to 10 million peasants in 1930–1937.
Speculative prices of food in the cooperative network (5–10 times more compared to neighboring Soviet republics) brought significant peasant "travel for bread", while attempts to handle the situation had very limited success. The quota on carried-on foods provision was lifted by Stalin (at Kosior's request) at the end of May 1932. The July GPU reports for the first half of 1932 mentioned the "difficulties with food" in 127 out of 484 rayons and acknowledged the incompleteness of the information for the regions. The decree of Sovnarkom on "Kolkhoz Trade" issued in May fostered rumors amongst peasants that collectivization was rolled back again, as it had been in spring 1930.
Dovzhenko's Earth has been praised as one of the greatest silent movies ever made. The British film director Karel Reisz was asked in 2002 by the British Film Institute to rank the greatest films ever made, and he put Earth second. The film portrayed collectivization in a positive light. Its plot revolved around a landowner's attempt to ruin a successful collective farm as it took delivery of its first tractor, though it opened with a long close-up of an elderly, dying man taking intense pleasure in the taste of an apple - a scene with no obvious political message, but with some aspect of autobiography.
The CPC argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were "too little, too late, and too fast". While most CPC researchers criticize the CPSU's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as "Soviet totalitarianism". They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror, intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner- party dictatorship. Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the Party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non- Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture.
The combination of these tensions led the party leadership to conclude that it was necessary for the government's survival to pursue a new policy that would centralize economic activity and accelerate industrialization. To do this, the first five-year plan was implemented in 1928. The plan doubled the industrial workforce, proletarianizing many of the peasants by removing them from their land and assembling them into urban centers. Peasants who remained in agricultural work were also made to have a similarly proletarian relationship to their labor through the policies of collectivization, which turned feudal-style farms into collective farms which would be in a cooperative nature under the direction of the state.
This epic trilogy, telling the tragic story of three peasant families, became arguably the strongest statement against collectivization in the non-dissident Soviet literature, exploring what the author saw as the conflict between Russian rural traditionalism and the Bolsheviks-imposed 'rootlessness', the latter leading to chaos, mass murder and degradation. In 1989–1991 Belov published a series of children's books: The Old and the Small, The Little Spring fairytale and others. He started to get involved in the practical politics, first as the People's deputy, then (in 1991–1992) the member of the Supreme Soviet. In 1993–1995 the Sovremennik Publishers issued the first Complete Vasily Belov collection in five volumes.
Before the construction of a port with a city, the region was the site of a number of unorganized farmsteads and hamlets (khutir) that were collectively known as Buhovi khutory () that were located on agricultural lots of a local landowner Andriy Buhovyi. After establishing of the Soviet regime and "nationalization" and collectivization of the area, in 1927 the settlement was renamed into Illichivskyi Khutir. In 1952 a port was established, and its surrounding territory was urbanized and converted into a city of Illichivsk. The city was designed to become a new home for the Black Sea Shipping Company (then the largest passenger and commercial vessel operator in the world).
Stalin now promoted a new general line favouring collectivization of the peasantry and rapid industrialization of industry forcing Bukharin and his supporters into a Right Opposition. At the Central Committee meeting held in July 1928, Bukharin and his supporters argued that Stalin's new policies would cause a breach with the peasantry. Bukharin also alluded to Lenin's Testament. While Bukharin had support from the party organization in Moscow and the leadership of several commisariats Stalin's control of the secretariat was decisive in that it allowed Stalin to manipulate elections to party posts throughout the country giving him control over a large section of the Central Committee.
" Throughout his political career, he made criticism whenever overt leftist tendency arose within the Party. Even though his adherence to Bukharin's interpretation of Lenin's "Cooperative Plan" set himself against Mao Zedong, who followed Stalin's way of collectivization, and caused constant fluctuations in terms of his political career, Zhang never seized to speak up. He also devoted his entire life studying the economic issues. Jiang Zemin said in his letter to Zhang Wentian's wife Liu Ying in August 1990: "With his firm unwavering belief in communism, his generous heart as a politician and the cautious demeanor as a scholar, he adhered to the truth for the benefit of the people.
Although developmental debates took place within the Workers' Party of Korea in the 1950s, North Korea, like all the postwar communist states, undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods. The first Three Year Plan (1954–1956) introduced the concept of Juche or self-reliance. The first Five Year Plan (1957-1961) consolidated the collectivization of agriculture and initiated mass mobilizations campaigns: the Chollima Movement, the Chongsan-ni system in agriculture and the Taean Work System in industry. The Chollima Movement was influenced by China's Great Leap Forward, but did not have its disastrous results.
Kantůrková garnered success as a writer with the 1967 publication of her first novel, The Funeral, which explored the death of a farmer caused by communist collectivization in the 1950s. From the late 1970s to the 90s, she wrote two collections of short stories and a trilogy of novels centering on political disappointment and disillusionment. Her other writing from the period, the novel The Master in the Tower and a historical work on Jan Hus, focused on the struggle between communism and Christianity. Kantůrková has continued to publish her memoirs and diaries, including the 1999 and 2000 diaries that she wrote in an effort to cope with her husband's death.
During the 1950s the government of the new People's Republic made a concerted effort to redistribute land more equitably. Although many peasants owned part or all of the small holdings they farmed before 1949, tenancy was common, especially in south China. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) implemented land reforms in areas under its control even before 1949, and subsequently landlords and wealthy peasants became targets of party attack. Their elimination as a class was a major aim of the land reform movement begun under the Agrarian Reform Law of June 28, 1950. Collectivization of agriculture, which was accomplished in several stages, began about 1952.
In pursuit of the last goal, the party work teams convened extensive series of meetings, and they classified all the village families either as landlords, rich peasants, middle peasants, or poor peasants. These labels, based on family landholdings and overall economic position roughly between 1945 and 1950, became a permanent and hereditary part of every family's identity and, as late as 1980, still affected, for example, such things as chances for admission to the armed forces, colleges, universities, and local administrative posts and even marriage prospects. The collectivization of agriculture was essentially completed with the establishment of the people's communes in 1958. Communes were large, embracing scores of villages.
Peasants tried to protest through peaceful means by speaking out at collectivization meetings and writing letters to the central authorities. The peasants argued with the collectors, they wrote letters to their children in the military and they even sowed less grain. The party officials tried to promise the peasants farming equipment (specifically tractors) and tax breaks if they would conform to the collective farm model (kolkhozes) but the party officials were unable to meet the promises they made due to the low industrial output. Essentially the tractors that they were promising could not be produced due to the massive issues in the Industrial sector of the Soviet Union.
The most popular account of the Morozov story is as follows: born to poor peasants in Gerasimovka, a small village north-east of Sverdlovsk, Morozov was a dedicated communist who led the Young Pioneers at his school, and supported Stalin's collectivization of farms. In 1932, at age 13, Morozov reported his father to the political police (GPU). Morozov's father, the Chairman of the Village Soviet or Selsoviet, was alleged to have been "forging documents and selling them to the bandits and enemies of the Soviet State" (as his sentence read). The elder Morozov, Trofim, was sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp, and later executed.
The area was once located in the suburbs of the seat of the State of Yan of the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, hence the town's name. Before the establishment of the People's Republic, the area was administered by Tong County (present-day Tongzhou District), then in 1950 was ceded to Sanhe County; from 1958 to 1961, as part of the greater collectivization of agriculture, it was a part of Hongxing People's Commune (); 1962 saw Hongxing being split into three smaller communes, amongst them Yanjiao itself. Economic reforms led to the abolishing of the commune and the establishment of Yanjiao as a town in March 1983.
During a process of collectivization of land, Orthodox priests distributed pamphlets declaring that the Soviet regime was the Antichrist coming to place "the Devil's mark" on the peasants, and encouraged them to resist the government. Political repression in the Soviet Union was widespread and while religious persecution was applied to numerous religions, the regime's anti-religious campaigns were often directed against specific religions based on state interests. The attitude in the Soviet Union toward religion varied from persecution of some religions to not outlawing others. From the late 1920s to the late 1930s, such organizations as the League of Militant Atheists ridiculed all religions and harassed believers.
The first five year plans, intensive industrialization and militarization programs in the USSR required educated human resources and many Jews were able to find employment. On the other hand, collectivization in the USSR resulted in the failure of Soviet agriculture and many starving peasants of all ethnic backgrounds found escape in cities. By the mid-1930s, the OZET had lost its usefulness. In 1937, its leadership and ranks were decimated in the Great Purge and in May 1938 the agency was liquidated by special order by the Central Committee of the CPSU as a "corner of various counter-revolutionary Bundist elements, turncoats and spies".
A day before the official signing of the European Defence Community, the Soviet Union sent a third note, on May 24, 1952. In that note, Stalin criticized the creation of the EDC (which according to the Germany Treaty, should be in effect even after the reunification), and accused the Western Powers of delaying the negotiations for a peace treaty. In addition, the all-German government must remain under the control of the occupying powers at the treaty negotiations. On their part, the West on July 10, 1952, criticized the centralization, the collectivization and the changes in the justice system of the GDR which the SED had previously passed.
Home of Gamsakhurdia in Tbilisi After the suppression of the 1924 anti-Soviet uprising in Georgia, Gamsakhurdia was excluded from the Tbilisi State University where he taught German literature. Soon was arrested and deported to the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea where he was to spend a few years. On his release, Gamsakhurdia was forced to keep silence. On the verge of suicide, the writer fought his depression by translating Dante. Early in the 1930s, he obtained Lavrentiy Beria's protection and was able to resume writing, with an attempt at "socialist" novel Stealing the Moon (მთვარის მოტაცება, 1935-6), a story of love and collectivization in Abkhazia.
Nikolay Smorchkov was born on August 9, 1930 in the village of Ivankovo, Gavrilovo- Posadsky District, in a large family peasant family named Gavril Ivanovich and Pelageya MatveyevnaНиколай Гаврилович Сморчков. Биография.. In 1933, fleeing Collectivization, the family moved to the village of Orgtrud, which was not far from Vladimir (now the district of the city)Mаэстро эпизода советского кинематографа. Being still in the 7th grade, the future actor caught a movie and decided to become a film actor. After graduation Smorchkov came to Moscow and entered the VGIK (course of Sergei Gerasimov and Tamara Makarova), where he had to deal specially to remove his accenting accent.
Thousands of inhabitants of the East German border region were expelled en masse in 1952 in an action, codenamed Operation Vermin (Aktion Ungeziefer), intended to rid the border villages of so-called "unreliable elements". In 1961, rumours of a new wave of mass expulsions began circulating in Böseckendorf. Many inhabitants, particularly farmers who had resisted the forced collectivization policies of the GDR regime, feared that they were on Stasi blacklists of those slated for expulsion. On the night of 2 October 1961, 53 people from twelve families – 16 men, 14 women and 23 children – fled from Böseckendorf across the border without being detected by the East German border guards.
In their fight for human rights and independence, Tibetans have routinely used the most visible form of resistance also known as streets demonstrations. In response to attempts by China to stamp out what they consider as general public disorder, Tibetans adopted a strategy of de-collectivization. Indeed, through personal actions such as wearing traditional clothes, eating Tibetan food, listening to Tibetan radio, teaching their native language at home, many Tibetans began to use their individual space to assert a cultural identity that they consider to have been suppressed for decades. In a politically charged period, cultural rituals became political actions, because they gave Tibetan people a non-Chinese identity.
The newly-elected People's Seimas met on July 21 with only one piece of business–a resolution declaring Lithuania a Soviet republic and petitioning for admission to the Soviet Union, which carried unanimously. The Soviet Union duly "approved" the request on August 3. Since then, Soviet sources have maintained that Lithuania's petition to join the Soviet Union marked the culmination of a Lithuanian socialist revolution, and thus represented the legitimate desire of the Lithuanian people to join the Soviet Union. The Soviet authorities undertook Sovietization policies: nationalization of all private property, collectivization of agriculture, suppression of the Catholic Church, and the imposition of totalitarian control.
The most popular account of the story is as follows: Born to poor peasants in Gerasimovka, a small village north-east of Yekaterinburg (then known as Sverdlovsk), Morozov was a dedicated communist who led the Young Pioneers at his school and supported Stalin's collectivization of farms. In 1932, at the age of 13, Morozov reported his father to the political police (GPU). Supposedly, Morozov's father, Trofim, the chairman of the Gerasimovka Village Soviet, had been "forging documents and selling them to the bandits and enemies of the Soviet State" (as the sentence read). Trofim Morozov was sentenced to 10 years in a labour camp, where his sentence was changed to death, which was fulfilled.
Except for a few nobles, the Abkhaz did not participate in the 1924 August Uprising in Georgia, a last desperate attempt to restore the independence of Georgia from the Soviet Union. During the Stalin years, a purge was carried out against Communist Party officials and intelligentsia of Abkhaz provenance on the orders of Lavrentiy Beria, then-the Party Secretary in Transcaucasus and himself a native of Abkhazia, in order to break a resistance to forced collectivization of land. The Abkhaz party leader Lakoba suddenly died shortly after his visit to Beria in Tbilisi in December 1936. There was a strong suspicion that he was poisoned by Beria who declared Lakoba an "enemy of the people" posthumously.
Around 100,000 ethnic German citizens were allowed to sell their land and property and leave the Baltic counties, and if they were racially acceptable, were resettled in Poland and given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous possessions. By creating large numbers of small, nonviable farms, the Soviet regime intended to weaken the institution of private landholding so that later collectivization, a program of agricultural consolidation that was undertaken in the USSR a decade earlier, could be presented as an efficient alternative. The Red Army quickly absorbed the military forces of the Baltic states. Soviet security forces such as the NKVD, imposed strict censorship and press control.
Stalin's brutal methods in achieving his goals, which included party purges, political repression of the general population, and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in Gulag labor camps, during the man-made famine, and during forced resettlements of population. World War II, known as "the Great Patriotic War" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union. After World War II the Soviet Union's armies occupied Central and Eastern Europe, where socialist governments took power. By 1949 the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern (Soviet) Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact pitched against NATO in Europe.
The old guards were replaced with new ones, adapted to the new society, the detention regime got rougher, beatings and torture during inquiry became common practice, together with mock trials. At first, the main target during the investigation were members of the Iron Guard and of former historical parties. Later, they were joined by those who opposed collectivization, who tried to illegally cross the border, members of resistance and, generally, opposers of the regime, even in nonviolent ways. Mircea Stănescu asserts that the communist regime did not consider imprisonment as a form of penitence, but a method of elimination from the social and political life, and, eventually, as a political reeducation environment.
Village and the city, in 2010 Before the area was urbanized, the process of economic development in Shipai could be divided into three phrases: Before agrarian reform; agrarian reform; collectivization of agriculture. Before agrarian reform, Shipai developed in a healthy path due to its excellent geographical environment, agricultural history as well as strong influence from the city. In the early years of Kuomintang’s governance (1928–1936), economy boosted in Canton, villagers received good harvest and had a good deal. Then because of the invasion and occupation of Japanese armies, production was encumbered, houses were damaged, economy went into a tail spin. In 1946, one year after the war, Shipai was rebuilt with the help of UNRRA.
Various ethnic groups tended to stick together for the reasons of common language, traditions, customs, and religious beliefs. This led to the establishment of villages populated mostly by the members of a single ethnic group; for example, Sterlitamak was predominantly Tatar, Vostok was a village of the Chuvash people, while Vorobyovka was populated by the Mordvins. The second wave of migrants rushed in during the late 1920s, as the area was subject to collectivization on a lesser scale than other regions of the country. New migrants usually moved with their fellow countrymen who had already been well- settled in the area and were able to provide the newcomers with support and assistance.
Nedelciu was born in the semi-urban locality of Fundulea, Călăraşi County, where his parents Ştefan and Maria worked in agricultureSanda Cordoş, Mircea Nedelciu: A Brief Introduction, at Observator Cultural, The Observer Translation Project; retrieved June 27, 2009 Alex. Ştefănescu, "Mircea Nedelciu" , in România Literară, Nr. 6/2002 (Nedelciu's father was also employed by the House of Savings, a state-run bank). The couple's resistance to forced collectivization had engendered political repercussions, and impacted on the family's standing: Nedelciu's older sister was expelled from university for one year. The family was also periodically harassed by the communist authorities after their son-in-law decided to cross the Iron Curtain, settling in the United States.
With the change in values imposed by communist ideology, the tradition of preservation of cultural heritage was broken. Independent preservation societies, even those that defended only secular landmarks such as Moscow-based OIRU were disbanded by the end of the 1920s. A new anti-religious campaign, launched in 1929, coincided with collectivization of peasants; destruction of churches in the cities peaked around 1932. In 1937 several letters were written to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to rename Moscow to "Stalindar" or "Stalinodar", one from an elderly pensioner whose dream was to "live in Stalinodar" and had selected the name to represent the "gift" (dar) of the genius of Stalin.
In the context of the civil war, the orange market was a very important income from foreign exchange, for those who managed to control it. For this reason, the central government was not in favor of collectivization, since it meant leaving a large number of currencies in the hands of the unions, but rather favored following the usual path of an export controlled by individual companies, coordinated only by international markets. Thus, the Republican parties, the Government, and the Communist Party defended the maintenance of freedom of export under certain government control. In contrast, the UGT and CNT were in favor of collectivizing all exports, in order to avoid the flight of foreign currency.
Professor of comparative economic systems Steven Rosefielde states that most deaths came from state action, not the poor harvest. In his 2009 book Red Holocaust, he writes that: > There was a famine (widespread health-impairing food shortage) 1932–33 > caused by two bad harvests in 1931 and 1932 attributable partly to > collectivization and partly to weather (although Kondrashin and Penner > contest the explanation), but it didn’t cause the killings. Grain supplies > were sufficient to sustain everyone if properly distributed. People died > mostly of terror-starvation (excess grain exports, seizure of edibles from > the starving, state refusal to provide emergency relief, bans on > outmigration, and forced deportation to food-deficit locales), not poor > harvests and routine administrative bungling.
The OZET was headed by Old Bolsheviks: Yuri Larin, and later Semyon Dimanstein, and its board included such figures as Solomon Mikhoels and Vladimir Mayakovsky. According to Jewish historian Zvi Gitelman: "Never before in Russian history—and never subsequently has a government made such an effort to uproot and stamp out antisemitism." By contrast with the situation after the beginning of forced collectivization and breakneck industrialization at the end of the 1920s, the New Economic Policy of 1921–1928 also offered economic opportunities to Soviet Jewish traders and artisans. Because most non-Jewish capitalists had fled during the civil war, Jews played a disproportionate role among the 'Nepmen' who constituted the private sector in the 1920s.
Ma Bufang continued to exert "influence" on the insurgent KMT Muslim leaders. The CCP allowed Ma Bufang's loyalists to go free after taking them prisoner in their takeover of Qinghai, to demonstrate humane behaviour. When Ma Bufang's now free loyalists proceeded to take up arms and revolt, this move turned out to be a major blunder. Former Ma Bufang loyalist Salar fighters were led by Han Yimu, a Salar who had been an officer under Ma Bufang. Han led a revolt from 1951–52 and continued to wage guerilla warfare until joining the major revolt of Salars and Qinghai (Amdo) Tibetans against collectivization in 1958, in which he was captured and executed.
This resulted in a turn of the revolutionary process to the political left, with the main sectors of the economy, such as the banks, transportation, steel mills, mines and communications companies, being nationalized. This was done under the lead of Vasco Gonçalves, a member of the military wing who supported the party and who had become prime minister of Portugal after the first provisional government resigned. The Party then asserted its complete support for these changes and for the Agrarian Reform process that implemented collectivization of the agricultural sector and the land in a region called the Zone of Intervention of the Agrarian Reform (ZIRA), which included the land south of the Tagus River.
The opening of the Riga–Daugavpils Railway in 1861 led to the expansion of the town around the railway station Ringmundhofa later named Rembate. The town was entirely destroyed in World War I but was swiftly rebuilt after Latvia achieved independence. After the occupation of Latvia and its incorporation into the Soviet Union as the Latvian SSR, Edgars Kauliņš (1903–1979), the local Communist Party secretary, was able to save all of the farmers in the district from deportation during the period of forced collectivization, declaring that there were no kulaks in the area and he would rather be deported himself. In 1948 Kauliņš became the founding chairman of the kolkhoz Lāčplēsis ("The Bear Slayer"), now part of Lielvārde.
In mid-1950, Moghioroș replaced Pauker to become party supervisor of the Agriculture Ministry's agrarian section. A year earlier, at a politburo discussion, he was the only member who did not grant even token acknowledgment to the idea that collectivization should happen gradually or cautiously, condemning the "opportunist-conciliatory line" as "non-Leninist, because we can't build socialism without collective farms". Once in charge, he sharply criticized Pauker's more lenient approach, holding nightly meetings with officials to decide on new collective farms and ordering a scaled-down plan for the spring be accelerated during the summer of 1950.Robert Levy, Ana Pauker: the Rise and Fall of a Jewish Communist, p.104.
After traveling to Ghana and Benin to study Africanisms with Lillian Ashcraft-Eason and Djisovi Ikukomi Eason. Robert Smith had visited the continent the previous year to complete studies in Ghana and Nigeria, in the same Africana Studies sponsored program. Coupled with Babacar M'Baye's roots in Dakar, Senegal and each of their abiding interests in Pan-Africanism, these events further fueled the early gestation period of the concept which would become Africana Cultures and Policy Studies. Sometime in October 2005, ACPSI addressed their paradigm first collective panel at the Association for the Study of African-American Life and History (ASALH) Conference in Pittsburgh and made plans from that point forward on continuing the collectivization and organization of the Institute.
Although the commissariat remained the controlling center, the regime established other organizations to deal directly with foreign partners in the buying and selling of goods. These organizations included state import and export offices, joint stock companies, specialized import and export corporations, trusts, syndicates, cooperative organizations, and mixed-ownership companies. The end of the NEP period, the beginning of the first five-year plan (1928–32), and the forced collectivization of agriculture beginning in 1929 marked the early Stalin era. The government restructured foreign trade operations according to Decree Number 358, issued in February 1930, which eliminated the decentralized, essentially private, trading practices of the NEP period and established a system of monopoly specialization.
He was visited by Louis Fischer, who recorded Rakovsky's determination not to submit to Stalin (contrasting his option with those of Radek, Yevgeni Preobrazhensky, Alexander Beloborodov and Ivar Smilga). Instead, Rakovsky incited further resistance to Stalinism, and issued a declaration of the united opposition; following this, he was sent to Barnaul, which he called a "hole in the barren cold ground". In another critical letter to the Party leadership (April 1930), he called for, among other things, the restoration of civil liberties, a reduction in the party apparatus, the return of Trotsky, and an end to forced collectivization. Little is known of Rakovsky's life between that moment and July 1932, the moment when he was allowed a medical leave.
George Orwell wrote of the nature of the new society that arose in the communities: Some of the most important communities in this respect were those of Alcañiz, Calanda, Alcorisa, Valderrobres, Fraga or Alcampel. Not only were the lands collectivized, but collective labours were also undertaken, like the retirement home in Fraga, the collectivization of some hospitals (such as in Barbastro or Binéfar), and the founding of schools such as the School of Anarchist Militants. These institutions would be destroyed by the Nationalist troops during the war. The committee held an extraordinary regional plenary session to protect the new rural organization, gathering all the union representatives from the supporting villages and backed by Buenaventura Durruti.
Early in Ordzhonikidze's tenure at the NKTP he witnessed the purging of Vissarion Lominadze . Lominadze, a fellow Georgian and an ally of Ordzhonikidze, had been expelled from the Party previously for his role in the Syrtsov-Lominadze Affair, where along with Sergei Syrtsov, he had been accused of "factionalism" in 1930, when the two had opposed collectivization of agriculture. After returning to Georgia, Lominadze was brought back into a leadership role by Ordzhonikidze, who helped him become the Party Secretary in Magnitogorsk. A wave of arrests of wreckers in January 1935 made Lominadze realize he would soon be targeted; to avoid this, he shot himself on 18 January, and died the next day.
Vlasov begins his letter with the commitment to "give an honest answer" to the question, why he "is stepping up against Bolshevism". Vlasov explains, that he fought in the ranks of the Soviet army because he believed that "the revolution would give the Russian people land, freedom and happiness", but he "realized that the victory of the Bolsheviks had brought the Russian people none of the things it had fought for during the Civil War years". Criticizing Stalin, Vlasov expresses his opposition to collectivization, political commissars and the purge of the Soviet army command in the 1930s. In Vlasov's opinion, "Bolshevism has fenced off the Russian people from Europe by an impenetrable wall".
Though the CNT tried to persuade the members of the middle class and small bourgeoisie to join the revolution, they were generally unwelcoming to the revolutionary changes wanting more than just expropriation of their businesses under force or threat of force and a worker's wage. Initially, the newly collectivized factories encountered various problems. CNT member Albert Pérez-Baró describes the initial economic confusion: In response to these problems, the Generalitat of Catalonia, backed by the CNT approved a decree on "Collectivization and Workers' Control" on 24 October 1936. Under this decree all firms with more than 100 workers were to be collectivized and those with 100 or less could be collectivized if a majority of workers agreed.
CNT officials lamented the "egotism" of the collectives, finding that the collectives were resistant to control (driven by fears that CNT officials would exploit them, which Seidman argues was not always an unreasonable fear). Due to wartime inflation and economic problems, the Republican government struggled to incentivise the collectives to follow their policies. The disillusioned middle classes soon found allies in the Communist party which was quite moderate in comparison to the CNT, was generally against the mass collectivization of the revolution and called for the property of smallholders and tradesmen to be respected. They defended the right of the small proprietor to hire laborers and to control the sale of his crops without interference from the local committees.
Chechen family from 1920 Since then, there have been various Chechen rebellions against Russian/Soviet power in 1865-66, 1877, during the Russian Civil War and World War II, as well as nonviolent resistance to Russification and the Soviet Union's collectivization and anti-religion campaigns. In 1944, all Chechens, together with several other peoples of the Caucasus, were ordered by the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to be deported en masse to the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs; and their republic and nation were abolished. At least one-quarter—and perhaps half—of the entire Chechen population perished in the process, and a severe blow was made to their culture and historical records.Jaimoukha p.
Duranty sometimes claimed that individuals being sent to the labor camps in the Russian North, Siberia, or Kazakhstan were given a choice between rejoining Soviet society or becoming underprivileged outsiders. However, he admitted that for those who could not accept the system, "the final fate of such enemies is death". Though describing the system as cruel, he stated that he had "no brief for or against it, nor any purpose save to try to tell the truth". He argued that the brutal collectivization campaign was motivated by the "hope or promise of a subsequent raising up" of Asian-minded masses in the Soviet Union that only history would be able to judge.
A typical Malinka's subject is Ukraine. Thematically, works belong to several groups, such as: Ukrainian history; the village of the Soviet epoch (which include portraiture); picturesque Ukrainian landscapes; and still life. Sometimes it is a whole story behind the canvas (such as “A Zaporozhian Hut at Supper”, “Kobzars” or “The Total Collectivization”), and sometimes his set-ups are simple, incorporating at most a tree, or an old hut, or a tractor on the collective farm's field. As usual, his simple pictures (such as “The Parental Hut”, “The Stacks under Snow”, “The Windmills”, and others) are painted in narrowed color palette; this is combined with a colorful imagination and a skillful brush, which obviously helps to create glowing masterpieces.
Genden served as one of three secretaries of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party's Central Committee from December 11, 1928 to June 30, 1932. Together with fellow secretaries Ölziin Badrakh and Bat-Ochiryn Eldev-Ochir (and later Zolbingiin Shijee) Genden pushed for rapid and forced implementation of socialist economic policies such as compulsory collectivization, the abolition of private enterprises and the closure of monasteries and the confiscation of church property. The policy proved disastrous as traditional herders were forced off the steppe and into badly managed collective farms, destroying one third of Mongolian livestock. Over 800 properties belonging to the nobility and the Buddhist church were confiscated and over 700 head of mostly noble households were executed.
Sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica say there was no physical basis for famine in Ukraine, and that Soviet authorities set quotas for Ukraine at exceedingly high levels. However Soviet archive data suggests the grain harvest was not as large as has been assumed, and the Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky, who lived through the period in question and was himself a victim of a Stalinist purge, described the famine as preceded by "a year of drought coincid[ing] with chaotic agricultural conditions." This suggests that the famine was caused by a combination of a severe drought, chaotic implementation of forced collectivization of farms, and the food requisition program carried out by the Soviet authorities.
Stalin's methods in achieving his goals, which included party purges, political repression of the general population, and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in Gulag labor camps and during famine. World War II, known as "the Great Patriotic War" by Soviet historians, devastated much of the USSR, with about one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Union's armies occupied Eastern Europe, where they established or supported Communist puppet governments. By 1949, the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern (Soviet) Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact (created 1955) pitched against NATO (created 1949) in Europe.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1992, Erdne joined the Dalai Lama on his first visit to Kalmykia, a region whose once-rich Buddhist heritage was destroyed in the 1930s by the dual Soviet policies of collectivization and atheism. Upon arrival, the Dalai Lama named Erdne as the Šajin (Supreme) Lama of the Kalmyk people. As the spiritual leader, Erdne's role was to lead a Buddhist revival among the approximately 160,000 Kalmyks who live in Kalmykia. As the only Kalmyk person with proper Buddhist training, Erdne soon determined that his responsibility as the Šajin Lama was too great a burden for he himself to bear as a 22-year-old.
In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin"a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state".
In 1958, Rudnytska's book, Боротьба за правду про Великий Голод (Fighting for the truth about the Great Famine) took the stance that the famine was a result of organized pressure by the Kremlin to "fracture Ukrainian peasants using collectivization to curb the rebellious Ukrainian people". In the interwar period, Rudnytska was one of the strongest voices in the Ukrainian women's movement. When Hitler came to power in 1933, she evaluated the changes which almost immediately were made restricting women's lives. Laws passed by the Third Reich barred women from employment in the civil service, enacted quotas for the number of women who had access to higher education, refused women admittance to the legal profession, among other changes.
The Central Committee (CC) composition was elected at the 17th Congress, and sat from 10 February 1934 until 22 March 1939. Its 1st Plenary Session renewed the composition of the Politburo, Secretariat and the Orgburo of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The 17th Congress was labelled the "Congress of Victors" to mark the success of the first five-year plan and the collectivization of agriculture. The CC 1st Plenary Session elected Joseph Stalin General Secretary of the Central Committee, and Lazar Kaganovich continued to serve as Stalin's deputy, an informal post referred to by Sovietologists as Second Secretary, and was empowered to manage party business and sign Politburo resolutions when Stalin was away from Moscow.
Fishing hut on the Tonle Sap Agricultural fields in the Kampong Cham province, aerial Collectivization of the agricultural sector under the Heng Samrin regime included the formation of solidarity groups. As small aggregates of people living in the same locality, known to one another, and able to a certain extent to profit collectively from their work, they were an improvement over the dehumanized, forced-labor camps and communal life of the Pol Pot era. The organization of individuals and families into solidarity groups also made sense in the environment of resource-poor, post-war Cambodia. People working together in this way were able to offset somewhat the shortages of manpower, draft animals, and farm implements.
Village Prose (, or Деревенская литература) was a movement in Soviet literature beginning during the Khrushchev Thaw, which included works that focused on the Soviet rural communities. Some point to the critical essays on collectivization in Novyi mir by Valentin Ovechkin as the starting point of Village Prose, though most of the subsequent works associated with the genre are fictional novels and short stories.Kathleen Parthe, Russian Village Prose: The Radiant Past, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ: 1992 (p151) Authors associated with Village Prose include Aleksander Yashin, Vasily Belov, Fyodor Abramov, Valentin Rasputin, Boris Mozhayev, Vasily Shukshin. Some critics also count Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn among the Village Prose writers for his short novel Matryona's House.
He also charged Kim with rewriting history to appear as if his guerrilla faction had single-handedly liberated Korea from the Japanese, completely ignoring the assistance of the Chinese People's Volunteers. In addition, Li stated that in the process of agricultural collectivization, grain was being forcibly confiscated from the peasants, leading to "at least 300 suicides" and that Kim made nearly all major policy decisions and appointments himself. Li reported that over 30,000 people were in prison for completely unjust and arbitrary reasons as trivial as not printing Kim Il- sung's portrait on sufficient quality paper or using newspapers with his picture to wrap parcels. Grain confiscation and tax collection were also conducted forcibly with violence, beatings, and imprisonment.
In response, Zhang Wentian ordered newspapers in Hejiang area not to reproduce the experience of violent land reform, and to protect Hejiang's commerce and industry, and Zhang drafted the "Directive on the Protection of Business and Industry in Distinguishing the Land. Zhang strongly objected to forceful collectivization and proposed to the Party that the emphasis should be in encouraging rural production, rather than class struggle.Kong, "Get Organized,” p. 174. In May 1948, Zhang Wentian served as a minister of the Standing Committee and Organization Department of the Northeast Bureau of the CPC Central Committee and deputy director of the Northeast Financial and Economic Committee.程中原. 张闻天传. p. 341.
Although best remembered as the author and editor of a series of paperback academic textbooks targeted at university undergraduates, Daniel contributed two important works of history during the decade of the 1960s. In The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia, Daniels revisited the origins of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in Russia, depicting the Bolshevik organization as a multi-tendency organization from its inception through the assertion of full control by Joseph Stalin during the collectivization campaign of 1929. "Fundamental changes were taking place in the movement during these years," Daniels argued, and therefore "present-day Communism must accordingly be regarded as the evolutionary product of circumstances."Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution, pg. 3.
Former Home Army commander Emil August Fieldorf was subjected to several years of brutal persecution in the Soviet Union and Poland before being executed in February 1953, just before Stalin's death. Resistance to the Soviet and native Stalinists was widespread among not only the general population but also the PZPR ranks, which limited the oppressive system's damage in Poland to well below that of other European communist-ruled countries. According to Norman Davies, political violence after 1947 was not widespread. The Church, subjected to partial property confiscations, remained largely intact, the marginalized to a considerable degree intelligentsia retained its potential to affect future reforms, the peasantry avoided wholesale collectivization and remnants of private enterprise survived.
As the chaos faded and the Soviet Union's position became more secure, many Russian Germans simply took advantage of the end of the fighting to emigrate to the Americas. Emigration from the Soviet Union came to a halt in 1929 by Stalin's decree, leaving roughly one million Russian Germans within Soviet borders. The Soviet Union seized the farms and businesses of Russian Germans, along with all other farms and businesses, when Stalin ended Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy in 1929 and began the forced collectivization of agriculture and liquidation of large land holdings. Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 1924-1941 Nonetheless, Soviet nationalities policy had, to some degree, restored the institutions of Russian Germans in some areas.
Works of print such as the press, advertisements, product labels, and books were censored by Glavlit, an agency established on June 6, 1922, to safeguard top secret information from foreign entities. From 1932 until 1952, the promulgation of socialist realism was the target of Glavlit in bowdlerizing works of print, while anti-Westernization and nationalism were common tropes for that goal. To limit peasant revolts over collectivization, themes involving shortages of food were expunged. In the 1932 book Russia Washed in Blood, a Bolshevik's harrowing account of Moscow's devastation from the October Revolution contained the description, "frozen rotten potatoes, dogs eaten by people, children dying out, hunger," but was promptly deleted.Ermolaev, Herman (1997). Censorship in Soviet Literature (1917-1991).
The neoclassical Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg With the change in values imposed by communist ideology, the tradition of preservation was broken. Independent preservation societies, even those that defended only secular landmarks such as Moscow-based OIRU were disbanded by the end of the 1920s. A new anti-religious campaign, launched in 1929, coincided with collectivization of peasants; destruction of churches in the cities peaked around 1932. A number of churches were demolished, including the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow. In Moscow alone losses of 1917–2006 are estimated at over 640 notable buildings (including 150 to 200 listed buildings, out of a total inventory of 3,500) – some disappeared completely, others were replaced with concrete replicas.
Upon Postyshev's arrival in Ukraine he was elected second secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine and first secretary of the Kharkiv city and Kharkiv Oblast Party organizations. From July 1934 to January 1937 he was in charge of the Kyiv Oblast Party organization. As second secretary he was nominally subordinate to First Secretary Stanislav Kosior, but his appointment by Stalin effectively gave him supreme power. Postyshev's mission in Ukraine was to eliminate any remaining opposition to Stalin by purging all traces of "nationalist deviation" from the Party, to end the cultural policy of Ukrainization, and to bring collectivization to completion at any cost.Paul Robert Magocsi (1996), p 567, Subtelny (1998), p 418.
Each time one quota was met, it was revised and made larger. Unions were being shut down which meant workers were no longer allowed to strike and not be protected from being fired or dismissed from work for reasons such as being late or just missing a day.left Secondly, many western historians point to collectivization as a cause of the large-scale famine in the Soviet Union between 1932 and 1933 in which 3.3 to 7.5 million died. These famines were among the worst in history and created scars which would mark the Soviet Union for many years to come and incense a deep hatred of Russians by Ukrainians, Tatars, and many other ethnic groups.
As the sex industry has grown and become a more established sector of national economies, sex workers—strippers included—have mobilized to negotiate or demand workplace rights. One means of collectivization pursued by strippers is the formation of labor unions, which involves formal membership. These strippers' unions have tended to focus on economic and workers' rights rather than civil rights, which constitutes a significant departure from the advocacy groups for prostitutes' rights that began in the 1970s and 1980s. PDF The stigma attached to sex work also creates another obstacle to organization because many strippers and other types of sex workers are uncomfortable with declaring their profession publicly, even in a movement to improve their work environment and benefits.
Prior to the 1920s, Hilferding declared that capitalism had evolved beyond what had been laissez-faire capitalism into what he called organized capitalism. Organized capitalism was based upon trusts and cartels controlled by financial institutions that could no longer make profit within their countries' national boundaries and therefore needed to export to survive, resulting in support for imperialism. Hilferding described that while early capitalism promoted itself as peaceful and based on free trade, the era of organized capitalism was aggressive and said that "in the place of humanity there came the idea of the strength and power of the state". He said that this had the consequence of creating effective collectivization within capitalism and had prepared the way for socialism.
The mass deportation of the Germans was based on social and ethnic criteria, the German Russian settlements probably suffered more than any other communities. About 1.2 percent of the Soviet population was classified as kulak and deported to the Gulag (slave labour camps), based on a total Soviet population of 147 million, according to the 1926 census. The number of ethnic Germans sent to the camps as kulaks was about 50,000 out of a German population in the Soviet Union at the time of the same census of 1.239 million, that is, about 4 percent of the German population. The Germans were not the only ethnic group deported in large numbers during the collectivization drive, as many ethnic Poles also suffered the same fate.
After two large deportations in May 1948 (code name Vesna) and in March 1949 (code name Priboi), the progress of collectivisation in the Lithuanian SSR jumped from 3.9% in January 1949 to 60.5% in January 1950. However, the pace of collectivization in Lithuania was still not as rapid as in Latvia or Estonia, where 93% and 80% of the farms were collectivized by the end of 1949. Soviet authorities, striving to complete the forced collectivisation in Lithuania, initiated preparations for a mass deportation of peasants who refused to join newly established kolkhozes. On September 5, 1951, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union issued a decree number 3309-1568cc "On the deportation of kulaks and their families from the Lithuanian territory".
Following the violent uprisings, Moscow ordered a curtailment of the unpopular leftist initiatives and pinned the blame for the excesses of what became known as the "Leftist Deviation" on hard-line leftists within the MPRP leadership, including Zolbingiin Shijee, Ölziin Badrakh, and Prime Minister Tsengeltiin Jigjidjav. All were officially expelled from the party in May 1932. The government instituted a "new course" policy in which anti-religious policies were eased after June 1932 and collectivization was suspended. Nevertheless, by this point the Mongolian nobility had effectively been destroyed, and the political moderation would prove to be only a temporary respite: the Buddhist church would be almost completely eradicated in the Stalinist purges of the late 1930s, and livestock would be collectivized again in the 1950s.
In China, Mao Zedong implemented industrialization and collectivization reforms as part of the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962), leading to the starvation deaths (1959–1961) of tens of millions of people. Between 1969 and 1972, as part of the Cold War space race, twelve men landed on the Moon and safely returned to Earth. The Cold War ended in 1991, when the Soviet Union disintegrated, in part due to inability to compete economically with the United States and western Europe. However, the United States likewise began to show signs of slippage in its geopolitical influence, even as its private sector, now less inhibited by the claims of the public sector, increasingly sought private advantage to the prejudice of the public weal.
Bat-Ochiryn Eldev-Ochir (; 1905–1937) was a prominent political figure in early years of the Mongolian People's Republic who, between 1928 and 1937, was one of three secretaries of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). He served as the party's First Secretary from 1929 to 1930 and again for a month in 1932. As party leader, Eldev-Ochir pushed for rapid implementation of socialist policies (forced collectivization and property confiscation) during the “Leftist” period of the early 1930s, led the persecution of institutional Buddhism in Mongolia, and backed Soviet-sponsored purges of counterrevolutionary elements, particularly Buryat-Mongols, during the Lkhümbe affair in 1934-1935. He died in 1937 after being injured in a car accident.
The famine was severe in central Ukraine as well. It was not as severe in western Ukraine due to a better harvest there and the fact that collectivization was only being implemented there, which had not deprived families of an independent food production source. This made full confiscation of food more difficult for the Soviet authorities because of many more point sources of food availability and production than in a collective farm system where they had much more control. Because many parts of western Ukraine are a forested mountainous region and a high level of active resistance where the geography favoured them, the population was able to hide away some food and prevent it from being taken away, which allowed more people to survive and avoid starvation.
Syrtsov's tenure as head of the Russian government proved to be brief. The campaign for total collectivization of agriculture in the USSR proved to be dysfunctionally violent, marked by expropriations, forced deportations, and armed revolt. These excesses moved the decisive and independently minded Syrtsov into opposition, gathering like-minded individuals in the upper ranks of the Communist Party apparatus characterized by historian James Hughes as an "amateurish political plot to oust Stalin" for the violence and economic irrationality. In this effort Syrtsov was joined by fellow member of the VKP(b) Central Committee and Secretary of the Transcaucasian District Party Committee Vissarion "Beso" Lominadze and Central Control Commission member Lazar Shatskin, an important figure in the Communist International of Youth (KIM).
Party leaders included Grigori Gershuni, Catherine Breshkovsky, Andrei Argunov, Nikolai Avksentiev, Mikhail Gots, Mark Natanson, Rakitnikov (Maksimov), Vadim Rudnev, Nikolay Rusanov, Ilya Rubanovich and Boris Savinkov. The party's programme was democratic and socialist—it garnered much support among Russia's rural peasantry, who in particular supported their programme of land-socialization as opposed to the Bolshevik programme of land- nationalization—division of land into peasant tenants rather than collectivization into authoritarian state management. The party's policy platform differed from that of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP)—both Bolshevik and Menshevik—in that it was not officially Marxist (though some of its ideologues considered themselves such). The SR's agreed with Marx's analysis of capitalism, but not with his proposed solution.
Falange Auténtica proposes the socialization of the economy by taking the trade union as the basis for working life in a way that the people involved in the management of enterprises and the economy through trade unions organized by productive sectors. It rejects capitalism and promotes the strengthening of social protection. They argue that the ownership of the means of production should lead to the collectivization, but not as advocated by Marxists in the ownership of the state, but in the sense of collective ownership of the neighborhood, community or unions. They include the right to a decent life, which not only leads them to reject the death penalty, abortion, torture, racism and euthanasia, but also discrimination based on religion, gender, and sexual orientation.
The status of Abkhazia was downgraded in 1931 when it became an Autonomous SSR within the Georgian SSR. Under Joseph Stalin, a forcible collectivization was introduced and the native communist elite purged. The influx of Armenians, Russians and Georgians into the growing agricultural and tourism sectors was also encouraged, and Abkhaz schools were briefly closed. By 1989, the number of Abkhaz was about 93,000 (18% of the population of the autonomous republic), while the Georgian population numbered 240,000 (45%). The number of Armenians (15% of the entire population) and Russians (14%) grew substantially as well. The 1992–1993 War in Abkhazia followed by the ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhaziatitle=ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazialeft the Abkhaz an ethnic plurality of ca.
Social technologies, as they are technologies dealing with social behaviors or interactions, have caused concerns among philosophers. As Vladislav A. Lektorsky pointed out in his journal, "The Russian philosopher Viacheslav Stëpin calls modern European civilization "technogenic." Initially, this meant the pursuit of technologies for the control of natural phenomena. Then projects began to be put forward for social technologies for the control of social processes. Based on this concept, impacts that social technology might have for man, like "Forcible Collectivization", or the deportation of ethnic groups are recognized because according to Vladislav, social technology blunts the individual's capacity for critical reflection, though it "presents a different possibility which be used to develop man’s creative capacities, to expand his realm of freedom and his social and interpersonal ties.
Stalin now moved against Bukharin by appropriating Trotsky's criticisms of his right wing policies and he promoted a new general line of the party favoring collectivization of the peasantry and rapid industrialization, forcing Bukharin and his supporters into a Right Opposition. At the Central Committee meeting held in July 1928, Bukharin and his supporters argued that Stalin's new policies would cause a breach with the peasantry. Bukharin also alluded to Lenin's Testament. While he had support from the party organization in Moscow and the leadership of several commissariats, Stalin's control of the secretariat was decisive in that it allowed Stalin to manipulate elections to party posts throughout the country, giving him control over a large section of the Central Committee.
The Soviet grain procurement crisis of 1928, sometimes referred to as "the crisis of NEP," was a pivotal economic event which took place in the Soviet Union beginning in January 1928 during which the quantities of wheat, rye, and other cereal crops made available for purchase by the state fell to levels regarded by planners as inadequate to support the needs of the country's urban population. Failure of the state to make successful use of the price system to generate sufficient grain sales was met with a regimen of increasingly harsh administrative sanctions against the Soviet peasantry. The state of national emergency which followed led to the termination of the New Economic Policy and spurred a move towards the collectivization of agriculture in 1929.
Although NEP was seen at the time as a permanent structure throughout 1927, the 15th Congress of the VKP(b), held in Moscow in December 1927, acceded to this sentiment, approving a new program for the industrialization of the USSR — an acceleration which would ultimately prove incompatible with a small peasantry freely exchanging a comparatively small fraction of its production in the marketplace.Jasny, Soviet Industrialization, 1928-1952, pp. 51-52. Collectivization of agriculture was held by the Communists to be the essential corollary of any successful industrial campaign, it being faithfully maintained that collective organization would eliminate the inefficiencies inherent in capitalist agriculture, thereby expanding production and making a greater quantity of grain available to the state for conversion to capital goods.
The most notable aspect of the social revolution was the establishment of a libertarian socialist economy based on coordination through decentralized and horizontal federations of participatory industrial collectives and agrarian communes. Andrea Oltmares, professor in the University of Geneva, in the course of an address of some length, said: The key developments of the revolution were those related to the ownership and development of the economy in all its phases: management, production and distribution. This was accomplished through widespread expropriation and collectivization of privately owned productive resources (and some smaller structures), in adherence to the anarchist belief that private property is authoritarian in nature. Numerous experiences of management and control of workers and agrarian collectivizations were carried out throughout the Republican territory.
Incarceration of political prisoners is not a uniquely North Korean or Stalinist practice. Yet the system of prisons in North Korea developed under the half-century rule of Kim Il-sung (1945–94) and currently overseen by his grandson is widely regarded as a distinctive abomination in the modern world, described as “barbaric”, a “modern holocaust”, and occasionally, a “gulag”. Therefore, contemporary use of the word “gulag” in discussing North Korea's intricate system of prisons is a deliberate reminder of North Korea's former Soviet ties. It suggests that, along with totalitarian ideology, centralized economic planning and forced collectivization, among other practices, the systemic imprisonment of a country's citizens and purging of political enemies are inherited practices from Stalin's USSR, passed along to North Korea's ruling system.
Iran's nomads going extinct, Los Angeles Times, February 18, 2008 In Kazakhstan where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, forced collectivization under Joseph Stalin's rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. The resulting famine of 1931–1934 caused some 1.5 million deaths: this represents more than 40% of the total Kazakh population at that time. In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown.
Agustí Soler 2006, pp. 249–250 Some started to occupy plots as first step towards collectivization; Soler gained their hostility which would soon seal his fate. In the 1936 general elections he ran in Castellón on the Candidatura Católico-Tradicionalista ticket,Heraldo de Castellón 07.02.36, available here part of the general Levantine Derecha Regional Agraria alliance. He made it into history of electoral campaigning in Spain as the first one to use aircraft for propaganda purposes,Agustí Soler 2006, p. 250 but with 11,800 votes gained he failed to earn the Cortes mandate.El Sol 18.02.36, available here anarchist poster It is not clear whether Soler Martí engaged in Carlist conspiracy against the Republic or whether he was aware of it.
Under Brezhnev, private plots yielded 30% of the national agricultural production when they only cultivated 4% of the land. This was seen by some as proof that de-collectivization was necessary to prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such drastic measures due to ideological and political interests. The underlying problems were the growing shortage of skilled workers, a wrecked rural culture, the payment of workers in proportion to the quantity rather than the quality of their work, and too large farm machinery for the small collective farms and the roadless countryside. In the face of this, Brezhnev's only options were schemes such as large land reclamation and irrigation projects, or of course, radical reform.
He was a leading member of the regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam and alternate member of the Politburo of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia. Prior to his appointment as Prime Minister, Tesfaye served in various ministerial posts, successively as Acting Minister of National Resources Development, Minister of Industry, Finance, and Foreign Affairs; he also served as Deputy Prime Minister of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. He was the member of Mengistu’s civilian high-level officials with no blood on his hand. He was a technocrat and had no say on Mengistu’s monumental decision such as the infamous collectivization program of the mid-80s which uprooted thousands peasants from the northern part of the country and resettled them in the southern and western part of Ethiopia.
Industrialization in the Soviet Union was a process of accelerated building-up of the industrial potential of the Soviet Union to reduce the economy's lag behind the developed capitalist states, which was carried out from May 1929 to June 1941. The official task of industrialization was the transformation of the Soviet Union from a predominantly agrarian state into a leading industrial one. The beginning of socialist industrialization as an integral part of the "triple task of a radical reorganization of society" (industrialization, economic centralization, collectivization of agriculture and a cultural revolution) was laid down by the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy lasting from 1928 until 1932. In Soviet times, industrialization was considered a great feat.
Approaches to changing from individual farming to a collective type of agricultural production had existed since 1917, but for various reasons (lack of agricultural equipment, agronomy resources, etc.) were not implemented widely until 1925, when there was a more intensive effort by the agricultural sector to increase the number of agricultural cooperatives and bolster the effectiveness of already existing sovkhozes. In late 1927, after the XV Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, then known as the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks), a significant impetus was given to the collectivization effort. In 1927, a drought shortened the harvest in southern areas of the Ukrainian SSR and North Caucasus. In 1927–1928, the winter tillage area was badly affected due to low snow levels.
At the same time, GPU of Ukraine reported hunger and starvation in the Kiev and Vinnytsia oblasts, and began implementing measures to remedy the situation. The total amount of grain collected by February 5 was only 255 million poods (compared to 440 million poods in 1931), while the numbers of "hunger and malnutrition cases" as registered by the GPU of Ukrainian SSR increased every day. Whilst the long-lasting effect of overall collectivization had an adverse effect on agricultural output everywhere, Ukraine had long been the most agriculturally productive area, providing over 50% of exported grain and 25% of total production of grain in the Russian Empire in 1913. Over , were used for grain production, or 90.5% of total arable land.
Drought has been mentioned as the major reason for the Holodomor by Soviet sources since 1983.Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine Oxford University Press New York (1986) A News Release Communique from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa dated April 28, 1983; see also Harvest of Sorrow by Conquest, page 346. This explanation has been modified by the Western historian Dr. Mark Tauger, who concluded that the famine was not fundamentally "man-made".See collection of papers by Mark D. TaugerDavies and Wheatcroft, pp 51, 53, 61-63, 66, 68, 70, 73-76, 109, 119-23, 131, 231, 239, 260, 269, 271n, 400, 439, 458-9 He says that rustic plant disease, rather than drought, was the cause of the famine.
Peasants entered a GAC not only with their land, but also their buildings (barns, villas, warehouses), farm vehicles and tools, carts and working animals. Collectivization was accompanied by peasant revolts that broke out when brutal "arguments" were employed as a means of persuasion by the party, and also due to abusive measures such as obligatory quotas taking away part of the production of individual plots (while GAC that had already been set up were excused from such requirements). Militia and Securitate troops quelled the revolts, the leaders of which were arrested and harshly punished. According to data supplied by the Communist authorities, 50,000 peasants were arrested and imprisoned, many of them being tried publicly and sentenced to long prison terms.
Timasheff was the author of various works, including The Great Retreat: The Growth and Decline of Communism in Russia (New York, 1946), in which he argued that the Bolsheviks made a conscious retreat from socialist values during the 1930s, instead returning to traditional ones like patriotism and the family. Historian Terry Martin considers this a misnomer, because "in the political and economic spheres, the period after 1933 marked a consolidation, rather than a repudiation, of the most important goals of Stalin's socialist offensive: forced industrialization, collectivization, nationalization, abolition of the market, political dictatorship."Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Cornell University Press, 2001: ), p. 415. Buried: Oakland Cemetery (Yonkers, New York) Westchester County, USA.
Băneasa Airport in March 1953, greeting Gheorghiu-Dej upon his return from Stalin's funeral In the mid-1950s, Roller's position started losing ground. The death of Stalin and the Khrushchev Thaw had echoes within Romania: the country's leader, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, with an eye to United Nations membership, relaxed repressive measures. Collectivization and industrialization were slowed down, certain political prisoners were freed, and the new climate had its effect on the cultural realm as well. Among the prisoners released were intellectuals who were gradually brought back into universities and research institutes. In 1955, a party science and culture section was established, headed by Pavel Țugui and meant to counteract the grip on culture held by the Răutu–Roller Agitprop section.
Once he became the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, he was able to direct the 1965 Soviet economic reform. The theory behind collectivization included not only that it would be socialist instead of capitalist but also that it would replace the small-scale unmechanized and inefficient farms that were then commonplace in the Soviet Union with large-scale mechanized farms that would produce food far more efficiently. Lenin saw private farming as a source of capitalist mentalities and hoped to replace farms with either sovkhozy which would make the farmers "proletarian" workers or kolkhozy which would at least be collective. However, most observers say that despite isolated successes, collective farms and sovkhozes were inefficient, the agricultural sector being weak throughout the history of the Soviet Union.
The Nganasans first came into contact with the Soviets around in the 1930s, when the government instituted a program of collectivization. The Soviets had established that 11% of families owned 60 percent of the deer, while the lower 66% owned only 17 percent, and remedied this by collectivizing reindeer property into kolkhoz around which the Nganasan then settled. This represented a great change in lifestyle, as the Nganasan, who had primarily been reindeer hunters, were forced to expand their small stock of domesticated reindeer that had previously only been primarily for transport or eaten during periods of famine. Additionally, the Soviets took a greater interest in the Nganasans as a people, and starting in the 1930s, ethnographers began to study their customs.
Reunited, the Xiao family returned to China. The first five-year plan of the People's Republic brought large- scale modernization to the country, but collectivization resulted in famine; doubts raised among the aghast planners were met with the Hundred Flowers Campaign, the Anti-Rightist Movement and a plan for the years 1958-62 called the Great Leap Forward. In this climate even Xiao San, Mao's boyhood friend, dared not write any poetry; given his history the family could not long hope to avoid the regime's xenophobia, mounting even as Mao relinquished the State Chairmanship in 1959. Eva Sandberg had laid aside her Leica and begun making films of the People's Republic for use by the communist news agencies of Europe.
Ross, 54 Meanwhile, food prices rose as a result of both the effects of the state's collectivization policy – 40% of the wealthier farmers in the GDR fled to the West, leaving over 750,000 hectares of otherwise productive land lying fallow – and a poor harvest in 1952.Ibid.; Kopstein, 411 Workers' cost of living therefore rose, while the take-home pay of large numbers of workers – many of whom depended on overtime hours to make ends meet – was diminishing. In the winter of 1952–53, there were also serious interruptions to the supply of heat and electricity to East Germany's cities. By November 1952, sporadic food riots and incidents of industrial unrest took place in some of the GDR's major industrial centres: Leipzig, Dresden, Halle and Suhl.
In the early-1930s, he initiated collectivization of Soviet agriculture, by de-privatizing agriculture, but not turning it under the responsibility of the state, per se, instead creating peasant cooperatives. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched a "Cult of Lenin" and a cult of personality centered upon himself. For instance, the name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung up everywhere; in public squares, factories and offices etc. The increasing bureaucracy which followed after the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state".
Together with another prominent communist figure Tuk Jakova, he requested a slowdown of the industrialization of Albania, of the process of collectivization of agriculture, and the "democratization" of Albanian communist party.Communism in Eastern Europe Volume 328 of Midland books Author Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone Editor Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone Edition 2, illustrated, revised Publisher Indiana University Press, 1984 , p. 218 For his standing he was accused by Enver Hoxha of being a "revisionist" and was released from his executive and Party roles.Albania as dictatorship and democracy: from isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946-1998 Volume 3 of Albania in the twentieth century, Owen Pearson Volume 3 of Albania and King Zog, Owen Pearson Author Owen Pearson Edition illustrated Publisher I.B.Tauris, 2007 , p.
36–37, 176 The Communist Party of the Soviet Union had never been happy with private agriculture and saw collectivization as the best remedy for the problem. Lenin claimed, "Small-scale production gives birth to capitalism and the bourgeoisie constantly, daily, hourly, with elemental force, and in vast proportions." Apart from ideological goals, Joseph Stalin also wished to embark on a program of rapid heavy industrialization which required larger surpluses to be extracted from the agricultural sector in order to feed a growing industrial workforce and to pay for imports of machinery (by exporting grain). Social and ideological goals would also be served through the mobilization of the peasants in a co-operative economic enterprise that would provide social services to the people and empower the state.
After these deportations, the pace of collectivization increased as a flood of farmers rushed into kolkhozes. Within two weeks 1740 new kolkhozes were established and by the end of 1950, just 4.5% of Latvian farmsteads remained outside the collectivized units; about 226,900 farmsteads belonged to collectives, of which there were now around 14,700. Rural life changed as farmers' daily movements were dictated to by plans, decisions, and quotas formulated elsewhere and delivered through an intermediate non-farming hierarchy. The new kolkhozes, especially smaller ones, were ill-equipped and poor – at first farmers were paid once a year in kind and then in cash, but salaries were very small and at times farmers went unpaid or even ended up owing money to the kholhoz.
Nobel Prize winning economist Amartya Sen observed that "there is no such thing as an apolitical food problem." While drought and other naturally occurring events may trigger famine conditions, it is government action or inaction that determines its severity, and often even whether or not a famine will occur. The 20th century has examples of governments, as in Collectivization in the Soviet Union or the Great Leap Forward in the People's Republic of China undermining the food security of their own nations. Mass starvation is frequently a weapon of war, as in the blockade of Germany, the Battle of the Atlantic, and the blockade of Japan during World War I and World War II and in the Hunger Plan enacted by Nazi Germany.
He believed that war could bring out only the worst in society and argued that it led inevitably to collectivization and militarization and "fortified a universal faith in violence; it set in motion endless adventures in imperialism, endless nationalist ambitions," while, at the same time, costing countless human lives. During the First World War, Nock wrote for The Nation, which was censored by the Wilson administration for opposing the war. Despite his distaste for communism, Nock harshly criticized the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War following the parliamentary revolution and Bolshevik coup in that country. Before the Second World War, Nock wrote a series of articles deploring what he saw as Roosevelt's gamesmanship and interventionism leading inevitably to US involvement.
The ideology-oriented classes were arranged separately for a small group of Polish students (one of them was Roman Romkowski (Natan Grünspan [Grinszpan]-Kikiel), who would later persecute Gomułka in Stalinist Poland) and included a military training course conducted by Karol Świerczewski. In a written opinion issued by the school Gomułka was characterized in highly positive terms, but his extended stay in the Soviet Union caused him to become disillusioned with the realities of Stalinist communism and highly critical of the agrarian collectivization practice. In November 1935 he illegally returned to Poland. Gomułka resumed his communist and labor conspiratorial activities and kept advancing within the KPP organization until, as the secretary of the Party's Silesian branch, he was arrested in Chorzów in April 1936.
It snows, and in the background there are snow-covered pastures. Spring is considered as a turning point in the Soviet history of art. For the first time since the introduction of socialist realism a work of art showed an unpolitical everyday life scene in Soviet Union, without bringing any political message, as could be found in Plastov's earlier works that glorified the collectivization. During his artistic career Plastov was awarded two Orders of Lenin, he was laureate of the Stalin Prize, (1946), Lenin prize (1966) and he also (in 1972, posthumously) was nominated for the State Prize of the RSFSR named Ilya Repin – for his painting "Balefire in a Field", "Out of the Past" and a series of portraits of his contemporaries.
In 1949, Albania adopted the basic elements of the Soviet fiscal system, under which state enterprises paid direct contributions to the treasury from their profits and kept only a share authorized for self-financed investments and other purposes. In 1951, the Albanian government launched its first five-year plan, which emphasized exploiting the country's oil, chromite, copper, nickel, asphalt, and coal resources; expanding electricity production and the power grid; increasing agricultural output; and improving transportation. The government began a program of rapid industrialization after the APL's Second Party Congress and a campaign of forced collectivization of farmland in 1955. At the time, private farms still produced about 87% of Albania's agricultural output, but by 1960 the same percentage came from collective or state farms.
Whether or not peasants really wanted to join, the adjustments made to the agricultural system in 1957 clearly managed to satisfy the membership adequately enough that the co-operatives did not fall apart as they had in the past. Like Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia underwent a Stalinist phase of collectivization in the 1950s before leaving it behind in the search for a new model. In Poland, a sort of “dual agricultural” model was developed in which 20% of land was controlled by large, inefficient state farms, and the rest privately owned, mostly in the form of small peasant farms. This isolated situation left the peasants open to obvious discrimination and they suffered from a lack of financial and structural support from the state.
Amongst them was the vice president of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Serhii Yefremov, who was sentenced to death but had his sentence commuted to ten years imprisonment, during which he died. Mykhailo Hrushevsky, the founder of the Central Rada, and the leader of the Ukrainian revolution, was arrested and exiled in 1931 and would die under suspicious circumstances in Russia in 1934. In December 1932, during policy discussions that would eventually lead to the Holodomor, Stalin attacked Mykola Skrypnyk for non-Bolshevik conduct of Ukrainization and blamed resistance to forced collectivization and grain requisitions on agents of Jozef Pilsudski and Ukrainian nationalists. Stalin claimed that Ukrainization had been hijacked by foreign agents and nationalists who had alienated the Ukrainian peasantry from Moscow and endangered the communist project in the countryside.
However, the ICO and its affiliates did not consider themselves a new international, but a "faction" that was involuntarily excluded from the Comintern and that was anxious to return to it if only the Comintern would change its policies and allow ICO members the freedom to advocate their positions. Despite being identified with Bukharin, the ICO generally supported Stalin's economic policies (which Bukharin opposed), such as the Five Year Plans to achieve rapid industrialization, and the collectivization of agriculture. Furthermore, they even supported the early Moscow Trials. Their main difference with Stalin and the Comintern was over the issue of democracy within the Communist International and the influence of the CPSU in the Comintern and its sections, and over Stalin's international policy, particularly the Third Period and the subsequent Popular Front policies.
This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of armed insurrection, or propaganda by the deed, which would inspire the workers and peasants as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. Collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by later anarcho- communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system". While individualist anarchists advocate free-markets and mutualist property rights, seeing state interventions as distorting free competition, collectivist anarchists see such interventions as "merely prop up" for a "system of class exploitation", giving capitalism "a human face".
Prisoners were being drawn into the Soviet penal system in large numbers during the initial period of Kolyma's development, most notably from the so-called anti-Kulak campaign and the government's internal war to force collectivization on the USSR's peasantry. These prisoners formed a readily available workforce. Butugychag Tin Mine – A Gulag camp in the Kolyma area The initial efforts to develop the region began in 1932, with the building of the town of Magadan by forced labor. (Many projects in the USSR were already using forced labor, most notably the White Sea-Baltic Canal.) After a gruelling train ride on the Trans-Siberian Railway prisoners were disembarked at one of several transit camps (such as Nakhodka and later Vanino) and transported across the Sea of Okhotsk to the natural harbor chosen for Magadan's construction.
Lakoba successfully opposed the extension of collectivization of Abkhazia, though in return Lakoba was forced to accept a downgrade of Abkhazia's status to that of an autonomous republic within the Georgian SSR. Popular in Abkhazia due to his ability to resonate with the people, Lakoba maintained a close relationship with Stalin, who would frequently holiday in Abkhazia during the 1920s and 1930s. This relationship saw Lakoba become the rival of one of Stalin's other confidants, Lavrentiy Beria, who was in charge of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, which included Georgia. During a visit to Beria in Tbilisi in December 1936, Lakoba was poisoned, allowing Beria to consolidate his control over Abkhazia and all of Georgia and to discredit Lakoba and his family as enemies of the state.
In the same year, the new Communist-dominated Legislative Sejm adopted the Small Constitution of 1947, and Bierut, who was also a citizen of the USSR, was elected president by the parliament. With the support of a majority in its own right and the departure of Mikołajczyk, the Communist-dominated government set about consolidating its now-total control over the country—a process completed in 1948, when the Communists forced what remained of the Polish Socialist Party to merge with them to form the Polish United Workers Party.Poland at Encyclopedia Britannica Gomułka wanted to adapt the Soviet blueprint to Polish circumstances, and believed it was possible to be both a Communist and a Polish patriot at the same time. He was also wary of the Cominform, and opposed forced collectivization of agriculture.
The Chinese government also focused educational policies on higher education and specialized training, leaving basic education underdeveloped throughout large parts of the country. Government funding for education was reserved for urban areas; rural communities, already at an economic disadvantage, were left to fund their own schools, exacerbating the already existing divide between urban and rural education. When collectivization policies passed in 1955, placing rural families into agricultural cooperatives that distributed income on the basis of labor hours, the importance of education dropped even further within these rural communities, and they were much less likely to fund primary education for the children of their communities. Also beginning in the 1950s, the hukou system assigned the Chinese population into urban and rural regions, exacerbating continuously worsening inequalities within health, employment, housing, and education.
Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party, p. 18. Syrtsov was found to be an effective ally of Moscow in the exertion of coercion against the peasantry in what came to be known as the Ural-Siberian method of grain procurement, which was based upon use of Article 107 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR in charging peasants as "speculatorsa" for refusing to sell grain to state authorities despite the inadequate purchase prices being offered. In the aftermath of the so-called "extraordinary measures" employed the 1928 grain procurement Syrtsov was a consistent supporter of Stalin's proposal for "total collectivization" and the "liquidation of kulaks as a class" in the Siberian Oblast Committee of the VKP(b) as a long-term solution to the problem of inadequate state grain collections.
It thus played an active part in the proceedings leading to the creation of Communist Romania. At the time, PCR leaders began using Antonescu's 1943 crackdown on the Front as an instrument in intra-party fights: after General Secretary Gheorghiu-Dej had ordered his predecessor Ştefan Foriş to be abducted and held in secrecy, it was alleged that Foriş' collaborator Remus Koffler had functioned as an agent for the former secret service (Siguranţa Statului), and that he had engineered Groza's arrest.Betea, "În umbra..." Nevertheless, relations between the Front and Communists were tested at times: after its first congress (July 1945), Groza's party called for the preservation of small, privately owned, agricultural plots and voluntary cooperative farming instead of the collectivization advocated by the PCR;Cioroianu, p.162; Hitchins, p.
This 1950s wave of persecution finally left the only faction Kim Il Sung desired: his loyal band of Manchuria-based, communist, anti-Japanese partisans who became the enduring foundation of the present North Korean regime. Yet, there are no references in the documentation to a collectivization process or a systemic means of imprisoning accused “traitors” in dedicated camps. Today, the internment camps for people accused of political offenses or denounced as politically unreliable are reportedly run by the State Security Department. Yet in practice, the distribution of roles between the respective security agencies has apparently varied over time and between provinces, influenced by political priorities, available capacity, the relative power of senior officials, and the extent to which a particular agency enjoyed the trust of the supreme leader.
Food rations were kept to a minimum, and prisoners would often resort to hunting mice and other small animals, or even consuming grass in an attempt to supplement their diet. The prisoners were dispossessed farmers who had attempted to resist collectivization, former activists of the National Peasants' Party, the National Liberal Party, the Romanian Social Democratic Party, and the fascist Iron Guard, Zionist Jews, as well as Orthodox and Catholic priests.Joseph Gordon, Eastern Europe: Romania (1954), pp. 299–301, at the American Jewish Committee The canal was referred to as the "graveyard of the Romanian bourgeoisie" by the Communist authorities,The Memorial of the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance , page for Room 17, Forced Labor and the physical elimination of undesirable social classes was one of its most significant goals.
Political Pilgrims, is a book is about 20th-century Western intellectuals who travel to the Soviet Union, Maoist China, and Communist Cuba seeking to find utopian societies enacting their brightest hopes for the human future. Reviewing the book on publication, Leonard Schapiro wrote that Hollander goal was, "to discover the motivation of the travelers." Hollander details the "trek of pilgrims" to the Soviet Union, "during the terrible years of forced collectivization, famine, terror, and show trials," of the 1930s, where they discovered utopia in Soviet society. Here were all the desirable things that they believed their own societies lacked—social justice and equality, a sense of purpose and community, a great transformation which had triumphed over the wholly black and deplorable past, and, particularly, a humane and progressive penal system.
Nikolay Malinka (Ukrainian: Микола Малинка; February 16, 1913 – December 14, 1993) was a Ukrainian painter, creative artist, and sculptor. He was among those who studied and worked in the Soviet Union where Socialist Realism became a state policy, but is often considered a representative of Ukrainian impressionism as well. Focused on the dramatic depictions of Soviet and Ukrainian history, Nikolay Malinka produced canvases of Ukrainian Cossack's quest for peace and freedom, portrayed prominent personalities of the past and present day, composed a brief history of his homeland - Yahotyn county of Kyiv Region. Later, when Gorbachev's glasnost’ effectively ended state censorship, he began to reveal on the canvas Ukrainian national tragedies, such as the forcible collectivization and the Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1933, which took millions of Ukrainian lives.
Van Hulten trained as a human geographer and urban planner. He earned his PhD (Amsterdam University, 1962) with a thesis on Collectivization of Agriculture in the Polish People’s Republic, 1944-1960. He was a member of the Dutch parliament Senate for the PPR. Eighteen months later he moved to the House. May 1973 he took office as the undersecretary of the Minister of Transport, under premier Den Uyl. In this role in 1974, he introduced legislation implementing use of the tachograph to better control truck driving and mandatory driver rest periods. Van Hulten was a member of the Godebald-groep in the PPR and was in favor of cooperation of the PPR with the PvdA and D66 instead of cooperation with the Communist Party of the Netherlands. Van Hulten left the PPR in 1981.
Although famine, allegedly caused by collectivization, raged in many parts of the Soviet Union in 1932, special and particularly lethal policies, according to Yale historian Timothy Snyder in his book Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2010), were adopted in and largely limited to Ukraine at the end of 1932 and 1933. Snyder lists seven crucial policies that applied only, or mainly, to Soviet Ukraine. He states: "Each of them may seem like an anodyne administrative measure, and each of them was certainly presented as such at the time, and yet each had to kill": # From 18 November 1932 peasants from Ukraine were required to return extra grain they had previously earned for meeting their targets. State police and party brigades were sent into these regions to root out any food they could find.
At the beginning of 1929, a similar system was implemented throughout the Soviet Union. Despite the aid from the Soviet Ukrainian and the Central governments, many southern rural areas registered occurrences of malnutrition and in some cases hunger and starvation (the affected areas and thus the amount of required food aid was under-counted by authorities). There was also a shortage of forage livestock. Most of Kolkhozes and recently refurnished sovkhozes went through these years with few losses, and some were even able to provide assistance to peasants in the more affected areas (seed and grain for food). Despite the intense state campaign, the collectivization, which was initially voluntary, was not popular amongst peasants: as of early 1929, only 5.6% of Ukrainian peasant households and 3.8% of arable land were collectivized.
Larsen- Nielsen-type building in Budapest-Újpest (built by the BHK II.) Precast concrete buildings in Gyöngyös (1974) Renovated large-panel system building in Szeged Panel building under renovation in Budapest-Békásmegyer (built by the BHK I.) 3-storey panel block in Budapest (built in 1989) with tiled roof After World War II a serious housing crisis developed in Hungary due to rapid population growth and urbanization. The exodus of the rural population after the collectivization in the late 1940s and the early 1950s from rural areas was particularly important as a source of migration. Budapest and other cities became overcrowded, and the Communist government eventually responded. After several study visits and conventions, in the early 1960s Hungary bought the large-panel system (LPS) from the Soviet Union and Denmark.
After the October Revolution, Chavain wrote several plays for the first Mari mobile theatre, such as The Autonomy (1920) and The Sun Rises, the Storm-clouds Disappear (1921), inspired by the Revolution and Civil War. Later he wrote plays for a Mari theatre studio, including Jamblat's Bridge (1927), the comedy The Hundred Roubles Bride-money (1927), the musical drama The Bee-Garden (1928), Kugujar (1929) (a play devoted to the 1905 Revolution), The Live Water (about the formation of kolkhozes), The Timber Mill (1930) (about collectivization), Marii Company (1934) (on the battle for Kazan in 1918)), and Akpatyr (1935) (about Mari participation in Pugachev's Rebellion). The Light of the Coin (1936) was a comedy based on Mari popular beliefs. He also translated into Mari several Russian classical plays.
After the village of Tamrash was burned down during the First Balkan War in 1912, its Pomak population left the region by freeing up lands that the people of Lilkovo could cultivate. This increase in resources lead to a significant demographic growth in Lilkovo in the first half of the 20th century with a population exceeding 1000 people in the 1940s. However, a steady decline in the population of the village can be observed since the middle of the 20th century: As of 15 June 2020, there are only 21 people with a permanent address in Lilkovo. One of the possible events that triggered the process of depopulation in the mid 1940s was the collectivization in the agricultural sector, which left many people without lands and in a state of insecurity.
During the collectivization period in the Baltic republics, on 29 January 1949, the Council of Ministers issued top secret decree No. 390–138ss,Постановление Совета Министров СССР от 29 января 1949 г. №390-138сс «О выселении с территории Литвы, Латвии и Эстонии кулаков с семьями, семей бандитов и националистов, находящихся на нелегальном положении, убитых при вооруженных столкновениях и осужденных, легализованных бандитов, продолжающих вести вражескую работу, и их семей, а также семей репрессированных пособников бандитов». which obligated the Ministry for State Security (MGB) to exile the kulaks and the people's enemies from the three Baltic Republics forever. In the early morning of 25 March 1949, the second major wave of deportation from the Baltic Republics, operation "Priboi", carried out by MGB began, which was planned to affect 30,000 in Estonia, including peasants.
15, 87 In 1952, he was working on translating Stepan Schipachov's poem about Pavlik Morozov, a Soviet boy who had denounced his family for opposing Soviet collectivization, and, after being killed by them, had been celebrated as a communist hero.Selejan, p.15 He was in the process of publishing a series of reportages about the lives of Romanian workers, and, in 1952, stated that he intended to write poetry about life in the factories at Brad, which he had visited. Some of his poems were published in the 1952 volume Poezie nouă în R.P.R. ("New Poetry in the P[eople's] R[epublic of] R[omania]"), together with those of Maria Banuş, Dan Deşliu, Mihu Dragomir, Eugen Frunză, Ştefan Iureş, Eugen Jebeleanu, Veronica Porumbacu, Alexandru Toma and twenty-four others.
Despite collectivization and the institution of the kolkhoz, the Nganasans were able to maintain a semi-nomadic lifestyle following domesticated reindeer herds up until the early 1970s, when the state settled the Nganasans along with the Dolgans and Enets in three different villages it constructed: Ust'-Avam, Volochanka, and Novaya. Nganasan kolkhoz were combined to create the villages, and after settling in them, the Nganasans shifted from employment in kolkhozes to working for gospromkhoz Taymirsky, the government hunting enterprise, which supplied meat to the burgeoning industrial center Norilsk to the southwest. By 1978, all domestic reindeer herding had ceased, and with new Soviet equipment, the yield of wild reindeer reached 50,000 in the 1980s. Most Nganasan men were employed as hunters, and the women worked as teachers or as seamstresses decorating reindeer boots.
This move to Sovietise the GDR consisted of a drastic increase in investment allocated to heavy industry, discriminatory taxation against the last private industrial enterprises, the forced collectivization of agriculture and a concerted campaign against religious activity in East Germany.Kopstein, 411 The result of this change in the GDR's economic direction was the rapid deterioration of workers' living standards, which lasted until the first half of 1953, and represented the first clear downward trend in the living standard of East Germans since the 1947 hunger crisis. Travel costs rose as generous state subsidies were cut, while many consumer goods began to disappear from store shelves. Factories were forced to clamp down on overtime: in the context of a now restricted budget, the wage bill was deemed excessively high.
His visa for the Soviet Union was withdrawn when he refused to report on the Soviet system in a consistently favorable light. He was unable to comply when faced by the realities of Soviet tyranny and the Communist subversion of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. When he was denied direct access to the Soviet Union, he relied on reports from refugees and correspondents he sent across the border. His experiences made him a committed anti-Communist, which was reflected in his reports, especially those on the forced collectivization of agriculture in the 1920s and the Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Day's uncompromising reports on the Soviet Union were almost unique at the time, completely unlike those of other Western reporters like Walter Duranty, the Moscow Bureau Chief of the New York Times from 1922 to 1936.
Of its three thousand monks, two thousand were arrested. In July 1958 as the revolutionary fervor of the Great Leap Forward swept across the People's Republic of China, Zeku County in the Amdo region of cultural Tibet erupted in violence against efforts by the Chinese Communist Party to impose rapid collectivization on the pastoral communities of the grasslands. Rebellion also stirred the region at the beginning of the 1950s as “Liberation” first settled on the northeastern Tibetan plateau. The immediate ramifications of each disturbance both for the Amdo Tibetan elites and commoners, and for the Han cadres in their midst, elucidates early PRC nation- building and state-building struggles in minority nationality areas and the influence of this crucial transitional period on relations between Han and Tibetan in Amdo decades later.
RUSSIA: Humble Pie, Time, 25 October 1926 He emerged as the leader of the Party's right wing, which included two other Politburo members (Alexei Rykov, Lenin's successor as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars and Mikhail Tomsky, head of trade unions) and he became General Secretary of the Comintern's executive committee in 1926. However, prompted by a grain shortage in 1928, Stalin reversed himself and proposed a program of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization because he believed that the NEP was not working fast enough. Stalin felt that in the new situation the policies of his former foes-- Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev--were the right ones.Coehn, 1980left Bukharin was worried by the prospect of Stalin's plan, which he feared would lead to "military-feudal exploitation" of the peasantry.
Dovzhenko also included the generational differences between older and younger Soviet citizens and the "changing-of-consciousness" necessary to accept the new regime as a theme in the film. This is demonstrated in the juxtapositon between Vasyl, who wholeheartedly accepts the new collectivization initiatives and the motorized tractor as a way to harvest crops more quickly and efficiently; and his father, who is skeptical about Communism and stubbornly continues to use a ox- driven plow. The changing of consciousness occurs when Vasyl is murdered and his father turns away the priest in favor of an areligious funeral. Communism is also linked with progress and modernity in this film, such as with the depiction of the arrival of the tractor and the invocation of a Communist- built airplane at the funeral.
In May 1931, a special resolution of the Western-Siberian Regional Executive Committee (classified "top secret") ordered the expropriation of property and the deportation of 40,000 kulaks to "sparsely populated and unpopulated" areas in Tomsk Oblast in the northern part of the Western-Siberian region.Western- Siberian resolution of deportation of 40,000 kulaks to northern Siberia, May 5, 1931. The expropriated property was to be transferred to kolkhozes as indivisible collective property and the kolkhoz shares representing this forced contribution of the deportees to kolkhoz equity were to be held in the "collectivization fund of poor and landless peasants" (фонд коллективизации бедноты и батрачества). It has since been perceived by historians such as Lynne Viola as a Civil War of the peasants against the Bolshevik Government and the attempted colonization of the countryside.
Following the Mongolian Revolution of 1921, infighting within the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) resulted in several waves of violent political purges, often instigated and aided by Comintern or Soviet agents and government advisors. In August 1922, Dogsomyn Bodoo, the first prime minister of the revolutionary period, and 14 others were executed without trial after confessing under torture by Soviet agents to conspiring to overthrow the government. Two years later Bodoo's chief accuser, Soliin Danzan, was executed during the Third Party Congress for representing "bourgeois interests". In 1928, several prominent MPRP members including Ajvaagiin Danzan, Jamsrangiin Tseveen, Tseren-Ochiryn Dambadorj, and Navaandorjiin Jadambaa, were imprisoned or exiled in a widescale purge of suspected rightwingers as the country launched its "Leftist Period" of more rapid collectivization, land expropriation, and persecution of the Buddhist Church.
The film starts as parody of a Soviet-era socialist realist film-making of the 1930s (The title is taken from the classic 1933 film by the Soviet filmmaker Boris Barnet, in which the beginning of the farm collectivization era is depicted.) Peaceful life of farmers of remote Uralian village is interrupted when their former collective farm is sold. The toughest ones unite and track down the offenders one by one. Their quest for truth and justice is very violent, although almost all the violence occurs off screen, and often we are unsure of the victims fate. The movie was shot in black and white and the music is old Soviet movie music, so it is hard to determine when the events are happening – around World War II or maybe even today.
Soviet repression of the Ingrian Finns started at the same time as the forced collectivization in the Soviet Union in 1928. Between 1929 and 1931 Soviet authorities deported 18,000 people from areas near the Finnish border, consisting of up to 16% of the total Ingrian Finnic population. All remaining Finns in four border parishes were deported in 1936 and replaced with Russians. In 1937 all Finnish-language schools, publications, broadcasts, and Ingrian Lutheran churches were closed down.Taagepera (2013), p. 144 During 1937-1938, 4,000 Ingrian Finns were shot and over 10,000 deported to prison camps.Adler, Leydesdorff, Chamberlain, and Neyzi (2011), p. 62 By 1939 the Ingrian Finnish population had decreased to about 50,000, which was about 43% of 1928 population figures, and the Ingrian Finn national district was abolished.Taagepera (2013), p.
After the Bolshevik Party gained power in Moscow, the Jadidists split between supporters of Russian communism and supporters of a widespread uprising that became known as the Basmachi Rebellion. As that revolt was being crushed in the early 1920s, local communist leaders such as Faizulla Khojayev gained power in Uzbekistan. In 1924 the Soviet Union established the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, which included present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Tajikistan became the separate Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, large-scale agricultural collectivization resulted in widespread famine in Central Asia. In the late 1930s, Khojayev and the entire leadership of the Uzbek Republic were purged and executed by Soviet leader Joseph V. Stalin (in power 1927–53) and replaced by Russian officials.
Mobilization of surplus rural labor and further improvements in agricultural efficiency were to be accomplished by a "leap" to the final stage of agricultural collectivization—the formation of people's communes. People's communes were created by combining some 20 or 30 advanced producers' cooperatives of 20,000 to 30,000 members on average, although membership varied from as few as 6,000 to over 40,000 in some cases. When first instituted, the communes were envisaged as combining in one body the functions of the lowest level of local government and the highest level of organization in agricultural production. Communes consisted of three organizational levels: the central commune administration; the production brigade (roughly equivalent to the advanced producers' cooperatives, or a traditional rural village), and the production team, which generally consisted of around thirty families.
Nonetheless, the political instability of the government under Mihály Károlyi and the growing popularity of the Bolshevik movement prompted the Social Democrats to seek a coalition with the KMP. For the Social Democrats, an alliance with the KMP not only increased their standing with the common people, but also gave them a potential link to the increasingly powerful Russian Communist Party, as Kun had ties with prominent Russian Bolsheviks. Following the establishment of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in March 1919, Kun set about nationalizing private industry while embarking on a massive agricultural collectivization project. He also took steps towards normalizing foreign relations with the Triple Entente powers in an effort to gain back some of the land that Hungary was set to lose in the post-war negotiations.
Cover of the Soviet magazine Kolhospnytsia Ukrayiny ("Collective Farm Woman of Ukraine"), December 1932 Approaches to changing from individual farming to a collective type of agricultural production had existed since 1917, but for various reasons (lack of agricultural equipment, agronomy resources, etc.) were not implemented widely until 1925, when there was a more intensive effort by the agricultural sector to increase the number of agricultural cooperatives and bolster the effectiveness of already existing sovkhozes. In late 1927, after the XV Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, then known as the All- Union Communist party (bolsheviks) or VKP(b), a significant impetus was given to the collectivization effort. In 1927, a drought shortened the harvest in southern areas of Ukraine and North Caucasus. In 1927–28 the winter tillage area was badly affected due to low snow levels.
Kim Il-sung's cult of personality had initially been criticized by some members of the government. The North Korean ambassador to the USSR, Li Sangjo, a member of the Yan'an faction, reported that it had become a criminal offense to so much as write on Kim's picture in a newspaper and that he had been elevated to the status of Marx, Lenin, Mao, and Stalin in the communist pantheon. He also charged Kim with rewriting history so it would appear as if his guerrilla faction had single-handedly liberated Korea from the Japanese, completely ignoring the assistance of the Chinese People's Volunteers. In addition, Li stated that in the process of agricultural collectivization, grain was being forcibly confiscated from the peasants, leading to "at least 300 suicides" and he also stated that Kim made nearly all major policy decisions and appointments himself.
Professor of East European studies Norman Naimark states that the Holodomor's deaths were intentional and thus were genocide. In his 2010 book Stalin's Genocides, Naimark writes: > There is enough evidence − if not overwhelming evidence — to indicate that > Stalin and his lieutenants knew that the widespread famine in the USSR in > 1932–33 hit Ukraine particularly hard, and that they were ready to see > millions of Ukrainian peasants die as a result. They made no efforts to > provide relief; they prevented the peasants from seeking food themselves in > the cities or elsewhere in the USSR; and they refused to relax restrictions > on grain deliveries until it was too late. Stalin's hostility to the > Ukrainians and their attempts to maintain their form of "home rule" as well > as his anger that Ukrainian peasants resisted collectivization fueled the > killer famine.
The book starts with the initiation of modern economic reforms in China starting with the Deng Xiaoping in 1979 and his prioritization of development over politics, conveyed as "Development is the only Iron Law". The chapters of the book go on to cover - agriculture and the rural economy, industry, urbanization, infrastructure, state-owned and private enterprises, the financial system, demographics, the labor market, inequality and corruption. The personalities and institutions in China that have led to its economic growth are discussed as well as the reforms that have worked, such as the 'de-collectivization of agriculture' into family farming, what would eventually become the single most important cause in the decrease in China's poverty levels from 84% in 1981 to 6% in 2011. The book provides an overview of the structure of the country as a decentralized bureaucratic- authoritarianism.
Influenced by various socialist and anarchist groups, but free from the control or initiatives of these groups, the rebels upheld several demands from all these groups in a vague and unclear program, which represented much more a popular protest against misery and oppression than it did a coherent government program. However, many note the closeness of rebel ideas to anarchism, with speeches emphasizing the collectivization of land, the importance of free will and popular participation, and the defense of a decentralized state. In that context, the closest political group to these positions, besides the anarchists, were the Maximalists, which supported a program very similar to the revolutionary slogans of 1917 - "all land for the peasants.", "all factories for the workers", "all bread and all products for the workers", "all power to the free soviets"- still very popular.
In 1922, after the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, both the Ukrainian SSR and the Russian SFSR issued general rules for travel that foreclosed virtually all departures, making legal emigration all but impossible. However, the Soviet Union could not control its borders until a system of border guards was created through a special corps of the Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie (GPU), such that by 1928, even illegal departure was all but impossible. In 1929, even more strict controls were introduced, decreeing that any Soviet official serving abroad who went over "to the camp of the enemies of the working class and the peasants" and refused to return would be executed within twenty-four hours of being apprehended. In 1932, as Stalin's first Five Year Plan forced collectivization, to allocate scarce housing and weed out "nonproductive" elements, internal passport controls were introduced.
Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (front row, left) seeing off Nikita Khrushchev (front row, right) at Bucharest's Băneasa Airport upon the close of the PMR's 3rd Congress (June 1960). Nicolae Ceauşescu can be seen at Gheorghiu-Dej's right hand side. Uncomfortable and possibly threatened by the reformist measures adopted by Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev, Gheorghiu-Dej began to steer Romania towards a more "independent"path while remaining within the Soviet orbit during the late 1950s. Following the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, in which Khurshchev initiated De-Stalinization, Gheorghiu-Dej issued propaganda accusing Pauker, Luca and Georgescu of having been an arch-Stalinists responsible for the party's excesses in the late 1940s and early 1950s (notably, in regard to collectivization)—despite the fact that they had occasionally opposed a number of radical measures advocated by the General Secretary.
As the post-Mao Communist Party liberalized and embraced market-oriented economic reforms, Deng became one of its most outspoken critics. While Deng Liqun was not fond of Mao-era political fanaticism and rural collectivization policies and was a supporter of Deng Xiaoping in the latter days of the Cultural Revolution, he believed that the party under Deng Xiaoping had strayed too far from orthodox Marxist–Leninist ideals and attempted to tighten control over ideology. In 1975, Deng Liqun was assigned as a senior member of the Party Research Office, subsequently the Political Research Office (predecessor of the Policy Research Office) in the State Council, along with Hu Qiaomu, Yu Guangyuan, Wu Lengxi, Hu Sheng, Xiong Fu and Li Xin. Deng mobilized internal opposition to liberal reforms in the early 1980s through his position as chief of propaganda and ideology.
Kim Il-sung delivered a six-hour-long report on the work of the 3rd Central Committee since the 3rd Congress (held in 1956). In his report, Kim Il-sung talked about the economic accomplishments made since the 3rd Congress, the First Seven-Year Plan, Korean reunification, the party's victory over the factionalist tendencies and the international position of the WPK. A notable success of the 3rd Central Committee was the collectivization of agriculture and the nationalization of all industries had been completed, together with the fact that 52 percent of the North Korean workforce were by definition industrial workers (accomplishing the party's task of creating a proletariat). Kim Il-sung asserted that these developments had been initiated by the Chollima Movement, a Stakhanovite movement inspired mobilization campaign, in which more than 2 million workers were participating in.
With Stalin now firmly in control of the Communist Party and all dissent punishable by immediate expulsion and exile, Ryutin decided to act in secret. In June 1932 he wrote a pamphlet entitled "Appeal to All Members of the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)" and a nearly 200-page document entitled "Stalin and the Crisis of the Proletarian Dictatorship" (more commonly known as "Ryutin's Platform"). In these documents Ryutin called for an end to forced collectivization ("peace with the peasants"), a slowing down of the industrialization, the reinstatement of all previously expelled Party members on the left and on the right (including Leon Trotsky), and a "fresh start". Four of the Platform's thirteen chapters examined the character of Stalin, whom Ryutin called "the gravedigger of the Revolution" and "the evil genius of the Party and the revolution".
Sabrina Coutinho Furtado, 2009 Although it was supported by the local merchants and entrepreneurs on the island of São Miguel, fearful of the possible nationalization of businesses, the group was sociologically popular with the agrarian-classes on the island, having its origin in the seigneur system of inheritances that had existed in the archipelago during its settlement. There was some fear that the lean towards socialism on the continent would result in the loss of land rights and personal possessions in a presumed collectivization. As the Communists accumulated more power, fear of Portugal becoming a pro-Soviet puppet state started to grow and was nourished by the right-wing. Besides, the PREC (with its nationalization policies) became very unpopular among Azorean farmers and industrialists, mostly from São Miguel island who organized themselves to resist the "red danger".
In 1950 in the village women protests broke out against the mass collectivization of the agricultural production and cooperation of the fields and the inventory into Labor Cooperative Farms (ТКЗС). Within the land of the village, an oil factory functions, which processes the sunflower seeds into oil, as well as two mills, one of which uses the water-flow of Ogosta river and the other one uses mazut as fuel, as the water mill is known as "Yonchovata vodenitza" and the mazut one - as "Goluyvata vodenitza". Later on, a workshop for hemp processing was built, which the Glozhene residents call "The hemp factory", and even later on the area between village Bukyovtzi (currently the city of Mizia) and Glozhene was built "Paper-cellulose plant". Together, they create jobs and keep some of the residents from migration.
Victor Andreevich Kravchenko was born on 11 October 1905, into a Ukrainian family in Ekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (now Dnipro, Ukraine) with a non-party, revolutionary father. Kravchenko became an engineer specializing in metallurgy, and while studying at the Dneprodzerzhinsk Metallurgical Institute he became friends with future Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. An enthusiastic Communist Party of the Soviet Union member who joined the party in 1929, Kravchenko later became disillusioned by witnessing the effects of collectivization while working in the steel mills of the Donbass region in his native Ukraine, and his personal mistreatment during the Great Purge, although he ultimately managed to avoid arrest. During World War II, Kravchenko served as a Captain in the Soviet Army until 1943, when he was posted to the Soviet Purchasing Commission in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States.
A Czechoslovakian noted: The purges often coincided with the introduction of the first Five Year Plans in the non-Soviet members of the Eastern Bloc. The objectives of those plans were considered beyond political rapproche even where they were absurd, such that workers that did not fulfill targets were targeted and blamed for economic woes, while at the same time, the ultimate responsibility for the economic shortcomings would be placed on prominent victims of the political purge. In Romania, Gheorghiu-Dej admitted that 80,000 peasants had been accused of siding with the class enemy because they resisted collectivization, while purged party elite Ana Pauker was blamed for this "distortion". In addition, sizable resources were employed in the purge, such as in Hungary, where almost one million adults were employed to record, control, indoctrinate, spy on and sometimes kill targets of the purge.
These groups were associated with Yefim Yevdokimov (1891–1939) and operated in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Yevdokimov transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. He appears to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on Yevdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great Terror in 1937–38.Stephen G. Wheatcroft, "Agency and Terror: Yevdokimov and Mass Killing in Stalin's Great Terror." Australian Journal of Politics and History 2007 53(1): 20–43. Fulltext in Ebsco; Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet collectivization and the terror-famine (1986). Mark B. Tauger, "The 1932 Harvest and the Famine of 1933" Slavic Review, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp.
Cioroianu, pp. 174–176; Tismăneanu, p. 121 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Ana Pauker, Luca, and Teohari Georgescu at the Great National Assembly in April 1951 In late 1945, the issue of collectivization brought Luca into a brief and intense conflict with the Ploughmen's Front (a group led by Petru Groza and allied with the Communists), which threatened to cease supporting the PCR if private property was not going to be guaranteed.Cioroianu, pp. 161–162 His plans for rapid communization also rose opposition inside the party -- Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu is known to have advised against them.Betea, "Ambiția..." With those of Pauker, Teohari Georgescu, and Gheorghiu-Dej, his name was one of the most prominent in propaganda, including the famous collective slogan Ana, Luca, Teo, Dej / Bagă spaima în burgheji -- "Ana, Luca, Teo[hari], Dej / Scare the bourgeois".Frunză, pp. 216–217; Tismăneanu, p.
A resolution was then adopted calling for a milder line on the kulaks; while Lominadze criticized forced, rapid collectivization, he was careful not to question the general line of the party. At the Sixteenth Party Congress in June–July 1930, however, Lominadze "spoke forcefully, criticizing the positions of other Communists, and when he finished, his speech was one of the few not greeted by applause."Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 251. In the same year, he and the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, S.I. Syrtsov, met to discuss political matters, agreeing that industrialization was being pushed too rapidly and the peasantry was under excessive pressure; this was considered the creation of a "left-right bloc," and he was dismissed from his post and removed from the Central Committee on December 1, 1930.
A 110-year-old building, recently renovated by the owner. It is a good example of the large amount of historically well preserved but under threat houses in the village With the massive collectivization of 1956, the village became an agricultural community. Besides the Eastern Orthodox Church of "Dormition of the Theotokos" and the Community Cultural Center with Library "Ivan Stefanov-1918", Petrevene harbors many historical buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with some buildings dating as far back as the 18th century. However many of these buildings are now decrepit and derelict as the village population shrunk heavily during the post-communist era, with many owners either moving to larger cities and leaving their land behind, or simply dying out due to old age and leaving their property to descendants who were unwilling or unable to maintain it.
By the end of the Russian Revolution in 1923, Old Bolsheviks filled many of the powerful positions in the state apparatus of the Soviet Union, its constituent republics, and the ruling All-Union Communist Party. By the mid-1930s, General Secretary Joseph Stalin and the upper ranks of the party were predicting that major social upheaval would occur in the aftermath of the forced collectivization process since 1928 and the subsequent Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Stalin, himself an Old Bolshevik, became paranoid of challenges to his rule from within the party, fearing that Old Bolsheviks were potential usurpers who could exploit the upheaval and use their prestige to depose him. Stalin used the assassination of Sergei Kirov in 1934 as a pretext to purge the party, and removed a great part of the surviving Old Bolsheviks from positions of power during the Great Purge from 1936 to 1938.
According to him, "much of what occurred only makes sense if it stemmed in part from the disturbed mentality, pathological cruelty, and extreme paranoia of Stalin himself. Insecure, despite having established a dictatorship over the party and country, hostile and defensive when confronted with criticism of the excesses of collectivization and the sacrifices required by high-tempo industrialization, and deeply suspicious that past, present, and even yet unknown future opponents were plotting against him, Stalin began to act as a person beleaguered. He soon struck back at enemies, real or imaginary". Professors Pablo Montagnes and Stephane Wolton argue that the purges in the USSR and China can be attributed to the "personalist" leadership of Stalin and Mao, who were incentivized by having both control of the security apparatus used to carry out the purges and control of the appointment of replacements for those purged.
From 1938 to 1949 Nikita Khrushchev was the head of the Communist Party of Ukraine (CP[b]U), which means that he played the role of a governor for Joseph Stalin in Moscow, who was head of state of the Soviet Union and who held massive sway over domestic policy. During a brief period between February and December 1947, Lazar Kaganovich stood in for Khrushchev due to what was claimed to be an illness. Khrushchev had been a long time close associate of Lazar Kaganovich who was the head of the CP(b)U from 1925 to 1928. During that time Kaganovich had been responsible for implementing collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine and was involved with the aggressive repression of the so-called kulaks (Russian term) and kurkuli (Ukrainian term) – who were private farmers who were not members of collective farms that were labelled by the communists as being wealthy.
The origin of the group goes back to a resolution Benjamin Gitlow submitted to the Second National Conference of the Lovestone group September 2–3, 1932. He wished that the group would adopt a new resolution on the general line of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. While endorsing the first Five Year Plan, and defending the Soviet Union as a whole, it wished to criticize "factional" use of the plan for the benefit of the Stalin leadership in the USSR and the Comintern, as well as the mistakes with regard to the collectivization of agriculture and the creation of light industry. While the conference re- adopted its previous spring 1931 resolution on the issue, it opened up the pages of its organ, Workers Age, to debate on the issue and asked its members to contribute their opinions beginning with the November 15 issue.
After dealing with the common offensive of the Directorate and Polish forces—the Kyiv Offensive (see Polish-Soviet War in 1920)—, Rakovsky's government took measures regarding collectivization; according to his biographer Gus Fagan, he became himself a proponent of greater Ukrainian autonomy, and advocated both Ukrainization through the complete integration of Borotbists into Party structures and a slower pace in communization. He notably came into conflict with the Russian Party after his second executive had its independent Commissariat of Foreign Trade replaced with an office under the control of central authorities. He continued to pressure for a measure of independence in Ukrainian economy, and, during the early 1920s, the republic sealed its own trade agreements with other European countries. Rakovsky remained a Romanian citizen for the entire period. In 1921, he was officially summoned to be tried by a court-martial for "crime against the security of the Romanian state".
The post-war period was fruitful for the development of all genres of literature. Bukov gained fame for several children's books: Andrieş (1946), De vorbă cu cei mici (Speaking to children, 1953), Basm cu cele patru zâne (Story of four banshees, 1972). Other epic works include Lupan's The Forgotten Village (1940) and Face to Face (1945), Istru's Pogorna (1947) and Spring in the Carpathians (1955), Meniuc's Song of the Dawn (1948), Deleanu's Immortal Youth (1950), Kruchenyuk's Mother's Word (1952), which reflected the fight against the Nazi invaders, the collectivization of agriculture in the country, and the struggle for peace. These years also saw the flowering of the poets Iosif Balţan (1923-1975), Constantin Condrea (1920-2009), Petru Zadnipru (1927-1976), Anatol Gujel (1922- ). Critically and popularly acclaimed works included: Ion Druță's Leaves of Sorrow (1957), Vladimir Beşleagă's Zbor frânt (Broken flight, 1966), Ariadna Shalar's People and Destinies (1958).
An enormous number of the deportees died from exposure and overwork. He signed the Law of Spikelets and personally led the Extraordinary Commission for Grain Delivery in Ukraine, which seized a reported 4.2 million tonnes of grain from the peasants during a widespread famine.Contemporary historians estimate that between seven and eleven million people died, either of starvation or in gulags,in the process of farm collectivization. Molotov also oversaw the implementation of the First Five- Year Plan for rapid industrialisation. Kliment Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, Alexander Kosarev and Vyacheslav Molotov at the 7th Conference of the All- Union Leninist Young Communist League (Komsomol). July 1932. Sergei Kirov, head of the Party organisation in Leningrad, was killed in 1934; some believed Stalin ordered his death. Evidence that supports Stalin's involvement and evidence that does not is set out in J. Holroyd-Doveton's biography of Maxim Litvinov.
The gathering was retrospectively remembered as the "Congress of the Collectivization of Agriculture and of the Socialist Offensive on All Fronts" in the official party history of 1962, although a major part of time spent by the gathering related to internal party politics and the final ritualistic repudiation of the United Opposition of Trotsky, Zinoviev, and their supporters, effectively ending a two-year factional war. Oppositionists Christian Rakovsky and Lev Kamenev held brief speeches in front of the Congress.Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society Between Revolutions, 1918–1929, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 189-190. Rakovsky's speechChristian Rakovsky; Speech to the Fifteenth Party Congress, (December 1927); First published in Report on the Fifteenth Party Congress, Communist Party of Great Britain, 1928; at the Marxists Internet Archive was interrupted fifty-seven times by his opponents, including Nikolai Bukharin, Martemyan Ryutin, and Lazar Kaganovich.
Cicerone Ioniţoiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestaţi, torturaţi, întemniţaţi, ucişi. Dicţionar. Editura Maşina de scris, Bucureşti, 2000. . Between 60,000 and 80,000 political prisoners were detained.Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Ioniţoiu estimated two million people were victims of Communist repression in Romania.Recensământul populaţiei concentraţionare din România în anii 1945–1989 - report of the "Centrul Internaţional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004Raportul Comisiei Prezidenţiale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia Prezidenţială pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006 According to Benjamin Valentino, probably tens or hundreds of thousands of deaths occurred as part of political repression and agricultural collectivization in Communist Romania, though he said documentation is insufficient for an accurate estimate to be made.Valentino, Benjamin A (2005). Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century.
199 Löwenthal contended that comparisons between Hitler and Stalin were appropriate, but comparisons between Hitler and Lenin were not. For Löwenthal, the decisive factor that governed Lenin's conduct was that right from the onset when he took power, he was involved in civil wars within Russia Löwenthal argued that “Lenin’s battle to hold on to power” did not comprise “one-sided mass annihilation of defenceless people” Speaking of the Russian Civil War, Löwenthal argued that “In all these battles there were heavy losses on both sides and horrible torture and murders of prisoners” Löwenthal in Piper (1993) pp. 199–200 Speaking of the differences between Lenin and Stalin, Löwenthal argued that “What Stalin did from 1929 on was something entirely different”Löwenthal in Piper (1993) p. 200 Löwenthal argued that with dekulakization, the so-called “kulaks” were to destroyed by the Soviet state as: > a hindrance to forced collectivization.
The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian socialist organizational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia, and parts of the Levante. Much of Spain's economy was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia, the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence, as the Soviet-allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, agrarian areas became collectivised and run as libertarian communes. Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution, which he claimed "came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history".
Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.72-73 and, in order to combat the Romanian leu's devaluation, a surprise monetary reform was imposed as a stabilization measure in August 1947 (severely limiting the amount convertible by people without an actual job, primarily members of the aristocracy).Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.73-74 The Marshall Plan was being overtly condemned,Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.74 while nationalization and a planned economy were enforced beginning 11 June 1948.Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.74-75 The first five-year plan, conceived by Miron Constantinescu's Soviet- Romanian committee, was adopted in 1950.Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.75-76 Of newly enforced measures, the arguably most far-reaching was collectivization—by 1962, when the process was considered complete, 96% of the total arable land had been enclosed in collective farming, while around 80,000 peasants faced trial for resisting and 17,000 others were uprooted or deported for being chiaburi (the Romanian equivalent of kulaks).Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.
1977 – 1978: The “Preparation Period” By the late 1970s, China's collectivization and centralization of agricultural production were encountered with several challenges, of which the shortage of agricultural products was the most urgent and serious. Droughts happened in rural areas and serious food supply crises occurred in urban regions. Many farmers and members of the People's Commune began thinking about new ways of agricultural production. In 1978, 18 households in Xiaogang Village, Fengyang County, Anhui Province came up with a new arrangement where each household was responsible for their profit and losses of production, which was known as the first trial of the household responsibility system. In December 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China was held in Beijing. During the meeting, the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Accelerating Agricultural Development was passed, which proposed “devolving production responsibility to production units”(包产到组).
Even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian socialist organizational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia, and parts of the Levante. Much of Spain's economy was put under worker control and in anarchist strongholds such as Catalonia, the figure was as high as 75%, although it was lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence as the Soviet- allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, agrarian areas became collectivised and run as libertarian communes.
The party then asserted its complete support for these changes and for the Agrarian Reform process that implemented collectivization of the agricultural sector and the land in a region named the "Zone of Intervention of the Agrarian Reform" or "ZIRA", which included the land south of the Tagus River. The PCP took the lead of that process and drove it according to the party's program, organizing thousands of peasants into cooperatives. Combined with the party's strong clandestine organization and support of the peasants' movement during the preceding years in that region, these efforts made the south of Portugal the major stronghold of the PCP. The party gained more than half of the votes in Beja, Évora, and Setúbal in subsequent elections. One year after the revolution, the first democratic elections took place to elect the parliament that would write a new constitution to replace the constitution of 1933. The party achieved 12.52% of the vote and elected 30 members of parliament.
The drafting plans were initially successful as the Great Leap Forward divided the Chinese workforce and production briefly soared. Eventually, the planners developed even more ambitious goals such as replacing the draft plans for 1962 with those for 1967 and the industries developed supply bottlenecks, but they could not meet the growth demands. Rapid industrial development came in turn with a swelling of urban populations. Due to the furthering of collectivization, heavy industry production and the stagnation of the farming industry that did not keep up with the demands of population growth in combination with a year (1959) of unfortunate weather in farming areas, only 170 million tons of grain were produced, far below the actual amount of grain which the population needed. Mass starvation ensued and it was made even worse in 1960, when only 144 million tons of grain were produced, a total amount which was 26 million tons lower than the total amount of grain that was produced in 1959.
As control of the Polish territories passed from occupying forces of Nazi Germany to the subsequent occupying forces of the Soviet Union, and from the Soviet Union to the Soviet-imposed puppet satellite state, Poland's new economic system was forcibly imposed and began moving towards a radical, communist centrally planned economy. One of the first major steps in that direction involved the agricultural reform issued by the Polish Committee of National Liberation government on 6 September 1944. All estates over 0.5 km2 in pre-war Polish territories and all over 1 km2 in former German territories were nationalised without compensation. In total, 31,000 km2 of land were nationalised in Poland and 5 million in the former German territories, out of which 12,000 km2 were redistributed to farmers and the rest remained in the hands of the government (Most of this was eventually used in the collectivization and creation of sovkhoz-like State Agricultural Farms "PGR").
The end of the first year of the Soviet occupation of Latvia (1940–41) is dramatic for Latvia as a whole and also for Iecava - a large part of the population of the parish was deported. The second wave of deportations over Iecava came in 1949. Only a portion of the deported returns. On June 14, 1990, at Iecava station, the sculptor Mārtiņš Zaurs designed monument was discovered to the victims of Stalinist repression, “The pain semaphore.” The years of Soviet occupation are marked by forced collectivization. After World War II, more than 10 kolkhozes were established in Iecava territory, combined in the 1970s in the “Iecava” kolhoz (a/s “Rakmente”, etc., founded in the early 1990s), p/s “Progress” (several companies were created in the early 1990s, including co-operative societies “Ikstrums” and “Rosme”, SIA, Iecava) and p/s Zālīte In 1958, by decree of the Supreme Council of the Latvian SSR, the heavily populated area “Iecava” is transformed into a working village. There are 1242 residents in the village this time around.
Due to the dedication of substantial resources to industrial rebuilding, and the successful adoption of the Stakhanovite movement (the communist propaganda of that time created a new "hero of the working class", Wincenty Pstrowski), where workers were encouraged to work above their quota, the expected increase in industrial output was reached ahead of schedule. However, the agricultural output did not increase as much as predicted, partially due to bad weather in 1947, partially due to inefficiencies involved in collectivization of farming and finally, partially due to side-effects of the battle for trade, which damaged traditional supply chains. In 1948 industrial production was 30% higher compared to 1939, but agricultural production was 30% lower (compared to the 1934-38 period). The battle for trade, pushed for by Stalinist hardliners like Hilary Minc, suggested that both the cooperative and private sectors should be eliminated and the public sector should be dominant, assumptions contrary to the foundations of the three-year plan which stated that all three sectors are equal.
Pokrovsk, the capital of the Volga German ASSR, 1928 Volga German ASSR (orange) in 1940 Ethnic Germans in Soviet Russia of the 1920s enjoyed a certain degree of cultural autonomy, there were 8 national districts in the Ukraine as well as a number in Russia and one each in Georgia and Azerbizan and Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Volga German ASSR), schools and newspapers, in compliance with the policy of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In September 1929, discontented with the reintroduction of coercive grain requisitions and collectivization of agriculture, several thousand Soviet peasants of German descent (mostly Mennonites) convened in Moscow, demanding exit visas to emigrate to Canada, provoking a significant political scandal in Germany, which soured Soviet-German relations. The charity "Brothers in Need" was established in Germany to raise money for the Soviet Germans, President Paul von Hindenburg himself donated 200 thousand Reichsmarks of his own money for that purpose. The Soviet government first permitted 5,461 Germans to emigrate, but then deported the remaining 9,730 back to their original places of residence.
The party's program was both socialist and democratic in nature; it garnered much support among Russia's rural peasantry, who in particular supported their program of land- socialization as opposed to the Bolshevik program of land- nationalization—division of land among peasant tenants rather than collectivization in authoritarian state management. Their policy platform differed from that of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Parties—both Bolshevik and Menshevik—in that it was not officially Marxist (though some of its ideologues considered themselves such); the SRs believed that the "laboring peasantry", as well as the industrial proletariat, were both revolutionary classes in Russia whereas the Bolsheviks considered the industrial proletariat to be exclusively revolutionary. Whereas Russian SDs defined class membership in terms of ownership of the means of production, Chernov and other SR theorists defined class membership in terms of extraction of surplus value from labor. On the first definition, small-holding subsistence farmers who do not employ wage labor are, as owners of their land, members of the petty bourgeoisie; on the second definition, they can be grouped with all who provide, rather than purchase, labor-power, and hence with the proletariat as part of the "laboring class".
Prominent writers from Ireland and Britain who visited the Soviet Union in 1934, such as George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, are also on record as denying the existence of the famine in Ukraine.Edvard Radzinsky Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives, Anchor, (1997) , pages 256-259. According to Radzinsky, Stalin "had achieved the impossible: he had silenced all the talk of hunger... Millions were dying, but the nation hymned the praises of collectivization". In 1934 the British Foreign Office in the House of Lords stated that there was no evidence to support the allegations against the Soviet government regarding the famine in Ukraine, based on the testimony of Sir John Maynard, a renowned famine expert who visited Ukraine in the summer of 1933 and rejected "tales of famine-genocide propagated by the Ukrainian Nationalists". The height of denial was reached during a visit to Ukraine carried out between 26 August – 9 September 1933, by French Prime Minister Édouard Herriot, who denied accounts of the famine and said that Soviet Ukraine was "like a garden in full bloom".
Robert Service, author of the History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century, claims that with mounting economic problems worker discipline decreased, which the government could not counter effectively because of the full employment policy. According to Service, this policy led to government industries, such as factories, mines and offices, being staffed by undisciplined and unproductive personnel ultimately leading to a "work-shy workforce" among Soviet workers and administrators. While the Soviet Union under Brezhnev had the "second greatest industrial capacity" after the United States, and produced more "steel, oil, pig-iron, cement and ... tractors" than any other country in the world, Service treats the problems of agriculture during the Brezhnev era as proof of the need for de-collectivization. In short, Service considers the Soviet economy to have become "static" during this time period, and Brezhnev's policy of stability was a "recipe for political disaster". Richard Sakwa, author of the book The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union: 1917–1991, takes a dimmer view of the Brezhnev era by claiming that growth rates fell "inexorably" from the 1950s until they stopped completely in the 1980s.
The Russian Empire succeeded in annexing the area and subjugating its people, but also killed or deported numerous non-Russian peoples and was responsible for the Circassian genocide. The Circassians, the Ubykh and the Abaza were subsequently resettled to the Ottoman Empire. However, other Caucasus people were affected as well. There were up to 1.5 million Chechens in the Caucasus in 1847, but as a result of this war and ensuing expulsions, their number dropped to 140,000 in 1861, and then further to 116,000 in 1867. In 1865, at least 39,000 Chechens were exiled to the Ottoman Empire by the Russian Empire. left In spite of this, the Chechens intermittently demanded a restoration of their independence and rebelled again against the Russian Empire in 1878. During the era of the USSR, throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Chechens rejected the collectivization and Sovietization policies of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. This social resistance was nicknamed the 'Chechen problem'. During this time, Moscow constantly changed their territory, until the Chechen and Ingush Autonomous Oblasts were merged into a single Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936. In 1940, another Chechen insurgency, led by Khasan Israilov, started in Galanchozh.
Political executions also continued, but, with the exception of Katyn and other NKVD massacres during World War II, on a vastly smaller scale. One notorious example is the "Night of the Murdered Poets", in which at least thirteen prominent Yiddish writers were executed on 12 August 1952. Historians such as Michael Parrish have argued that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in The Gulag Archipelago the most holistic view of the timeline of all the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of purges, such as the 1928–1933 collectivization and dekulakization, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public.
Initially the church was used as a momentary prison for criminals who were later exiled to the north for dekulakization. After the decreasing collectivization in 1932 and dekulakization, it was proposed to demolish the church, right after the Dormition of the Mother of God Cathedral, until a circular from 3 August, Nr. 17147, was sent by the Ministry of Education to the city council: > The sector of science informs, that the Church of the Saviour of the city of > Tyumen is under accounting and protection of the Narkompros, and therefore > any damages and robbery of its outer architecture are impermissible and will > be punished for violating the VZIK and SNK decrets about the protection of > archaic art monuments... As a result, only one separately lying belfry was destroyed, and until 1960 the building (and, before that, the Holy Trinity monastery) was used as an archive by the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), the Ministry for State Security (MGB) and the Ministry for Inner Affairs (MVD), and as the Central State Library (now the Tyumen Scientifical Library). From August 1941 to March 1942, 96 boxes of Crimean gold and antique museum valuables evacuated from a Simferopol museum during the Great Patriotic War were preserved there.

No results under this filter, show 921 sentences.

Copyright © 2024 RandomSentenceGen.com All rights reserved.