Bushmeat hunting is a clear and primary path for zoonotic disease transmission.
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Apes are being lost to poaching, the bushmeat trade, habitat destruction and disease.
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"All societies have eaten bushmeat at some point, including our own," says Knights.
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Bushmeat now comes from as far as a national park 200 miles away.
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"In rural areas, people generally consume bushmeat because they like the taste," says Weckauf.
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Making matters worse, armed miners have been feasting on bushmeat, including the Grauer's gorillas.
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That in turn could relieve pressure on endangered lemurs, which hunters target for bushmeat.
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The domestic pet and bushmeat trade takes its toll on populations, according to the researcher.
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In particular, bushmeat hunting, legal or not, has become a substantial commercial enterprise in some countries.
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Poachers and bushmeat hunters have already stripped wildlife from the remaining unprotected habitat, leaving empty forests.
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As a result, many wildlife farmers routinely restock from the wild, merely laundering the bushmeat trade.
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The Cincinnati Zoo estimated in 2015 that over 1,000 gorillas are poached yearly for the bushmeat "industry."
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Bushmeat has traditionally been part of the local diet in Cameroon, and pangolins are considered a delicacy.
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Many orangutans are killed as agricultural pests, hunted for bushmeat or the illegal pet and performing animal trade.
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Dr. Plumptre imagines updating the conflict-free mineral listing to include a "bushmeat-free" or "conservation-friendly" validation.
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A study last year identified bushmeat hunting as the primary threat pushing 103 mammal species worldwide toward extinction.
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It is rapidly transmitted through bodily fluids, and is often passed from animals to humans through contaminated bushmeat.
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It also sought ways to curb practices, such as hunting for bushmeat or breeding racing camels, that encourage eruptions.
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"We need to understand why people consume bushmeat and the best ways to persuade them to stop," says Weckauf.
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Bushmeat feeds many of them, and gorillas, which can weigh up to 2200 pounds, prove easy and worthwhile targets.
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It has long been known, of course, that AIDS originated in chimpanzees and probably was first contracted by bushmeat hunters.
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So it is no wonder that efforts to push bushmeat hunters into other livelihoods seem to be making little headway.
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But in reality, the key issues are loss of habitat, prey loss from bushmeat poaching and conflict with local people .
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Chickens alone won't stop bushmeat hunting if countries are unwilling to discourage open sale of endangered animals in the marketplace.
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And the wildlife nearby the conflict mineral sites, particularly great apes, are targeted and trafficked for bushmeat to feed the miners.
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Primates in Cameroon and other African countries are targeted by hunters to be killed and eaten as part of the "bushmeat" trade.
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Back in Sulawesi, some conservationists want Minahasan pastors to thunder from the pulpit against bushmeat—even though their bellies might argue otherwise.
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Commercial hunting for wild animals used for meat, so-called bushmeat, has become the biggest and most immediate threat to African wildlife.
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Some of the prospectors also venture out to hunt bushmeat, and it was such a hunting party that came upon the flecheiros.
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The wire traps are usually set for bushmeat species, including wild boar and deer, but they are indiscriminate in what they catch.
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But conservationists and officials are trying to curtail bushmeat hunting because of concerns that it is wrecking the environment and upending food chains.
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In Djoum, a small town on the edge of the Dja Faunal Reserve, the local economy is entirely based on the bushmeat trade.
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They suggest expanding protected wildlife sanctuaries, cracking down on the illegal bushmeat trade, educating the public on conservation, and being smarter about development.
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Bushmeat is a cheap source of protein in Africa, and touching or eating it has often led to people getting infected with Ebola.
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But for many other locations, especially in developing countries, people still hunt some animals for bushmeat or body parts used in traditional medicine.
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Pitman and her Waorani partners extracted samples from both anacondas and bushmeat, which the scientist tests for contaminants stemming from upstream oil exploration.
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Cane rats, hammer-headed bats, monkeys, and small bucks — all smoked and trussed — crowded the bushmeat stalls alongside edible caterpillars and dried fish.
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Poaching for bushmeat has turned into a multi-billion dollar illegal wildlife trade, while collectors pay huge sums of money for the rarest finds.
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Not only do they expose animals to bombs and landmines, they increase the demand for ivory and bushmeat, which are used to finance and feed armies.
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EVEN the Minahasan people, who pride themselves on eating bushmeat, call the collection of stalls at Tomohon, in the highlands of North Sulawesi, the "extreme market".
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My friend just thinks of it as bushmeat—he and other locals hunt and eat pretty much anything they can from the jungle here, even monkeys.
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Just as national security agencies monitor transmissions among suspected terrorist cells, scientists routinely monitor "viral chatter" in two key harbinger populations: bushmeat hunters and slaughterhouse workers.
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According to Gray, the perception of bushmeat as a prestige food has combined with changes to the landscape to create a "perfect storm" for Southeast Asia's wildlife.
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The growing local human population is edging ever closer to their reserve, sometimes entering it to poach bushmeat or fish, or using the land to grow crops.
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A lot of men were lost in the war and currently the men are going out hunting for bushmeat as one of the only sources of income.
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WCS is currently working on strategies to engage mining communities in DRC, support responsible mining outside protected areas, and promote alternatives to bushmeat hunting for these miners.
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While conducting unrelated research into Goliath frogs, Schäfer and Rödel heard stories from local trappers, who consume frogs as bushmeat, about the unusual breeding behavior of Goliaths.
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In times of war, poached bushmeat may feed troops, local people and refugees, while valuable assets like ivory and rhino horn may be used to fund the struggle.
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Pangolins are hunted for bushmeat in West Africa, just like any other jungle-dweller, and their high price tag encourages villagers to set traps especially for these little creatures.
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In those areas, the cheetahs suffer from loss of habitat, the animals they prey on are often hunted for bushmeat, and young cats are captured for sale as pets.
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For many living on the river's banks and in its mushrooming riparian towns, bushmeat is the protein of choice, leaving forests within hunting range of the river eerily quiet.
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In the past, governments and nonprofit groups have tried to promote a practical alternative meat source through wildlife ranching, focusing on the same species targeted by the bushmeat trade.
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At major intersections, all manner of bushmeat, fish and poultry were available for purchase by car passengers too lazy to pull over and walk to the side of the road.
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"People in these areas may also hunt bats for bushmeat, unaware of the risks of transmissible diseases which can occur through touching body fluids and raw meat of bats," he said.
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Jinfeng noted that some bushmeat market businesses and online trading platforms use certain licenses to make the meat they're selling look "farmed" when in fact the animals are actually wild-sourced.
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Valiant efforts are under way to identify them all, and scan for them in places like poultry farms and bushmeat markets, where animals and people are most likely to encounter each other.
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Poaching is also a major threat, with one unpleasant twist: In Africa, the "bushmeat" trade – wild animals like gorillas and elephants being killed for human consumption – is a significant threat to gorillas.
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Communities must also help to keep Ebola at bay by avoiding old habits that can transmit the disease, such as eating bushmeat, caring for the ill and touching the dead, he said.
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"Most medical students don't get that side of the picture," Dr. Baitchman said, noting that it is often human logging, bushmeat consumption and other man-made habitat changes that trigger such crises.
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The woman, in the remote village of Pinga in the northeast of Democratic Republic of Congo, may have caught the deadly hemorrhagic fever by eating bushmeat or from another animal source, he said.
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In the past 20 years, Grauer's gorillas have been severely affected by human activities, the victim of poaching for bushmeat for those working in mining camps and for commercial trade, the IUCN said.
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Our petition cites 2628 peer-reviewed journal articles and publications, covering all threats to giraffe survival as required by the FWS in any listing petition, including poaching, bushmeat trade, disease and yes, trophy hunting.
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Hunting, too, is a major culprit for declining animal populations — more than half of the species threatened by over-hunting, according to the report, are African primates, since they're hunted in the bushmeat trade.
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"In my opinion, a universal ban on bushmeat is too totalizing, and unfair on poor rural folks sharing landscapes with wildlife," Simon Pooley, a visiting researcher at Birkbeck, University of London, wrote to me.
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Agence France-Presse reported that some Mbandaka residents believed Ebola was incurable because it involved witchcraft, and others said it was a curse placed by wild-game hunters on villagers who stole their bushmeat.
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During butterfly season, the main rutted track into the forest from Yangambi village becomes a commuter artery, everyone in search of something: children collecting edible caterpillars, women foraging for greens, men hunting for bushmeat.
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It's a tantalizing one for some conservationists because what's in the pot there these days is mostly trapped, snared or hunted wildlife — also called bushmeat — from cane rats and brush-tailed porcupines to gorillas.
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Inspectors aded that it would be of "more strategic value" to target flights where the dog might find "bushmeat" — non-domesticated mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds — which could pose a considerable threat to public health.
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Their message of local-grown activism and community empowerment has contributed to a 75 percent reduction in illegal bushmeat incidents since 2013, and the number of the endangered black rhino lost to poaching has plummeted.
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Poston said snares fashioned from cheap bicycle cable are often used indiscriminately by poachers, both to catch bushmeat for local consumption and to capture endangered species such as leopards and tigers for the wildlife trade.
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Assuming you could persuade governments to enforce laws against the hunting and selling of bushmeat, said David Wilkie of the Wildlife Conservation Society, you could not possibly make it work without providing an alternative source of protein.
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Non-human species rise on our radar only when they're the source of the pathogens that scare us: the bushmeat that harbors Ebola, the bats that drool Nipah virus onto palm fruit, mosquitoes passing on malaria, ticks transmitting Lyme.
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Some of that money should also go to develop alternatives to bushmeat, to reduce conflict with wildlife (for instance, by building better nighttime corrals) and to compensate livestock herders for the burden of living with lions and other dangerous animals.
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Bushmeat hunting also often leaves large carnivores without prey animals to eat, one reason so-called protected areas across Africa now harbor only a quarter as many lions as they could, according to a recent study in the journal Biological Conservation.
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Initially built and subsequently expanded to transport supplies and workers to the oil fields, and to haul out the oil, roads end up providing an irresistible pathway for the illegal harvest of timber and bushmeat and the extraction of precious metals and gems.
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This amendment could also put wildlife at risk: many of the mines that extract these minerals are deep in the jungle and workers are forced to eat bushmeat to survive, which often means eating critically endangered species such as the Grauer's gorilla.
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Scientists at University College London (UCL), the Zoological Society of London and Edinburgh University aimed to map out the highest-risk areas, using a variety of factors including large numbers of bat viruses found locally, increasing population pressure, and hunting bats for bushmeat.
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"Although protected by law, gorillas are highly prized as bushmeat due to their large size and because they are easily tracked and killed as they move in groups on the ground in their small home ranges," the groups said in the statement.
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A protracted civil war is escalating in the region—a brutal and forgotten conflict that has prompted warnings of genocide from the UN. Militarized poacher units have plundered the park to feed the lucrative, insatiable demand for bushmeat, ivory, animal skin, and traditional medicine.
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A 2005 study published in Nature and helmed by Eric Leroy tested over 5653,000 small vertebrates in central Africa and found evidence of symptomless Ebola infection in three species of fruit bat, suggesting that these animals -- which are sometimes hunted for bushmeat -- might be Ebola's reservoir.
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He says governments and NGOs should try to find alternative sources of income for local people, while consumers should pressure—and even lobby—manufacturers to make sure they acquire their source minerals from mining sites that are free of conflict, and where people don't hunt for bushmeat.
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But modern weaponry, motor vehicles, commercial markets and booming human populations have pushed the bushmeat trade to literal overkill — an estimated 220 million animals a year taken in the Brazilian Amazon alone, 27 million animals a year in Central Africa, and onward in a mad race to empty forests and waterways everywhere.
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Melinda Crowley, a foreign service officer at the U.S. Embassy in Conakry during the outbreak, says that Ebola gave Guineans a chance to reflect upon and criticize some of their cultural practices — including the sale of bushmeat, such as monkeys and fruit bats, and the nearly universal cutting of girls — 97 percent in Guinea, the second highest after Somalia, at 98 percent.
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In Africa, the forest are often referred to as "the bush", thus creating the term bushmeat. Bushmeat may include any sort of animal that lives in the forest that is hunted for its meat. In the DRC, the majority of bushmeat consists of artiodactyla species and make up almost 90% of all bushmeat trade. After artiodactyla species, primates consist of the next largest group at about 5% of all traded bushmeat.
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An example of bushmeat, meat that is from the "bush". In the Congo over 1.7 million tons of bushmeat are consumed annually. While road access has been shown to increase land clearing for farming, it also has other indirect yet significant implications for hunting and the bushmeat trade. Bushmeat refers to wildlife that live in the forest.
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Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy. A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst Monrovians as a preferred source of protein. Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it “once in a while,” while 13% cooked it once a week and 7% cooked bushmeat daily. The survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher.
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Vultures in Central Africa are being used as bushmeat and the market for vulture meat is growing. Due to the great vulnerability of vultures increasing “prosecutions and hunting pressures” in Central Africa has led to a heavy decline of the vulture populations and increase of vulture bushmeat in Central African markets. Although vultures are used for a variety of reasons in Central Africa, most are used as bushmeat and sold at bushmeat markets. Most bushmeat markets sell large bodied vultures which are mainly killed by poison.
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The red-eared guenon is threatened by deforestation and by the bushmeat trade, particularly on Bioko, where it is frequently recorded in bushmeat market in Malabo. In 2006, it was estimated that about 3,400 red-eared guenons are hunted yearly in the Cross- Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests for the bushmeat trade.
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Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption. Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity for inhabitants of humid tropical forest regions in Africa, Asia and South America. Bushmeat is an important food resource for poor people, particularly in rural areas. The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in the 1990s in West and Central Africa were thought to be unsustainable.
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This species is also hunted for bushmeat in Indonesia, contributing to its decline.Mickleburgh, S., Waylen, K., & Racey, P. (2009). Bats as bushmeat: a global review. Oryx, 43(02), 217-234.
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Maclaud's horseshoe bat is threatened by bushmeat consumption. The species is regularly eaten, at serious threat to its survival.Mickleburgh, S., Waylen, K., & Racey, P. (2009). Bats as bushmeat: a global review.
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Over time the hunting of bushmeat has morphed from traditional subsistence to commercial trade. An increasing population and spread of urbanization has been thought to be one of the leading causes of increases in commercial bushmeat sales. Hunting bushmeat in West Africa is also an important part of the livelihood for many people who live there. It is also a big part of the culture in Central and West Africa because bushmeat is their most important source of protein.
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The greatest possibility of contracting deadly zoonotic diseases occurs during the bushmeat cooking process. Cooking exotic bushmeat requires sharp knives, steady handwork, and skilled techniques when correctly butchering an animal. Consumers often purchase bushmeat directly from African poachers. This means they have no way of knowing whether the wild animal is carrying dangerous zoonotic pathogens.
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Human pressures on bushmeat populations are growing more rapidly than national population statistics suggest.Barnes, R. F. (2002). The bushmeat boom and bust in West and Central Africa. Oryx, 36(3), 236-242.
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Commercial hunting of birds and mammals create a conservation threat. In the early 1980s a market for commercial bushmeat developed in Malabo, the capital city on the north coast of the island. Bushmeat has become established as a luxury food. Offshore oil exploration has fed money into the economy, increasing the number of people who can afford bushmeat.
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The younger Bongando will now sometimes hunt bonobos as bushmeat.
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In Vietnam, macaque is eaten by some people as bushmeat.
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Regions of Africa used to describe trends in bushmeat and traditional belief use of vultures. Pink is West Africa, purple is Central Africa, green is East Africa, blue is Southern Africa, and yellow is North Africa. Bushmeat is meat harvested from non-domesticated animals including mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. Poachers target vulture species in sub-Saharan Africa for bushmeat harvest and consumption.
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Bushmeat trade was used to measure the trend of food security. The trend signifies the amount of consumption in urban and rural areas. Urban areas mainly consume bushmeat because they cannot afford other types of meat.
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They are also seen as comparatively abundant options in the bushmeat trade.
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The Central African oyan is possibly threatened by deforestation and bushmeat hunting.
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This species is killed for bushmeat in Cambodia, Myanmar and the Philippines.
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A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst residents of the capital Monrovia as a preferred source of protein. Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it "once in a while," while 13% cooked it once a week and 7% cooked bushmeat daily. The survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher.Wynfred Russell, "Extinction is forever: A crisis that is Liberia's endangered wildlife" , Front Page Africa, January 15, 2014.
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Results of an interview survey conducted in several villages in Tanzania indicate that one of the major reasons of poaching is for consumption and sale of bushmeat. Usually, bushmeat is considered a subset of poaching due to the hunting of animals regardless of the laws that conserve certain species of animals. Many families consume more bushmeat if there are no alternative sources of protein available such as fish. The further away the families were from the reserve, the less likely they were to illegally hunt wildlife for bushmeat.
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The straw-coloured fruit bat is hunted as bushmeat in West and Central Africa. In 2011, it was estimated that about 128,400 straw- coloured fruit bats are traded as bushmeat every year in four cities in southern Ghana.
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Species hunted for food in Liberia include elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, duikers, and monkeys. Forest rangers in Liberia say that bushmeat poachers will kill any forest animal they encounter. Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy. A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst residents of the capital Monrovia as a preferred source of protein.
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On average people cut themselves 38% of the time when butchering bushmeat, allowing for infected bodily fluid transmissions. African women are more likely to contract these dangerous zoonotic pathogens because they are the ones handling and cooking the bushmeat.
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Specific threats this species faces include mining, quarrying, deforestation, and harvesting for bushmeat.
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Additionally it has been shown that as logging increases, wages and demand for bushmeat increases as well; this leads to the increased export of bushmeat from the forest. Further, loggers themselves consume high amounts of bushmeat, eating it at a rate of two to three times more often than rural families who eat bushmeat roughly two days per week. Logging also allows hunters to kill many more animals on each hunting trip as the hunters no longer need to carry the dead animals such long distances as logging vehicles can transport the animals. Currently, it is reported that over 1.7 million tonnes of bushmeat are consumed each year in the DRC at an estimated value of over US$1 billion.
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Important as this is for the humans who rely on the bushmeat, it puts the survival of many species of vultures found in West Africa at risk. There are many impacts associated with the vulture bushmeat market. Some purchasers believe that vulture parts would help them be cured from any diseases or illness they are enduring. Impacts on the environment are also a result of bushmeat acquisition in West Africa.
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Combined with Black kite they make up 41% of the raptor bushmeat market in West and Central Africa. In the bushmeat market, the most frequently traded species are those with scavenging behavior, generalist or savannah habitat use, and an afrotropical breeding range. Approximately half of the vultures sold at bushmeat markets are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List for threatened and endangered species.
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There is a scarcity in the literature regarding the use of vultures as bushmeat in Southern Africa. Mentions of bushmeat consumption in Southern Africa do exist in the literature, as families in the region are reported as saying in a study on the use of natural resources, that they consume bushmeat a few times a year. However the specific use of vultures for bushmeat is not often discussed. The existing literature points to the existence of wildlife ranches in South Africa that contribute to the local economy, privately owned game ranches and Transfrontier Conservation Areas as a possible contributors to this gap.
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Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it "once in a while," while 13% cooked it once a week and 7% cooked bushmeat daily. The survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher. Poachers hunt protected species inside Liberia's national parks, including the Sapo and Gola rainforest parks. The poachers mostly hunt using snares and wire traps.
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Bushmeat having been smoked in Ghana. In Africa, wild animals including fruit bats are hunted for food and are referred to as bushmeat. In equatorial Africa, human consumption of bushmeat has been linked to animal-to-human transmission of diseases, including Ebola. Although it is not entirely clear how Ebola initially spreads from animals to humans, the spread is believed to involve direct contact with an infected wild animal or fruit bat.
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By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to biodiversity. As of 2016, 301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including primates, even-toed ungulates, bats, diprotodont marsupials, rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries. Bushmeat provides increased opportunity for transmission of several zoonotic viruses from animal hosts to humans, such as Ebolavirus, HIV, and various species of coronavirus including SARS-CoV-2.
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Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat. Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold snare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat than small species.
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Pangolin in Cameroon Gambian pouched rat in Cameroon Bushmeat in Gabon The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at 1-5 million tonnes per year at the turn of the 21st century. In 2002, it was estimated that 24 species weighing more than contribute of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin. Species weighing more than were estimated to contribute . Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg.
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Although gorilla bushmeat only constitutes a small proportion of the bushmeat sold, it continues to encourage a decline in the gorilla populations being subjected to hunting. Endangered Species International stated that 300 gorillas are killed each year to supply the bushmeat markets in the Congo. Conservation groups negotiated with rebels who control the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo to re-arm the park guards. After the war began, government funding of the park was stopped.
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It is hunted for bushmeat, though it is unclear what impact this has on its population numbers.
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Many of these animals are currently under threat of extinction due to deforestation and the bushmeat trade.
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Threats are probably habitat loss and bushmeat hunting. However, this species is protected by Salonga National Park.
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Several laws have been implemented to this effect. A law came into place in 2003, prohibiting hunting in certain areas, and in 2007 there was a law announced that would prohibit the hunting, selling and consumption of bushmeat. The law was announced in October and implemented in November. After the laws announcement, but before its implementation, the market for bushmeat became much larger and grew increasingly profit-orientated, as indicated by a rapid increase in carcasses available on the bushmeat market.
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Specifically habitat disturbance, level of protection, hunting pressure, and distance to market have reduced forests throughout the region. The consumption of bushmeat has also affected the wildlife population, but has also raised deadly diseases known as the Ebola virus. Human life is another risk due to bushmeat being eaten when it is known to be a non dietary supplement of solid food. There is a link between education and income status that evaluates why consumers in Africa are choosing bushmeat specifically.
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Mickleburgh, S., Waylen, K., & Racey, P. (2009). Bats as bushmeat: a global review. Oryx, 43(02), 217-234.
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African Vulture trade also occurs throughout the southern region of Africa, as vulture bushmeat has medicinal and belief uses.
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The suspected index case for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in Meliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of Angolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus). Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions impacted bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.
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Wildmeat or Bushmeat? Subsistence Hunting and Commercial Harvesting in Papua (West New Guinea), Indonesia. Hum Ecol (2012) 40:611–621.
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They were accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading lion skins.
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In Cameroon, 15 primate species were examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Bushmeat primates were infected with Trichuris, Entamoeba, Ascaris, Capillaria, pinworms, Bertiella and Endolimax nana. A large proportion of Bitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected by Armillifer grandis, which represent a threat to public health.
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The tree pangolin is subject to widespread and often intensive exploitation for bushmeat and traditional medicine, and is by far the most common of the pangolins found in African bushmeat markets. Conservationists believe this species underwent a decline of 20–25% between 1993 and 2008 (three pangolin generations) due mainly to the impact of the bushmeat hunting. They assert it continues to be harvested at unsustainable levels in some of its range, and by 2008 had elevated its status from "Least Concern" to "Near Threatened".Pangolin Specialist Group (2008).
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Poaching of Eastern Lesser Bamboo Lemurs (Hapalemur griseus) for bushmeat in northeast Madagascar. African communities greatly depend on seafood and terrestrial wild animals to obtain their daily portion of proteins. According to the article “Do bushmeat consumers have other fish to fry?” the amount of wild animals that are hunted for bushmeat increases when the production of fish decreases. People who live close to the coast of African countries such as the communities in Ghana not only rely on fishing to obtain their daily protein, but fishing is their source of employment.
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Hunted for bushmeat, a prized delicacy in western Africa, and threatened by logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and armed conflict, the gorilla population was critically endangered, they said. The population of Grauer's gorillas were particularly threatened by changes in their environment, with a population in January 2018 of only about 3,800. An estimated 3–5 million tons of bushmeat is obtained by killing animals, including gorillas, every year. Demand for bushmeat comes from urban dwellers who consider it a delicacy, as well as from remote populations of artisanal miners.
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It is likely that this exploding bushmeat trade is now making its way into the Bili region with the gold miners.
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It is currently evaluated as least concern by the IUCN--its lowest conservation priority. This species is possibly harvested for bushmeat.
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The West African oyan is probably affected by habitat loss due to logging of tropical forests, and by hunting for bushmeat.
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The extraction of timber and bushmeat from this jungle area results in a continuous stream of traffic on the crude roads.
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In 1993, David M. Meyers, a researcher who has studied the golden-crowned sifaka, speculated that if bushmeat hunting were to escalate, the species would go extinct in less than ten years since it is easy to find and not fearful of humans. Indeed, bushmeat hunting by people from nearby Ambilobe has already extirpated at least one isolated population.
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Bushmeat was believed to be one vector of infection, but bushmeat vendors at the Mbandaka market told reporters that they did not believe Ebola was real or serious. Hostility towards health workers trying to offer medical assistance was also reported. On 29 May, the WHO forecast that there would be 100–300 cases by the end of July.
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It is hunted in some areas and sometimes seen on display as bushmeat. The scale and impact of this threat is not known.
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Although otters are known to be difficult to catch, they are occasionally hunted for bushmeat and sold for similar prices of other bushmeat. Otter bushmeat is common in Congo and Cameroon but not for Gabon because of its reputation of being dangerous. The myth in Gabon is that otters can give electric shocks when caught with a spear. Otters are also thought to be magical and possess powers that when you catch an otter, skin it, and wear its fur, you are thought to become invisible to an enemy and are able to escape an enemy.
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Bioko Island contains a large bushmeat market, the Malabo market, which is quite similar to those of mainland Africa. Bushmeat itself is an important resource for Bioko Island, both economically and nutritionally, and both hunting and consumption have increased in relation to Equatorial Guinea's GDP. Bushmeat is preferably consumed over other sources of protein by the island's two major ethnic groups, the Bubi and the Fang, though the Fang show a higher preference for primates specifically. Commercialisation and modernisation of hunting practices has led to a focus on shotgun use over trappings, as these methods are more lucrative.
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In 2006, it was estimated that annually about 3,000 collared mangabeys are hunted in the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests for the bushmeat trade.
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The spotted-necked otter is in decline, mostly due to habitat destruction and pollution of its clear-water habitats. It is hunted as bushmeat.
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The southern African giant pouched rat is used in tuberculosis detection, and in locating landmines through initiatives by APOPO. It is also popular as bushmeat.
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Foa's red colobus is arboreal and diurnal. It has a varied diet which includes leaves, buds, fruit and flowers. It is frequently hunted for bushmeat.
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The Nubian flapshell turtle's habitat is located in politically very unstable areas which results in habitat loss. In addition the turtles are hunted as bushmeat.
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Species hunted for food in Liberia include elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, duikers, and other monkeys. Bushmeat is often exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast, despite a ban on the cross-border sale of wild animals.Anne Look, "Poaching in Liberia's Forests Threatens Rare Animals" , Voice of America News, May 8, 2012. Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy.
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Dutch bulls and cows at Wallya community during the reason season in Cameroon Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing employs 5,000 people and provides over 100,000 tons of seafood each year. Bushmeat, long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.
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Additionally, growing infrastructure on Bioko Island has allowed a faster return rate for hunters and intermediaries for the market, who are often taxi drivers, allowing for faster travel and reward. The Bioko drill is a popular target amongst bushmeat hunters, and increased prices of the drill as its population declines has been speculated to encourage hunters to seek it out in increasingly remote areas, furthering its decline. The Bioko drill tends to be sold freshly killed, and rarely smoked or live. While bushmeat hunted in Bioko is predominantly sold in the Malabo market, or elsewhere on the island itself, the majority of bushmeat hunters are from mainland Equatorial Guinea.
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Bats as bushmeat: a global review. Oryx, 43(02), 217–234. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being "vulnerable".
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The Gorilla Foundation has attempted education projects to decrease the consumption of bushmeat. The Gorilla Foundation is still working toward a great ape sanctuary on Maui.
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The long-nosed mongoose's habitat is fragmented because of logging, mining, and slash-and-burn agricultural practices. In Gabon, it is hunted for sale in bushmeat markets.
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Wilkie, D. S., & Carpenter, J. F. (1999). Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: an assessment of impacts and options for mitigation. Biodiversity & Conservation, 8(7), 927–955.
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It is hunted for human consumption in New Guinea.Margaretha Pangau-Adam & Richard Noske & Michael Muehlenberg. Wildmeat or Bushmeat? Subsistence Hunting and Commercial Harvesting in Papua (West New Guinea), Indonesia.
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It is hunted for human consumption in New Guinea.Margaretha Pangau-Adam & Richard Noske & Michael Muehlenberg. Wildmeat or Bushmeat? Subsistence Hunting and Commercial Harvesting in Papua (West New Guinea), Indonesia.
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The town lies on the western boundary of a proposed national park to protect endangered species such as gorillas, which as of 2003 were increasingly being hunted for bushmeat.
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Detailed information of the nutritional and chemical composition of bat meat is not available as of 2012. In many developing countries, bushmeat, including bat meat, is considered a major nutritional resource, including for micronutrients. One study in Madagascar predicted that the rate of childhood anemia would increase 29% if access to bushmeat, including bat meat, was restricted, predominantly affecting the poorest households who could not afford to purchase meat from domestic animals.
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The resulting bushmeat has become an important source of income for some people. Most Badwe'e profess Christianity as their faith. A New Testament in Badwe'e is in use."Koonzime", Ethnologue.
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Due to their small size (the typical brush-tailed porcupine weighs about 3 kg), it is a popular bushmeat to the urban and rural residents of Gabon, Nigeria, Cameroon or Congo.
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The villagers of five villages in the reserve in the area earn their livelihoods from hunting bushmeat, and a 1990 survey found some 50 firearms in the area around Lake Tissongo.
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V. jobiensis is hunted for human consumption in New Guinea.Pangau-Adam, Margaretha; Noske, Richard; Muehlenberg, Michael (2012). "Wildmeat or Bushmeat? Subsistence Hunting and Commercial Harvesting in Papua (West New Guinea), Indonesia".
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At the core of the illegal wildlife trafficking is a strong and rapidly expanding demand for a variety of products around the world: bushmeat; ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine; exotic pets; jewelry, trinkets, and accessories such as chess sets; furs for uses ranging from coats to traditional costumes; and trophies. With the exception of bushmeat, which is used as a primary source of protein by some cultures, all of these uses of illegally obtained wildlife are trophies, driven by a desire to be seen as more affluent, adventurous, or successful than others. In many parts of Africa, the main demand for illegal wildlife comes from the consumption of bushmeat. Wild animals are a preferred as a source of protein and primates are considered a delicacy.
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Many West African countries eased restrictions on bushmeat in 2016, as the World Health Organization declared that Ebola is no longer an international health emergency. However, Guinea has yet to lift the ban. The Fouta Djallon Plateau, where the bats were most recently encountered, likely has a low level of bushmeat exploitation, based on interviews with local people. Bats in the genus Rhinolophus are considered particularly susceptible to disturbance, so threats likely include habitat degradation via logging and mining.
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In the presence of intensive bushmeat hunting surrounding human settlements, leopards appear entirely absent. Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic take their livestock to the Chinko area. They are accompanied by armed merchants who engage in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok. Surveys in the area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017.
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Prevention includes limiting the spread of disease from infected animals to humans by handling potentially infected bushmeat only while wearing protective clothing, and by thoroughly cooking bushmeat before eating it. It also includes wearing proper protective clothing and washing hands when around a person with the disease. An Ebola vaccine was approved in the United States in December 2019. While there is no approved treatment for Ebola , two treatments (REGN-EB3 and mAb114) are associated with improved outcomes.
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This has frustrated efforts to incorporate the Afi River Forest Reserve and the Mbe Mountains Community Forest into the park, preventing more effective conservation efforts. Programs to establish backyard farming of bushmeat species have been successful in other parts of the state, with villagers raising rabbits, poultry, duikers, porcupines, cane rats, giant rats, pythons, crocodiles and snails. In these areas, hunting and poaching of wild bushmeat has declined dramatically. The approach holds promise for the area surrounding the park.
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Dogs are eaten by various groups in some states of Nigeria, including Ondo State, Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Plateau, Kalaba, Taraba and Gombe of Nigeria. They are believed to have medicinal powers. In late 2014, the fear of contracting the Ebola virus disease from bushmeat led at least one major Nigerian newspaper to imply that eating dog meat was a healthy alternative. That paper documented a thriving trade in dog meat and slow sales of even well smoked bushmeat.
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In addition to predation by natural enemies such as crowned eagles, leopards, and chimpanzees, roloway monkeys are also frequent targets of human hunting for the bushmeat trade. Over 800 tons of bushmeat are sold in Ghana's markets every year. The roloway monkeys’ conspicuous colours and loud calls make them very susceptible to hunting. Their habitat is also becoming increasingly fragmented due to a decline in forest habitats and deforestation as human settlements expand and farming increases.
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Some conservationists argue, wildlife farming can protect endangered species from extinction by reducing the pressure on populations of wild animals which are often poached for food. Others claim that it may be harmful for the majority of conservation efforts, except for a select few species. Certain African communities rely on bushmeat to obtain their daily amount of animal protein necessary to be healthy and survive. Oftentimes, bushmeat is not handled with care causing the spread of diseases.
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Most human infections are asymptomatic, some are debilitating, or rarely even lethal. Most of the pythons sold for human consumption at the rural bushmeat markets in the DR Congo host Armillifer armillatus.
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In August, the Ivory Coast, announced the closure of its land borders with neighbouring countries Guinea and Liberia affected by the Ebola outbreak. The sale and consumption of bushmeat has been banned.
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In 2006, it was estimated that annually more than 1,3 million mammals, about 64,650 reptiles and at least 7,700 birds are hunted in the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests for the bushmeat trade.
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Wildmeat or Bushmeat? Subsistence Hunting and Commercial Harvesting in Papua (West New Guinea), Indonesia. Hum Ecol (2012) 40:611–621. The Common echymipera is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Australiformis semoni.
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In fact, both the crowned and martial eagles only rarely attack livestock. In some cases, however, crowned eagles have actually been killed while attempting to hunt domestic animals. Another cause for persecution of the species is that crowned eagles are considered competitors in the illegal bushmeat and poaching trades. Within the forest land-locked countries of Africa, the bushmeat trade is the largest source of animal protein for humans.Topp-Jørgensen, E., Nielsen, M. R., Marshall, A. R., & Pedersen, U. (2009).
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There is no large scale regional effort to address the bushmeat problem in West Africa currently. Liberia In Liberia, when conducting the experiment to test out the theory of socio-economic factors for bushmeat consumption, it was found that monthly income, years of education, and literacy were all factors that led to the purchases. Due to the lack of knowledge and monetary funds, poor income families were forced to obtain the wild animal meat in order to feast and gain protein.
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Some researchers suggested the case was caused by zoonotic transmission through the child playing with an insectivorous bat from a colony of Angolan free-tailed bats near the village. Despite health organisations warning about risks of bushmeat, surveys pre-dating the 2014 outbreak indicate that people who eat bushmeat are usually unaware of the risks and view it as healthy food. Because of bushmeat's role as a protein source in Western Africa, it is traditionally associated with good nutrition, and efforts to outlaw the sale and consumption of bushmeat have been impossible to enforce and have met with suspicion from rural communities. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that between 30 and 80 percent of protein intake in rural households in Central Africa comes from wild meat.
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In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin. The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania's Katavi-Rukwa Region include impala (Aepyceros melampus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), warthog (Phacocherus africanus), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), harnessed bushbuck, red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) and plains zebra (Equus quagga). Lemurs killed in Madagascar for bushmeat A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), Hubbard's sportive lemur (Lepilemur hubbardorum), fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus), grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), reddish-gray mouse lemur (M. griseorufus), Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) and Madagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus).
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The Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) is a species of bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to Madagascar and is listed as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN because it is hunted as bushmeat.
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Its devastating effects, later coupled with the downturn in the vanilla market, drove the local people to increase their slash and burn agriculture (called tavy), the use of bushmeat, and the logging of precious hardwoods.
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Eniang, E., December 2001. Bushmeat Trade and Primate Conservation around Cross River National Park. Gorilla Journal 23. The Cross River gorilla is critically endangered due to the combined threat of hunters and infection with ebola.
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An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of zoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.
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Poaching of pythons is a lucrative business with the global python skin trade being an estimated US$1 billion as of 2012. Pythons are poached for their meat, mostly consumed locally as bushmeat and their skin, which is sent to Europe and North America for manufacture of accessories like bags, belts and shoes. The demand for poaching is increased because python farming is very expensive. Python poaching in Africa occurs for bushmeat, usually for local use, and for skin, which is traded internationally for accessories.
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Ruppell's Vulture in Kenya While other regions of Africa have higher incidence of poisoning for bushmeat consumption, the practice also exists in East Africa. Specific countries, such as Kenya have experienced high rates of bird deaths from poisoning related to bush meat trade, with over 3,000 deaths reported in a 10-month period. Countries in East Africa, such as Tanzania, have seen increased bushmeat consumption due to a need for protein and income. However, there is no specific data regarding the sale of vultures in Tanzania's markets.
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One major Nigerian newspaper published a report about the widespread view that eating dog meat was a healthy alternative to bush meat.Shobayo, I. (2014). Jos residents shun bushmeat stick to dog meat. Nigerian Tribune, August 2014.
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Porocephalida is an order of tongue worms containing two superfamilies, with four families in them. Some species in this order, such as Armillifer grandis, have been found in vipers, with some found in vipers from bushmeat markets.
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Where pine plantations replace natural forest, the monkey may be treated as a threat by foresters, since it sometimes strips bark from exotic trees in a search for food or moisture. It is also hunted for bushmeat.
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Bowman was featured in a 2002 Discovery Channel documentary called "Bushmeat," which traced the path of the illicit bushmeat trade from the Congo Basin to an underground meat market in Cameroon and beyond, and in "The Ghosts of Lomako", a 2003 Nature of Things documentary in which Bowman traveled to the Democratic Republic of Congo to study the endangered bonobo ape. He also appeared in "Gorilla Doctors" (2014), a CBC The Nature of Things documentary focusing on the protection of mountain gorillas in Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda.
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Pangolins are poached by subsistence hunters for direct consumption, sold in local markets, as well as purchased directly from home-working vendors or hunters. A 1988 report found that in Nigeria, the long-tailed (Phataginus tetradactyla) and white-bellied (Phataginus tricuspis) species were the second-most expensive bushmeat. However, in some areas, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, pangolins are one of the least frequently captured animals for bushmeat (totaling 1.7% of the species recorded in 1987). This was in-part due to their elusive nature as well as social taboos.
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Based on these estimates, a total of bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year, ranging from in Equatorial Guinea to in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all pangolin species. Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's Cavally River included chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans), lesser spot-nosed monkey (C.
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In Ghana, international illegal over- exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. Both European Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish. Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.
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Masked palm civet - Kaeng Krachan National Park The major threats for the masked palm civet are continued habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat. It is widely offered in restaurants in southern China and is also eaten in Vietnam.
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Other scientific reports have covered the ivory trade, the Chinese fur industry, the fate of tigers, the evidence supporting badger culling, the impact that hunting bushmeat has on primate populations and the management of elephants in South Africa.
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This over-exposure to bushmeat and malpractice of butchery increased blood-to-blood contact, which then increased the probability of transmission. A recent serological survey showed that human infections by SIV are not rare in Central Africa: the percentage of people showing seroreactivity to antigens—evidence of current or past SIV infection—was 2.3% among the general population of Cameroon, 7.8% in villages where bushmeat is hunted or used, and 17.1% in the most exposed people of these villages. How the SIV virus would have transformed into HIV after infection of the hunter or bushmeat handler from the ape/monkey is still a matter of debate, although natural selection would favour any viruses capable of adjusting so that they could infect and reproduce in the T cells of a human host. HIV-1C, a subtype of HIV, was theorized to have its origins circulating in South America.
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Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to a decline in populations. The Okapi Conservation Project was established in 1987 to protect okapi populations.
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Lola ya Bonobo is a member of the Pan African Sanctuary Alliance. Typically, bonobos arrive as young infants. The bushmeat trade in the Congo area sees hundreds of bonobos killed each year for meat. The infants are sold as pets.
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Amit Chitnis, Diana Rawls, and Jim Moore proposed that HIV may have emerged epidemically as a result of harsh conditions, forced labor, displacement, and unsafe injection and vaccination practices associated with colonialism, particularly in French Equatorial Africa. The workers in plantations, construction projects, and other colonial enterprises were supplied with bushmeat, which would have contributed to an increase in hunting and, it follows, a higher incidence of human exposure to SIV. Several historical sources support the view that bushmeat hunting indeed increased, both because of the necessity to supply workers and because firearms became more widely available.Merfield FG (1957) Gorillas were my Neighbours.
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The major threat to wildlife in the Lomami National Park is the commercial bushmeat trade. The Lukuru Foundation found that the origin of hunting pressure is not just the local communities, as many hunters are from other regions and, importantly, the trade is driven by a strong demand from urban markets and city-dwelling traders who come to the villages on bicycles and motorbikes to bargain directly on site. Lukuru Foundation monitoring revealed that about 85% of all the bushmeat from the TL2 landscape in Maniema was transported to the provincial capital of Kindu. Elephant poaching represents another threat to the park.
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The Bioko drill is considered endangered, and is highly threatened by the bushmeat trade. Primates such as the drill that have larger bodies, are slower growing, and are mainly terrestrial, are considered to be disproportionately affected by hunting, and as of 2009, it was predicted that the drill population on Bioko Island was around 4,000. The mean biomass of Bioko’s forests are being depleted, with larger mammals preferentially hunted, and Bioko drills being intolerant to hunting. The bushmeat trade has increasingly posed a threat to wildlife on Bioko Island as hunters have switched from using trappings to shotguns.
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This Ebola outbreak also affected the Maya Nord population (52 kilometres northwest from Lokoué) from 400 individuals to considerably fewer. Because of these outbreaks, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) updated the status of western lowland gorillas from "endangered" to "critically endangered". In the northeastern part of the Republic of the Congo, even though poaching is illegal, western lowland gorillas are still being hunted for their bushmeat and the young for pets; five percent of the subspecies is killed each year because of this. Deforestation of this area allows for the trade of bushmeat and even more poaching.
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It is not ivory alone that drives African forest elephant poaching. Killing for bushmeat in Central Africa has evolved into an international business in recent decades with markets reaching New York and other major cities of the United States; and the industry is still on the rise. This illegal market poses the greatest threat not only to forest elephants where hunters can target elephants of all ages, including calves, but to all of the larger species in the forests. There are actions that can be taken to lower the incentive for supplying to the bushmeat market.
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For instance, plants that depend on duikers for seed dispersal may lose their primary method of reproduction, and other organisms that depend on these particular plants as their resources would also have their major source of food reduced. Duikers are often captured for bushmeat. In fact, duikers are one of the most hunted animals “both in terms of number and biomass” in Central Africa.Muchall 1999. For example, in areas near the African rain forests, because people do not raise their own livestock, “bushmeat is what most people of all classes rely on as their source of protein”Anadu 1988.
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The African palm civet is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat. In 2006, it was estimated that more than 4,300 African palm civets are hunted yearly in the Nigerian part and around 3,300 in the Cameroon part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests. In Guinea, dead African palm civets were recorded in spring 1997 on bushmeat market in villages located in the vicinity of the National Park of Upper Niger. Dried heads of African palm civets were found in 2007 at the Bohicon and Dantokpa Markets in southern Benin, suggesting that they are used as fetish in animal rituals.
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Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the Republic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.
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The royal antelope has been categorised as Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). In 1999, Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated the total population to be about 62,000, however this is likely to be an underestimate. The populations are feared to be declining due to habitat deterioration and expanding human settlement. A significant threat to the survival of this antelope is hunting for bushmeat; it is seldom hunted in Sierra Leone and Liberia, whereas it is a major source of bushmeat in Côte d'Ivoire.
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Threats to its survival include habitat destruction, fire, and poaching for fur and bushmeat, although some anteaters inhabit protected areas. With its distinctive appearance and habits, the anteater has been featured in pre-Columbian myths and folktales, as well as modern popular culture.
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The limited reporting of vultures used as bushmeat may indicate the minimal numbers of vultures sold for food or represent a lack of published research on this topic in East Africa. This is similar to the lack of documentation available in Southern Africa.
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It is found in rainforests and marshy forests. It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat. One subspecies, bouvieri, is rated as critically endangered; although it was last photographically documented in 2015, it may be on the brink of extinction.Pennant's red colobus . ARKive.
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The most important crops for export are coffee and palm oil. Sakamadesu (Tshakamadesu) Wild plants,Mukenge, Tshilemalema (2002.) "Culture and customs of the Congo." Greenwood Press. fruits, mushrooms, honey and other foods such as bushmeat and fish are also gathered, hunted, and used in dishes.
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The mandrill is considered vulnerable and is affected by deforestation. However, hunting for bushmeat is the more direct threat. Mandrills are particularly threatened in the Republic of the Congo. Nevertheless, there have been captive-bred individuals that have been successfully reintroduced into the wild.
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A wide variety of other local produce is available at the market, including locally grown bananas, peanuts and hot peppers; the markets often sell bushmeat, such as antelope and monkey. Tchibanga is also a good place to buy traditional woven goods, including mats and baskets.
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The filovirus genome contains seven genes, including VP40. The natural reservoir of the virus is thought to be the African fruit bat, which is used in many parts of Africa as bushmeat. Genomic epidemiology from July 2018 to Oct. 2019 of the Kivu Ebola epidemic.
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From 2016-2049, its population is expected to decline by 50%. Threats to this species include habitat destruction via deforestation and overhunting for bushmeat. Because it is a highly-colonial species, it is a popular target for hunters, and its population is vulnerable to drastic decline.
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As the mammalian and avian game populations are gradually depleted in the Congo Basin, the proportion of large-bodied snakes offered at rural bushmeat markets increases. Consequently, a large proportion of the human population faces the threat of Armillifer armillatus infections, a python-borne zoonotic disease.
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In West Africa (especially Ivory Coast), the name "agouti" designates the greater cane rat which, while an agricultural pest, it is often sought as a bushmeat delicacy. In Mexico, the agouti is called the '. In Panama, it is known as the ' and in eastern Ecuador, as the '.
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Wildlife farming can reduce the spread of diseases by providing African communities with bushmeat that is properly processed. In his documentary film The End of Eden, South African filmmaker Rick Lomba, presented examples of the environmentally sustainable and indeed rejuvenating effect of certain types of wildlife farming.
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The IUCN lists the western chimpanzee as a critically endangered species on their Red List of Threatened Species. There are an estimated 21,300 to 55,600 individuals in the wild. The primary threat to the western chimpanzee is habitat loss, although it is also killed for bushmeat.
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African golden cat pelts The African golden cat is threatened by extensive deforestation of tropical rainforests, their conversion to oil palm plantations coupled with mining activities and road building, thus destroying its essential habitat. It is also threatened by bushmeat hunting, particularly in the Congo Basin.
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This bat has a wide range and is a common species. It is hunted for bushmeat, but otherwise faces no particular threats, and the total population is presumed to be large, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".
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The species is on the IUCN Red List as an Endangered species. It is listed as endangered because it is thought that its population has declined by at least 50% from 1997-2017. Threats to this species include habitat destruction from agriculture. It is also hunted for bushmeat.
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Humans hunt, trade, and traffic pangolins in Africa for spiritual purposes, traditional medicine, and consumption as bushmeat. In some areas, poaching of pangolins is protected by either laws or cultural or spiritual taboos. For example, chiefs within the Hurungwe District of Zimbabwe prohibit the killing or trade of Pangolins.
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In some regions the populations remain healthy, but in others (such as Gambia and Liberia) it has seriously declined and may risk extirpation. Dwarf crocodiles occur in several protected reserves. Carcass of dwarf crocodile hanging with monkey. Bushmeat hunting is one of the main threats to the dwarf crocodile.
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Most human infections are asymptomatic, some are debilitating, or rarely even lethal. Abdominal infections are more widespread, but typically undiagnosed, while ocular manifestations are rare and may cause blindness. Most of the vipers sold for human consumption at the rural bushmeat markets in the DR Congo host A. grandis.
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Forests are preferred as these provide the animal with shelter through the dense understory and forage through the canopy. Though categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the blue duiker is under threat from extensive bushmeat hunting across its range.
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This increases carcass volume available to hunters, as well as allowing hunters to selectively target animals that will fetch a greater price. Being the largest primate on Bioko Island, the drill is also one of the most expensive and therefore sought after by hunters. Bioko dills are more easily hunted with the assistance of dogs and shotguns, and hunters will sometimes mimic the bleat of a duiker to find them. Regulation of bushmeat hunting has had little effect, as announcements of imminent hunting bans are predictive of surges in carcass levels seen at the bushmeat market, thought to be a result of panic and an increased economic incentives, and bans themselves remaining unenforced.
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Karl Ammann (born in 1948 in St. Gallen, Switzerland) is a conservationist and wildlife photographer who has spent most of his career in the Congo basin. Ammann started his career in Africa as a photographer in the early 1980s, photographing cheetahs, but later turned to work on great apes. In 1988, he became witness to the bushmeat trade, and has since worked hard to bring the trade and its effect (particularly on great apes) to the attention of the conservation community and the world. Using his photography skills, he has taken pictures of the victims of the bushmeat trade that to many where shocking and revolting, and he has been accused of exaggerating the problems.
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The same problem is also seen in Nepal where government has taken some late steps to conserve remaining vultures. Similarly, in Central Africa there has also been efforts to conserve the remaining vultures and bring their population numbers back up. This is largely due to the bushmeat trade, "it is estimated > 1 billion kg of wild animal meat is traded" and vultures take up a large percentage of this bushmeat due to their demand in the fetish market. The substantial drop in vulture populations in the continent of Africa is also said to be the result of both intentional and unintentional poisoning, with one study finding it to be the cause of 61% of the vulture deaths recorded.
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It is currently evaluated as vulnerable by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this assessment because its area of occupancy is likely less than ; its roosting habitat is likely severely fragmented; its cave roosting sites are threatened by human disturbance; and some populations are likely over-harvested for bushmeat.
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In tropical forest, gorillas are hunted to provide meat for the bushmeat trade. Logging also destroys gorilla habitats. Although logging diminishes gorilla habitats, it may also provide for increased herbaceous vegetation as a result of gaps in the tree cover. Destruction of gorilla habitat may harm the overall forest ecosystem.
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The giant pangolin is threatened by habitat destruction and deforestation, and hunting for the bushmeat trade. Between 2011 and 2015, nine shipments with pangolin body parts were seized in Asia that originated in Nigeria. They contained pangolin meat and close to pangolin scales that were destined to China and Laos.
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The royal antelope has been categorised as Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The populations are feared to be declining due to habitat deterioration and expanding human settlement. A significant threat to the survival of this antelope is hunting for bushmeat.
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This organization, directed by Julie Hanta Razafimanahaka, focuses on community education in order to allow local people to understand the threats of bushmeat consumption, not only from a conservation standpoint but from a human health perspective as well. They also train young Malagasy people to become future biologists and conversationalists.
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It is currently evaluated as least concern by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this assessment because it has a large range, its population is thought to be large, and because its population is not likely to be in rapid decline. Some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for bushmeat.
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The red-eared guenon, red-eared monkey, or russet-eared guenon (Cercopithecus erythrotis) is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is found in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss, illegal bushmeat hunting and pet trade.
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The Bhutan giant flying squirrel is mainly threatened by habitat loss and degradation. To a lesser degree it is threatened by hunting for bushmeat and its pelt, and capture for the local pet trade. The IUCN recognises the species as near threatened, but almost qualifying for vulnerable. It occurs in several reserves.
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Lyle's flying fox (Pteropus lylei) is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is found in Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, with an outlying population in Yunnan, China. It faces persecution from farmers and it is killed for bushmeat in parts of its range.Mickleburgh, S., Waylen, K., & Racey, P. (2009).
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Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia. The World Conservation Union estimates that there are fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remaining in the wild. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of endangered. Endangered species are hunted for human consumption as bushmeat in Liberia.
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In this period, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders who were accompanied by armed merchants. They engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok.
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Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia. The World Conservation Union estimates that there are fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remaining in the wild. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of endangered. Endangered species are hunted for human consumption as bushmeat in Liberia.
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Bates's pygmy antelope are not endangered although they are facing habitat loss; the expansion of human population has a negative effect on future population. In general, they are able to adapt to secondary forest, plantations, roadside verges and village gardens. Although not hunted commercially, this antelope is hunted for bushmeat in limited numbers.
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Human reservoirs are human beings infected by pathogens that exist on or within the human body. Poliomyelitis and smallpox exist exclusively within a human reservoir. Humans can act as reservoirs for sexually transmitted diseases, measles, mumps, streptococcal infection, various respiratory pathogens, and the smallpox virus. Bushmeat being prepared for cooking in Ghana, 2013.
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Ape Action Africa established the sanctuary to house primates which were housed at the Mvog-Betsi Zoo at Yaoundé. Eventually, it would act to protect primates that were affected by illegal pet and bushmeat trades in the country. In 2010, the shelter's manager, Colonel Avi Sivan, was killed in a helicopter crash.
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There has been large loss of animal species through poaching and hunting for bushmeat. Buffalo and elephants have been extirpated in the area. Chimpanzee, mountain monkey, owl-faced monkey, and more than 400 Angolan colobus have also been reported. Reptiles are also reported to consist of 43 species, including 11 endemic species.
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According to the natural transfer theory (also called "hunter theory" or "bushmeat theory"), in the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" of SIV or HIV (post mutation), the virus was transmitted from an ape or monkey to a human when a hunter or bushmeat vendor/handler was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering the animal. The resulting exposure to blood or other bodily fluids of the animal can result in SIV infection. Prior to WWII, some Sub-Saharan Africans were forced out of the rural areas because of the European demand for resources. Since rural Africans were not keen to pursue agricultural practices in the jungle, they turned to non-domesticated animals as their primary source of meat.
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The gray flying fox has small size and neutral coloration with a brownish head and an orange abdomen. It probably roosts individually or in small groups. It was listed on appendix II of CITES, and is classified as "Data Deficient" by the IUCN. This species has been decimated by hunting for bushmeat in Indonesia.
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Protected areas and indigenous peoples: the paradox of conservation and survival of the Baka in Moloundou region (south-east Cameroon) Communities in the area engage in subsistence farming, hunting, fishing and gathering. The area is also used illegal commercial bushmeat hunters and traders and trophy hunters. Parrots and ivory are also smuggled through the area.
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In Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, the animals' whole body is harvested for bushmeat and medicine. In Malawi and Tanzania, the genitalia, nose tips and tails are used for traditional medicine. In Mozambique, traditional healers use various spotted hyena body parts, particularly the paws. Oromo hunters typically go through ritual purification after killing hyenas.
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A monkey (lutung) Monkey meat is the flesh and other edible parts derived from monkeys, a kind of bushmeat. Human consumption of monkey meat has been historically recorded in numerous parts of the world, including multiple Asian and African nations. Monkey meat consumption has been reported in parts of Europe and the Americas as well.
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Consumption of bushmeat in Bioko has increasingly become indicative of wealth and status, as the price of the meat rises, however it still remains a commonly accessed source of protein. There has been some concern that the proximity of the drill to humans due to deforestation, hunting, and consumption could result in zoonotic disease transmission.
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Cattle herders also seasonally use the area, especially in the more open grasslands of the northern part of the Park. The railway line is much more frequented and is a major conduit for the bushmeat trade, funnelling wild animal meat from the centre of Cameroon down to the populous centres of Yaounde and Bertoua.
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Once these contracts are finished, they then have to find new jobs in the area. This influx of logging workers can create competition for bushmeat resources. For locals who do get jobs with the logging companies, the working conditions can be bad and the pay low, some paying only 50 US cents a day.
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Elsewhere in the country, people were finding traditional food production difficult, because of the war, and turned instead to bushmeat to feed themselves and their families. This in turn led to orphaned bonobos turning up for sale on the streets of Kinshasa - and it was from this situation that Claudine started Lola ya bonobo.
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Deforestation is a threat to slow lorises throughout their range. By 2001, mainland Southeast Asia had lost much of its forest cover. Slow lorises are threatened by deforestation and the wildlife trade, which includes the exotic pet trade, traditional medicine, and bushmeat. Other threats includes road construction, selective logging, and slash and burn agriculture.
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C. petaurista is a common and adaptable species. Some areas of forest in which it lives are being degraded but it is tolerant of the disturbance. It may be hunted for bushmeat in some areas, but the International Union for Conservation of Nature has not identified any major threats and has assessed its conservation status as being near-threatened.
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Newstrack India, 9 Feb 2010 Retrieved 2012-04-12. The sanctuary is a refuge in the Congo Basin for chimpanzees orphaned by bushmeat hunters; authorities deliver the young animals after confiscating them from sellers in the pet or entertainment trades.Tchimpounga Sanctuary Retrieved 2012-04-12. The sanctuary is a member of the Pan African Sanctuary Alliance.
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The lesser cane rat is assessed as being of "Least Concern" by the IUCN in its Red List of Threatened Species. Although the precise range of the lesser cane rat and its population trend are not known, it is a fairly common species and faces no specific threats. It is eaten as bushmeat in some parts of its range.
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The harpy fruit bat population is thought to be stable. The greatest threat it faces is deforestation. However, this is not thought to be a major threat since the current deforestation within its range is mainly occurring in lower elevations. This species is also subject to hunting for bushmeat, as bat dishes are locally popular for special occasions.
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It is currently evaluated as endangered by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this designation because its population likely declined by 50% from 1996-2016, and its population is fragmented. It is threatened by hunting for bushmeat. Logging is also a threat to this species, as it likely roosts in hollow trees during the day.
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Its predators are not well-known, but may include hawks. Adults are commonly affected by parasites such as flies and mites. The hammer-headed bat is sometimes considered a pest due to its frugivorous diet and its extremely loud honking noises at night. In Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is consumed as bushmeat.
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A Liberian tropical forest. Environmental issues in Liberia include the deforestation of tropical rainforest, the hunting of endangered species for bushmeat, the pollution of rivers and coastal waters from industrial run-off and raw sewage, and the burning and dumping of household waste. Like other countries Africa, Liberia is also especially vulnerable to climate change, exacerbating existing environmental issues.
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Another achievement of that journey was the powerful poem "Punani", which was written by nine female writers who were talking on the theme of Kovu Safarini - My Scar. Albums to her credit include One Hell of a Storm on Tongue and Groove, Wildcat, BushMeat, fusions of Jazz, Reggae, and Broken Beat."Ife Piankhi" applesandsnakes.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
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They often obtain iron goods, pots, wooden goods, and basketry, in exchange for meat, animal hides, and other forest goods. Bushmeat is a particularly frequently traded item. They will also trade to obtain agricultural products from the villagers through barter. Hunting is usually done in groups, with men, women, and children all aiding in the process.
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The Diana monkey is found in the primary forests, and does not thrive in secondary forests. The species is regarded as endangered by the IUCN as well as by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the chief dangers to them being habitat destruction (they are now virtually confined to coastal areas) and hunting for bushmeat.
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In 2012, Lola ya Bonobo was home to 60 bonobos who live in 30 hectares of primary forest. Typically, bonobos arrive as young infants. The bushmeat trade in Congo sees hundreds of bonobos killed each year for meat and the infants are sold as pets. When confiscated, these infant bonobos are taken to Lola ya Bonobo.
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Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores. The decline of giant eland, Cape buffalo, hartebeest and waterbuck in the Chinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.
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In 1971, the species was successfully bred in the Gladys Porter Zoo. Recent population numbers are not available. In 1999 it was estimated that around 3,500 Jentink's duikers remained in the wild, but the following year others suggested less than 2,000 were likely to remain. They are threatened primarily by habitat destruction and commercial bushmeat hunters.
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The bushmeat trade, besides having a direct effect on the animal populations which are being hunted, has disastrous effects on the ecosystem as a whole. Depletion of animal populations directly threatens the ability for some of the larger forest carnivores. Additionally, decreases in the populations of seed- dispersing animals directly affects tree regeneration rates, forest structure, and composition.
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The De Brazza's monkey is listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List. The main threats to DeBrazza's monkeys are deforestation due to logging and agriculture, and bushmeat hunting. There are several captive population housed in zoos across Europe and North America. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) manages captive population under a species survival plan.
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The duration of symptoms is typically 2 to 5 weeks. Monkeypox may be spread from handling bushmeat, an animal bite or scratch, body fluids, contaminated objects, or close contact with an infected person. The virus is believed to normally circulate among certain rodents in Africa. Diagnosis can be confirmed by testing a lesion for the virus's DNA.
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The African golden cat (Caracal aurata) is a wild cat endemic to the rainforests of West and Central Africa. It is threatened due to deforestation and bushmeat hunting and listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. It is a close relative of both the caracal and the serval. Previously, it was placed in the genus Profelis.
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Conservation groups are concerned that, with the rise in the human population, many animal species are in danger of extinction because of the trade in bushmeat. Chimpanzee, bonobo, wild boar, monkey, antelope, and other wild animals are often sold in the market or at impromptu stalls around the town. In 1998, Jeff Dupain and others catalogued the types of bushmeat available in the two main Basankusu markets; they interviewed the stallholders to find out where the animals were hunted. Bonobos at the market of Basankusu (Equateur Province, DRC) in 1999: new evidence for bonobos between the Ikelemba and Bosomba rivers J. Dupain, M. Bofaso, J. Lompongo, and L. Van Elsacker Primate Research Institute Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp Bonobo in Situ project, Iyema-Lomako, Equateur Province, DRC Many people keep livestock around the family home.
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In its Red List of Threatened Species, the IUCN has classified this bat as "Vulnerable". Its numbers appear to be declining and the greatest threat it faces is being hunted for bushmeat. Under Madagascar law, hunting this species is only permitted between the months of May and August. This legislation is widely disregarded and the bat is hunted at any time of year.
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The large flying fox is hunted for bushmeat. In Peninsular Malaysia, 1,756 hunting licenses were issued for the large flying fox from 2002-2006\. In total, these hunting licenses permitted the hunting of 87,800 large flying foxes, or about 22,000 each year. Based on population modeling, the loss of the estimated 22,000 large flying foxes annually is unlikely to be sustainable.
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It is currently evaluated as least concern by the IUCN--its lowest conservation priority. While it is likely threatened to some extent by deforestation and exploitation for bushmeat, these are not considered major problems. Overall, it is not of concern because it has a large geographic range, presumably large population size, and it is not thought to be in rapid decline.
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The species is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Populations are declining primarily due to pressure from local hunting for home consumption and the bushmeat trade. Known roosting sites are heavily exploited, and the lack of official protection means that roosting trees may also be cut down. The Sulawesi flying fox is now regionally extinct in North Sulawesi because of overhunting.
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Similarly, HIV originating in simians (crossover due to humans consuming wild chimpanzee bushmeat) and influenza A viruses originating in avians (crossover due to an antigenic shift) could have initially been considered a zoonotic transference as the infections first came from vertebrate animals, but could currently be regarded as an anthroponosis because of its potential to transfer between human to human.
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As a frugivorous species, the hammer-headed bat is sometimes considered a pest of fruit crops. Its ability to produce extremely loud vocalizations means that some consider it one of Africa's most significant nocturnal pests. Humans hunt this large bat and consume it as bushmeat. It is eaten in Nigeria, as well as seasonally in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
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Today, it is estimated that 90% of Madagascar's original forest cover has been lost. Rising populations have created even greater demand in the southwest portion of the island for fuel wood, charcoal, and lumber. Fires from the clearing of grasslands, as well as slash-and-burn agriculture destroy forests. Another threat to the species is harvesting either for food (bushmeat) or pets.
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These protective taboos are breaking down with cultural erosion and immigration. This lemur is now hunted for bushmeat, but humans are not the only threat. The introduction of foreign species, especially cats and dogs, has hurt the Coquerel’s sifaka. Projects for Animal Welfare encourages the neutering and spaying of the cats and dogs on the island to protect the native wildlife.
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The drill is one of the largest monkey species, and is considered endangered. The Bioko drill was separated from their mainland counterpart, due to rising sea levels after the end of the last ice age, around 10,000 years ago. The capital of Equatorial Guinea, Malabo, is on Bioko Island. The Malabo market is the primary point of sale for bushmeat on Bioko Island.
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Bronx Zoo The western lowland gorilla population in the wild is faced by a number of factors that threaten its extinction. Such factors include deforestation, farming, grazing and the expanding human settlements that cause forest loss. There is a correlation between human intervention in the wild with the destruction of habitats and increase in bushmeat hunting. Another of these factors is infertility.
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The outbreak was traced to a woman living in Ikanamongo Village in the remote northern Équateur province who fell ill after handling bushmeat. Despite treatment in a local clinic, the woman died on 11 August 2014. At the time of her death, her diagnosis was hemorrhagic fever of unknown etiology. Subsequent laboratory studies confirmed she had died of Ebola virus disease.
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In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1–3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets. They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade, and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas. Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals. Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees.
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They reach sexual maturity later and have a longer period between births. Populations therefore recover more slowly after being depleted by poaching or the pet trade. Data for some African cities show that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the bushmeat trade. Endangered primates such as guenons and the drill are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable levels.
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The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified the sale of duiker bushmeat as contributing to the spread of Filoviruses such as Ebola, citing Georges et al., 1999. The WHO notes that risk of infection predominantly arises from slaughter and preparation of meat, and that consumption of properly cooked meat does not pose a risk.WHO experts consultation on Ebola Reston pathogenicity in humans.
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In 2012, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessed both Coquerel's giant mouse lemur and the northern giant mouse lemur as endangered. Prior to that, both species had been listed as vulnerable. Populations of both species are in decline due to habitat destruction, primarily for slash-and-burn agriculture and charcoal production. Also, they are both hunted for bushmeat.
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The attitude of rural people in Ghana towards African palm civets is hostile; they consider them a menace to their food resources and safety of children. In Gabon, it is among the most frequently found small carnivores for sale in bushmeat markets. Upper Guinean forests in Liberia are considered a biodiversity hotspot. They have already been fragmented into two blocks.
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Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with the human T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates. Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it. Many hunters and traders are not aware of zoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions.
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The giant sable antelope is a major national symbol of Angola. While it once could be found across Africa, numbers declined in the 20th century to the point that it was thought potentially extinct until one was photographed in 2004. Currently there are estimated fewer than 200 extant individuals, with habitat loss and the bushmeat trade driving this massive decline in numbers.
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The hunters then became infected with HIV and passed on the disease to other humans through bodily fluid contamination. This theory is known as the "Bushmeat theory". HIV made the leap from rural isolation to rapid urban transmission as a result of urbanization that occurred during the 20th century. There are many reasons for which there is such prevalence of AIDS in Africa.
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It measures under tall at the shoulder, and weighs between . It was described in 2010 following comparison of specimens in museum collections with those from bushmeat markets. It is a small antelope and is characterised by a slightly raised back, short legs, a small head and short, rounded ears. It has a long tail, pedal glands and a distinctive stripe above the eye.
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To combat ivory, bushmeat and rhino horn poaching, which are devastating wildlife populations, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust operates fully equipped Anti-Poaching Units in partnership with the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). By March 2017, the DSWT/KWS Units had made more than 2,800 arrests and removed in excess of 140,000 snares. Ten Units protect the greater Tsavo Conservation Area covering a vast 60,000km2, whilst one fully mobile unit is operating throughout the country where it is needed the most. These fully trained frontline teams, accompanied by armed KWS Rangers, are equipped with vehicles, camping equipment, radios, GPS units and cameras, patrolling daily to combat elephant and rhino poaching as well as the threat of bushmeat snaring. Supporting these vital ground teams is a Rapid Response Anti-Poaching Unit operated by armed KWS rangers selected from the Service’s top field recruits.
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The total number of Hodgson's giant flying squirrels is thought to be decreasing, but it is found in several protected areas and it is sufficiently widespread to be recognised as least concern by the IUCN. The primary threat is habitat loss and degradation. Secondary threats are hunting for bushmeat and its pelt, and capture for the local pet trade. Captives are generally short-lived.
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The population is suspected to be declining due to poaching of prey species for human consumption as bushmeat, persecution, traffic accidents, and predation by domestic dogs and cats. The black-footed cat has been studied using radio telemetry since 1993. This research allowed direct observation of its behaviour in its natural habitat. It usually rests in burrows during the day and hunts at night.
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The MLW Landscape is in one of the least developed and most remote parts of the Congo Basin. The inhabitants are among the poorest in Africa, depending on natural resources to meet their basic needs. Most of the people live by slash-and-burn agriculture, and rely on bushmeat such as porcupine, sitatunga, and forest hog for protein. Cash crops include maize, cassava and peanuts.
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Bushmeat, an important source of protein in the diet of some Africans, should be handled and prepared with appropriate protective clothing and thoroughly cooked before consumption. Some research suggests that an outbreak of Ebola disease in the wild animals used for consumption may result in a corresponding human outbreak. Since 2003, such animal outbreaks have been monitored to predict and prevent Ebola outbreaks in humans.
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Wildlife use is a general term for all uses of wildlife products, including ritual or religious uses, consumption of bushmeat and different forms of trade. Wildlife use is usually linked to hunting or poaching. Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets, but they might be often related with each-other.
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Traps are the primary tool employed, though firearms are increasingly used today. Bushmeat caught in this way is becoming an important, if unsustainable, source of income for many people. The traditional Maka house is a rectangular structure made of mud bricks held together by a bamboo frame. The A-shaped roof is covered in raffia palm leaves, though tin or aluminium roofing is today becoming more common.
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Bili-Uere Hunting Reserve (French: Domaine de Chasse Bili-Uere) is a hunting reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, covering . Since 2005, the protected area is considered a Lion Conservation Unit together with Garamba National Park. More than 100,000 forest elephants lived in this vast landscape in the early 1970s. Today, this area faces major problems, such as wildlife conservation, illegal mining and bushmeat hunting.
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The consumption of bushmeat is also the most probable cause for the emergence of HIV-1C in South America. However, the types of apes shown to carry the SIV virus are different in South America. The primary point of entry, according to researchers, is somewhere in the jungles of Brazil. An SIV strain, closely related to HIV, was interspersed within a certain clade of primates.
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When overfishing caused by illegal fishing reduces the seafood stock, African people risk their life and hunt dangerous and/or protected animals. These people face two major risks during hunting for bushmeat; they can be killed by the wild animals they are trying to hunt or they can be shot by the rangers who are protecting endangered wild animals living within protected area boundaries.
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Affiliated tribes acted as middlemen in these transactions. From 1910 to 1940, the Aka lands were part of French Equatorial Africa, and nearby affiliated tribes were forced into rubber production by the colonialists. These laborers occasionally escaped into forests inhabited by the Aka, increasing the demand for bushmeat. To meet this demand, the Aka developed the more efficient method of net hunting to replace traditional spear hunting.
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As of 2016, the giant golden-crowned flying fox is listed as an endangered species by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this designation because its population likely declined by more than 50% from 1986-2016\. One of the largest factors in its decline is hunting for bushmeat. Its large body size means that it is an easier target than many other bats.
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Bushmeat caught in this way is becoming an important, if unsustainable, source of income for many people. The Nzime groups share a codependent relationship with Cameroon's Baka pygmies. The Nzime trade manufactured goods and cultivated crops for pygmy-supplied forest game. In recent years, the Nzime have increasingly exploited their pygmy neighbours, however, both for cheap labour and as a sort of living tourist attraction.
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Even elephants which are known for being hunted for ivory are considered targets for bushmeat trade as a single elephant can provide thousands of kilos of meat which can be easier to sell than its ivory. From 2002 to 2013, the DRC elephant population decreased dramatically from roughly 62,000 to 5,000.Vera, Varun and Ewing, Thomas (April 2014) Ivory's Curse Born Free USA and C4ADS, Retrieved 17 May 2014 In the DRC, with the wide expanses of forest, high income can be obtained from the meat trade; consequently, almost no sort of wildlife protection enforcement can prevent the consumption and trade of bushmeat, which continues to rise. Road construction from logging and mining operations decreases the distance hunters have to walk to reach a given section of the forest to hunt, making what was previously a multi-day trip possible to complete within a day.
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As of 2008, it is listed as a least-concern species by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this designation due to its large geographic range and presumably large population size. Additionally, it is unlikely to be experiencing rapid population decline. The IUCN listed no major threats to the species, but the first record of it in Laos was an individual sold as bushmeat at a market.
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Surveys in the Central African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the number of lions decreased significantly between 2012 and 2017 after transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved into the area. Rangers found multiple lion cadavers and confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders. They were accompanied by armed merchants who also engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading lion skins.
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Quarantine officers routinely monitor animals and cargo entering the United States that may pose a risk to public health. They inspect live animals, including dogs, cats, monkeys, bats, turtles, ticks, mosquitoes, snails, and civets. CDC also regulates the import of animal products like bushmeat, hunting trophies, untanned goat skin drums, and uncured leather. Biological research samples, blood and tissue samples, and human remains are also screened for disease.
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Snares are anchored cable or wire nooses set to catch wild animals such as squirrels and rabbits. In the USA, they are most commonly used for capture and control of surplus furbearers and especially for food collection. They are also widely used by subsistence and commercial hunters for bushmeat consumption and trade in African forest regions and in Cambodia. Snares are one of the simplest traps and are very effective.
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Bushmeat caught in this way is becoming an important, if unsustainable, source of income for many people. Some Njyem groups share a codependent relationship with Cameroon's Baka pygmies. The Njyem trade manufactured goods and cultivated crops for pygmy-supplied forest game. Njem house in Cameroon The traditional Njyem house is a rectangular structure made of leaves folded over a raffia branch and pinned in place with a small twig.
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Most villages are situated on the higher ground, with the villagers practicing shifting slash-and-burn agriculture in the valleys. The main crops are manioc (cassava), maize, squash, and beans. The villagers raise chickens, ducks, goats, sheep and cattle, and supplement their diet with fish and bushmeat. A few Indian and Chinese business people selling electronics, such as cell phones, televisions and sound systems, have opened shop recently.
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The roloway monkey (Cercopithecus roloway) is an endangered species of Old World monkey endemic to tropical West Africa. It was previously considered a subspecies of the Diana monkey (C. diana). It is classified as Critically Endangered due to habitat loss and continued hunting for the bushmeat trade. The roloway monkeys are mainly arboreal species, for the most part inhabiting forests in Ghana and some reserves in South-Eastern Côte-D'Ivoire.
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The African brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) is a species of rat- like Old World porcupine, indigenous to a broad belt of Africa ranging from Guinea on the west coast to Kenya on the east. This is a common species with a very wide range, and despite being used extensively for bushmeat, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".
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These reasons are heavily influenced by habitat loss and hunting, the two greatest threats primates face. More specifically, threats listed in the report include deforestation due to slash- and-burn agriculture, clearing for pasture or farmland, charcoal production, firewood production, illegal logging, selective logging, mining, land development, and cash crop production; forest fragmentation; small population sizes; live capture for the exotic pet trade; and hunting for bushmeat and traditional medicine.
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Both African elephant species are threatened foremost by habitat loss and habitat fragmentation following conversion of forests for plantations of non- timber crops, livestock farming, and building urban and industrial areas. As a result, human-elephant conflict has increased. Poaching for ivory and bushmeat is a significant threat in Central Africa. Civil unrest, human encroachment, and habit fragmentation leaves some elephants confined to small patches of forest without sufficient food.
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Wildlife poachers have the greatest chance of contracting and dispersing this disease at they return from the bush. HIV is a life-threatening virus that attacks the immune system. The virus weakens the white blood cell count and their ability to detect and ward off potentially harmful diseases. Dispersal of the disease includes acts of consuming infected bushmeat, pathogens coming into contact with open wounds, and through infected blood transfers.
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Surveyors found dead individuals on bushmeat markets in villages located in the vicinity of the park. In Gabon’s Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, it was recorded only in savanna habitats. In the Republic of Congo, it was repeatedly observed in the Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic of Odzala-Kokoua National Park during surveys in 2007. In the 1990s, it was considered a common species in Tanzania's Mkomazi National Park.
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A handbag made from West African dwarf crocodile leather exhibited at the Natural History Museum, London. Hunting for leather is also a main threat to the dwarf crocodile. Though some skins are used in local manufacturing of leather products, they are of poor quality, so little interest is shown in captive breeding or a sustainable use program. In contrast, they are sometimes hunted for food and part of the bushmeat trade.
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Time Magazine (2005-01-09) now known as the Bili ape. Though it has been studied by prominent researchers, much remains to be discovered about its distribution and behavior. Because it is currently hunted as part of the DRC's bushmeat trade it is vital to continue research in this area before this population is eliminated Ammann appeared on Time Magazine's list of "Heroes of the Environment" October 2007.
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They are prey for many forest predators, and are threatened by hunting for the bushmeat trade, logging, and habitat destruction. Individuals are more vigilant (conspecific threat) in low canopy, they also spend less time scanning when they are around familiar group members as opposed to unfamiliar. There are no clear difference in vigilance between male and females. However, there is a positive correlation between mean monthly vigilance and encounter rates.
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Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to population declines. A threat that has emerged quite recently is the presence of illegal armed groups around protected areas, inhibiting conservation and monitoring actions. A small population occurs north of the Virunga National Park, but lacks protection due to the presence of armed groups in the vicinity.
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Bouvier's red colobus is thought to exhibit considerable facial variation from individual to individual, varying from light flesh-colored with blackish cheeks and brows to darker tones throughout the face, excluding the nose and lips. Bouvier's red colobus lives in swampy forests surrounding the Congo River, between the mouths of the Alima and Oubangui Rivers. It does not show fear of humans, making it an easy target for bushmeat hunters.
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The blue duiker is categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). It is listed in Appendix II of CITES (Washington Convention). While the population trend is reasonably stable, the blue duiker is threatened by extensive bushmeat hunting across its range. Wilson claimed that the blue duiker has the greatest economic as well as ecological significance of any African ungulate .
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Improved roads have provided easier access by hunters to remote regions such as the Luba Crater reserve. As of 2010 a new highway was under construction through the reserve from Belebu to Ureca. A theoretical ban on primate hunting has had no effect since there is no enforcement by the government. Shotgun hunting is becoming more common, since the high prices commanded by bushmeat easily cover the cost of the cartridge.
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Hunting pressure in the Amazon rainforest has increased as traditional hunting techniques have been replaced by modern weapons such as shotguns. Access roads built for mining and logging operations fragment the forest landscape and allow hunters to move into forested areas which previously were untouched. The bushmeat trade in Central Africa incentivizes the overexploitation of local fauna. Indonesia has the most endangered animal species of any area in the world.
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The tropical forests where this flying squirrel lives are under threat from timber extraction and the conversion of the land to agricultural use. However the forests are much less threatened than are similar forests in western Africa. This squirrel is also under threat from hunting for bushmeat, but this is unlikely to pose much of a threat, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".
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In its Red List of Threatened Species, the IUCN has classified this bat as "Vulnerable". Its numbers appear to be declining and the greatest threat it faces is being hunted for bushmeat. Under Madagascar law, hunting this species is only permitted between the months of May and August. It is targeted both at its roosting sites and at the trees where it feeds, and the harvesting in many areas is believed to be unsustainable.
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The great flying fox has been researched to determine its role in the ecology of Hendra virus, which is a zoonotic virus that can infect humans. On the north coast of Papua New Guinea, it has tested positive for antibodies against the virus, known as seropositivity. In Papua New Guinea, it is hunted for bushmeat. Localized hunting occurs over a large part of its range, with higher levels in East Sepik Province.
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As of 2008, the large flying fox is evaluated as a near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It meets the criteria for this designation because it is likely experiencing significant population decline, though probably not at the rate required for the vulnerable species designation (more than 30% loss over ten years). The bushmeat trade is resulting in unsustainable harvest of this species. Additionally, it is experiencing habitat loss through deforestation.
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Threats to this species include mining for iron ore, which can disturb or destroy their roosts. As of 2013, however, there were indications that mining would soon begin at the only sites where this species exists, posing an imminent threat to its existence. Its range is also subject to habitat destruction via deforestation. In this region, bats are also used as a food source, so this bat is likely killed for bushmeat.
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Group of bonobos The Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape in the Democratic Republic of the Congo one of the least developed and most remote parts of the Congo Basin. The inhabitants are among the poorest in Africa, depending on natural resources to meet their basic needs. Most of the people live by slash-and-burn agriculture, and rely on bushmeat such as porcupine, sitatunga, and forest hog for protein. Cash crops include maize, cassave and groundnuts.
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Major threats to central chimpanzee populations include Ebola virus disease, poaching for bushmeat, and habitat destruction. The IUCN attributes this to increasing human presence (agriculture, de-forestation, development) and political instability. Due to their close genetic relationship to humans, chimpanzees are vulnerable to viruses that afflict humans, such as Ebola, the common cold, influenza, pneumonia, whooping cough, tuberculosis, measles, yellow fever, HIV and may contract other parasitological diseases such as schistosomiasis, filariasis, giardiasis, and salmonellosis.
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Human-to-human transmission of EBOV through the air has not been reported to occur during EVD outbreaks, and airborne transmission has only been demonstrated in very strict laboratory conditions, and then only from pigs to primates, but not from primates to primates. Spread of EBOV by water, or food other than bushmeat, has not been observed. No spread by mosquitos or other insects has been reported. Other possible methods of transmission are being studied.
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A 2007 report by The New York Times documented several instances of monkey meat being secretly imported into the United States under the guise of other meats. It is illegal to import bushmeat into the United States. Monkey meat found at the country's border entries will be seized and destroyed by border custom agents, along with any belongings that come with it. People may be fined US$250,000 for importing monkey meat.
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In several articles published since 2001, Preston Marx, Philip Alcabes, and Ernest Drucker proposed that HIV emerged because of rapid serial human-to- human transmission of SIV (after a bushmeat hunter or handler became SIV- infected) through unsafe or unsterile injections. Although both Chitnis et al. and Sharp et al. also suggested that this may have been one of the major risk factors at play in HIV emergence (see above), Marx et al.
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In New Caledonia, braided flying fox fur was once used as currency. On the island of Makira, which is part of the Solomon Islands, indigenous peoples still hunt flying foxes for their teeth as well as for bushmeat. The canine teeth are strung together on necklaces that are used as currency. Teeth of the insular flying fox (Pteropus tonganus) are particularly prized, as they are usually large enough to drill holes in.
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Lemuriform primates are characterized by a toothcomb, a specialized set of teeth in the front, lower part of the mouth mostly used for combing fur during grooming. Many of today's living strepsirrhines are endangered due to habitat destruction, hunting for bushmeat, and live capture for the exotic pet trade. Both living and extinct strepsirrhines are behaviorally diverse, although all are primarily arboreal (tree-dwelling). Most living lemuriforms are nocturnal, while most adapiforms were diurnal.
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Strepsirrhines are threatened by deforestation in tropical regions. Like all other non-human primates, strepsirrhines face an elevated risk of extinction due to human activity, particularly deforestation in tropical regions. Much of their habitat has been converted for human use, such as agriculture and pasture. The threats facing strepsirrhine primates fall into three main categories: habitat destruction, hunting (for bushmeat or traditional medicine), and live capture for export or local exotic pet trade.
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The nearest population of western lowland gorilla is some 250 km away. Both loss of habitat and intense hunting for bushmeat have contributed to the decline of this subspecies. In 2007, a conservation plan for the Cross River gorilla was published, outlining the most important actions necessary to preserve this subspecies.Oates, J., Sunderland-Groves, J., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Nicholas, A., Takang, E., Omeni, F., Imong, I., Fotso, R., Nkembi, L. and Williamson, E.A. (2007).
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On top of this fragmentation, the Cross River gorilla is also threatened by hunting for bushmeat and for use of their bones for medical purposes. For example, the exploitation of some primate species in Africa is prohibited because certain local communities embellished them with ritual meanings, and sometimes regarded them as totems, and also used them as tests for medicine.Adams, J. S., and T. O. McShane. 1996. The myth of wild Africa: conservation without illusion.
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Bushmeat has also been implicated in spreading Ebola disease, either by handling the raw meat or through droppings from the animals. It is the raw blood and meat that is thought to be more dangerous, so it is those that hunt and butcher the raw meat that are more at risk as opposed to cooked meat sold at market. Health care workers in Sierra Leone have been warned not to go to markets.
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This decline is partially due to the fact that these monkeys are targeted by hunters for sale and consumption in the Amazonian bushmeat trade. Furthermore, habitat in the southern part of its range is being developed for agriculture and habitat in the southwestern Peruvian region of Madre de Dios is being polluted and destroyed by illegal mining activity. In Peru, illicit extraction of timber and wildlife products remain issues even in protected areas.
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The bay duiker prefers old-growth or primary forests. It has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat. The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker's preference for old- growth forests, and habitat degradation. The bay duiker is, however, still a common duiker species, and is classified as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
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The lesula is vulnerable to hunting for bushmeat. Protecting the species could be challenging, as species with such a small range can go from vulnerable to seriously endangered in a few years. The lesula's range is within the Tshuapa–Lomami–Lualaba Conservation Landscape, and the Lomami National Park has been proposed to protect this and other species in the region. The Lesula also live in the Ngorongoro Crater conservation area of Tanzania.
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The literature also indicates that the region of Southern Africa is a hub for illegal wildlife trafficking and the illegal wildlife market. Birds are mentioned as one of the groups of animals most significantly impacted by the illegal wildlife trade. This indicates that while there is no specific mention of consumption of vultures as bushmeat, birds are still being moved throughout the region and consumption or use elsewhere is still a driver for the activity.
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In a study done in areas of Nigeria and Cameroon, it is estimated that more than 900,000 reptiles, birds, and mammals are sold each year which is approximately 12,000 tonnes of terrestrial vertebrates. 8.42 tonnes of that was bird bushmeat, and vultures made up most of that. Most of the vultures found in the study were being sold in rural areas of Cameroon. Hooded and large bodied vultures are some of the most sold raptors.
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The park is home to many smaller mammals and birds, and the park's wetlands are home to migratory and resident water birds. Wildlife was diminished by poaching and over-hunting during the long Angolan Civil War. Wildlife has recovered somewhat since the end of the war, but poaching, bushmeat hunting, and land mines remain threats to its recovery. The park's many land mines kill and maim elephants, African buffalo, hippos, and other large animals.
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Both species in the genus have been studied very little, in part due to their remote habitat. However, M. cataphractus (when it contained both the West African and Central African populations) has been classified as critically endangered by the IUCN. Threats include hunting (skin and bushmeat), habitat loss, overfishing (they mainly feed on fish), and general disturbance. Both species have been entirely extirpated from several countries where formerly present, and have declined elsewhere.
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The forest giant squirrel is generally not a common species. In some parts of its range it is hunted for bushmeat but in general does not seem to face any particular threats. Habitat destruction is occurring in parts of its range but it seems able to adapt to man-made habitats to some extent and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern". Twelve subspecies are recognized.
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Such attitudes have contributed to persecution. Folklore about reptiles, too, is correlated with negative attitudes to them. Persecution resulting from folklore and people's attitudes can thus be added to the challenge of conserving reptiles, already threatened by human activities including destruction of their habitats, pollution, climate change, competition with introduced alien species, and excessive exploitation, such as for bushmeat. Persecution includes the deliberate killing of snakes across Europe, and the "rounding up" of rattlesnakes in America.
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Today, hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in some parts of the world. In other areas, hunting and non-commercial fishing are mainly seen as a sport or recreation. Meat sourced from wildlife that is not traditionally regarded as game is known as bushmeat. The increasing demand for wildlife as a source of traditional food in East Asia is decimating populations of sharks, primates, pangolins and other animals, which they believe have aphrodisiac properties.
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In Cameroon bushmeat markets, the African Rock Python is commonly sold for meat and is very expensive at US$175. The poaching of the pythons is illegal in Cameroon under their wildlife law, but there is little to no enforcement. In Kenya, there has been an increase in snake farms to address the demand for snake skin internationally, but there are health concerns for the workers, and danger due to poachers coming to the farms to hunt the snakes.
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The base of the country's diet is meat and animal products: primarily beef but also chicken, lamb, pig and sometimes fish. The preferred cooking methods for meats and vegetables are still boiling and roasting, although modernization has popularized frying (see milanesas and chivitos). Meanwhile, wheat and fruit are generally served fried (torta frita and pasteles), comfited (rapadura and ticholos de banana), and sometimes baked (rosca de chicharrones), a new modern style. Bushmeat comes from mulitas and carpinchos.
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The drill plays an important role in the cultural tradition of bushmeat consumption, and is locally considered to be tasty, and in some regions, a delicacy. The commercialisation of hunting on Bioko Island has made this practice unsustainable. Hunting of the Bioko drill is banned in most areas of Bioko Island, as they predominantly inhabit protected areas on the island, however the ban is considered ineffective and hunting remains the largest threat to the drill's population.
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Relative densities of mammals in response to different levels of bushmeat hunting in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. Tropical Conservation Science, 2(1), 70–87. It is a multibillion-dollar business with some 5 million tons (mostly small antelopes and monkeys, the crowned eagle's staple diet) being killed each year. In just 500 million acres of the Congo Basin owned by 8 countries the weight equivalent to 40.7 million humans is removed each year (or 740,000 bull elephants).
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From 2003–2004, two epizootics infected the western lowland gorilla, which caused two-thirds of their population to disappear. The outbreak was monitored in the Republic of Congo by Magdalena Bermejo and other field-based primatologists, as it also spread to humans through contact with bushmeat. The catastrophe led the World Conservation Union to designate the western lowland gorilla a critically endangered species. Malaria is also an issue that has been arising for the western lowland gorillas.
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Small African rodents harbor this disease and infect prairies, wildlife markets, and other areas where large African primates and carnivores are hunted for bushmeat and exotic trade purposes. Marburg virus, which causes Marburg virus disease, is a zoonotic RNA virus within the filovirus family. It is closely related to the Ebola virus and is transmitted by wild animals to humans. African monkeys and fruit bats are believed to be the main carries of the infectious disease.
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Mountain gorillas are not usually hunted for bushmeat, but they are frequently maimed or killed by traps and snares intended for other animals. They have been killed for their heads, hands, and feet, which are sold to collectors. Infants are sold to zoos, researchers, and people who want them as pets. The abduction of infants generally involves the loss of at least one adult, as members of a group will fight to the death to protect their young.
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Humans are known to hunt other primates for food, so-called bushmeat. Pictured are two men who have killed a number of silky sifaka and white-headed brown lemurs. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists more than a third of primates as critically endangered or vulnerable. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction, including: 87% of species in Madagascar, 73% in Asia, 37% in Africa, and 36% in South and Central America.
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Even though the military control of the area provided some degree of protection, hunting for bushmeat continued. The wildlife protection forces were reported to be hardly adequate considering the large number of protected areas which has resulted in extensive exploitation of wildlife by poaching; extensive surveys carried out in the Boma National Park confirmed this situation. Another factor that poses threat to wildlife in South Sudan is encroachment on the savannah land areas for cultivation.UNEP, pp.
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A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008 Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes. Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) and long-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.
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Just over the last few decades urbanization has brought with it highways, agriculture, and dams creating an influx in habitat fragmentation, habitat destruction and hunting pressure. Habitat fragmentation is rising as secondary roads increase and people move closer to the forests. Along with an influx of people the amount of agriculture required to support the area increases, increases pressure for deforestation. They also face a hunting problem for their bushmeat and their tails used as dusters.
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In 1994 Tooze founded the Centre for Education, Research and Conservation of Primates and Nature (CERCOPAN) which is a non-profit, non-government organisation based in Cross River State, Nigeria. CERCOPAN is a rehabilitation and conservation project for threatened and endangered forest monkeys. Much of its work involves the rehabilitation of young monkeys orphaned by the trade in bushmeat. The mission of CERCOPAN is to conserve Nigeria's primates through sustainable rainforest conservation, community partnerships, education, primate rehabilitation and research.
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Noon attained a bachelor's degree from Florida Atlantic University. She then earned a master's in anthropology and a doctorate in biological anthropology, under Dr. Linda Wolfe from the University of Florida, specializing in captive chimpanzees. She conducted much of her field research at the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage in Zambia, where chimpanzees were orphaned by the bushmeat trade in Africa. There, she completed her dissertation on the re-socialization of chimpanzees and earned her PhD in 1996.
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The tropical forests where this flying squirrel lives are under threat because of timber harvesting and the conversion of the land to agricultural use. The animal is also under threat from hunters and is sometimes to be seen on sale as bushmeat in markets. As a secretive, nocturnal species, its population size and natural history are little known, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has been unable to classify its conservation status and has rated it as "data deficient".
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The northern sportive lemur is preyed on by the native Malagasy tree boa, which hunts the lemurs while they are sleeping in tree holes. Large birds of prey, Falconiformes and Strigiformes, are also natural predators of the lemurs. Along with these ecological threats, the arboreal lemur species are also highly threatened by human charcoal production, which still continues to remove the only remaining forest habitat of the lemurs, greatly restricting their range. L. septentrionalis is also illegally hunted as bushmeat.
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In its Red List of Endangered Species, the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the desert warthog as being of "Least Concern". This is because it is common in some parts of its range and the population is thought to be stable. It occurs in a number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries and it faces no significant threats although it may locally be hunted for bushmeat. It also faces competition at waterholes and for grazing with domestic livestock.
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In some parts of its range Asian palm civets are hunted for bushmeat and the pet trade. In southern China it is extensively hunted and trapped. Dead individuals were found with local tribes where it is killed for its meat, in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, and Agra, Uttar Pradesh, between 1998 and 2003 in India. The oil extracted from small pieces of the meat kept in linseed oil in a closed earthen pot and regularly sunned, is used indigenously as a cure for scabies.
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Local ecosystems are vulnerable to industrial threats from logging, mining, petroleum production, and commercial fishing. Additionally, poachers commonly use the coastal and south-east forest roads traversing the park to gain access to rare animals such as elephants. The local human population is low but the nearby city of Pointe-Noire (150 km from the park) fuels natural resource exploitation to feed the growing demands for bushmeat and wood. Chinese-owned trawler boats are a serious threat to the marine park.
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The black colobus monkey is now only found in areas which cannot be easily accessed by humans. The species has faced population declines due to logging and illegal hunting for the fur trade which began in the 19th century. Due to improved roads and increased wealth in the area, commercial hunting for the species has become more profitable. Today, black colobus monkeys are mainly traded for their meat and account for 20% of the bushmeat sold in Malabo, the capital of Equatorial Guinea.
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Megabats are killed and eaten as bushmeat throughout their range. Bats are consumed extensively throughout Asia, as well as in islands of the West Indian Ocean and the Pacific, where Pteropus species are heavily hunted. In continental Africa where no Pteropus species live, the straw-coloured fruit bat, the region's largest megabat, is a preferred hunting target. In Guam, consumption of the Mariana fruit bat exposes locals to the neurotoxin beta-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) which may later lead to neurodegenerative diseases.
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Due to the likely association between Ebola infection and "hunting, butchering and processing meat from infected animals", several West African countries banned bushmeat (including megabats) or issued warnings about it during the 2013–2016 epidemic; many bans have since been lifted. Other megabats implicated as disease reservoirs are primarily Pteropus species. Notably, flying foxes can transmit Australian bat lyssavirus, which, along with the rabies virus, causes rabies. Australian bat lyssavirus was first identified in 1996; it is very rarely transmitted to humans.
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Contaminated food transmissions occur when humans eat infected bushmeat, vegetables, fruits, or drink contaminated water. Often these food and water supplies are tainted by fecal pellets of infected bats, birds, or monkeys. Vector-borne transmissions occur when individuals are bitten by infected parasites such as ticks or insects like mosquitos and fleas. Other factors for escalated disease transmissions include climate change, globalization of trade, accelerated logging practices, irrigation increases, sexual activity between individuals, blood transfusions, and urbanization developments near infected ecosystems.
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The dwarf crocodile is considered vulnerable by the IUCN, and it is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is a little-known species, so unlike their more studied relatives, conservationists are often not as aware of how their populations are faring under the growing human pressure over the ecosystems where they abide. Survey data, when available, show some degree of decline, either by hunting for bushmeat or habitat loss due to deforestation. However, it is a widely spread, and presumably numerous overall.
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Current project areas include saving endangered species, resolving conflict, reconciling farming and wildlife, researching fundamental ecology, and managing wildlife diseases, pests and invasive species. Specific projects include protecting the Ethiopian wolf, Grevy's zebra and endemic birds in the Galapagos Islands, finding solutions to bushmeat exploitation in West Africa, community conservation education in Africa, sustainable farming, badger ecology and behavior, and the impact of American mink on native wildlife in Britain, Belarus, and Argentina. WildCRU is located in Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Oxfordshire.
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The Luba Crater Scientific Reserve () is a protected area of on the volcanic island of Bioko (formerly called Fernando Pó), a part of Equatorial Guinea. The dense rainforest is rich in plant and animal species including a high population of primates, some endemic to the reserve. Much of the reserve consists of pristine forest. However, the primate population is under threat due to growing demand for bushmeat coupled with lack of enforcement of the ban on hunting in the reserve.
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Predators of the giant golden-crowned flying fox include raptors such as eagles, the reticulated python, and humans. Owing to deforestation and poaching for bushmeat, it is an endangered species. Though national and international law makes hunting and trade of this species illegal, these regulations are inadequately enforced, meaning that the species is frequently hunted nonetheless. Even in roosts that are more stringently protected from poaching, it is still affected by human disturbance via tourists who intentionally disturb them during the day.
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Walter's duiker was first recognised as a new species in 2010 when specimens of this duiker were found on sale at a bushmeat market. The duikers have not been observed by researchers in the wild, but are believed to come from the Dahomey Gap, an area of savannah which is a portion of the Guinean forest- savanna mosaic with a relatively dry climate, that extends all the way to the coast in Benin, Togo and Ghana, separating the rainforest zones on either side.
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Subsequently, those culinary traditions displayed typical Indian culinary influences, such as kare (curry), roti cane and gulai. This was also went hand in hand with the adoption of Islamic faith, thus encouraged halal Muslim dietary law that omits pork. On the other hand, the indigenous inhabitant that resides inland—such as the Bataks and Dayaks, retains their older Austronesian culinary traditions, which incorporate bushmeat, pork and blood in their daily diet. Indonesian spices (bumbu) including peppercorn, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg.
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The trade of vultures for bushmeat, as well as belief use, is the primary factor for the decline of vulture population in West Africa. Like many other animals, vultures found in West Africa are threatened by human-wildlife conflict. A study done throughout the continent found that although vulture losses could be seen everywhere, the highest total loss per year were in West and East Africa. The killing of many species is an integral part of human livelihood in the region.
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They have a varied repertoire of vocalisations and live in small family groups of a mated pair and their immature offspring. Night monkeys have monochromatic vision which improves their ability to detect visual cues at night. Night monkeys are threatened by habitat loss, the pet trade, hunting for bushmeat, and by biomedical research. They constitute one of the few monkey species that are affected by the often deadly human malaria protozoan Plasmodium falciparum, making them useful as non-human primate experimental subjects in malaria research.
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Cat Specialist Group (2005). Cat Project of the Month – November 2005: Conservation biology of leopards (Panthera pardus) in a fragmented landscape; spatial ecology, population biology and human threats. IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group Analysis of leopard scats and camera trapping surveys in contiguous forest landscapes in the Congo Basin revealed a high dietary niche overlap and an exploitative competition between leopards and bushmeat hunters. With increasing proximity to settlements and concomitant human hunting pressure, leopards exploit smaller prey and occur at considerably reduced population densities.
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Seasonal floods excavate and redistribute nutrient-rich silt onto beaches and islands, enabling dry-season riverside agriculture of rice, beans, and corn on the river's shoreline without the addition of fertilizer, with additional slash and burn agriculture on higher floodplains. Fishing provides additional food year-round, and free-range chickens need little or no food beyond what they can forage locally. Charcoal made largely from forest and shoreline deadfall is produced for use in urban areas. Exploitation of bushmeat, particularly deer and turtles is common.
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Since the initial settlement of Christmas Island in the 1890s, the fragile island ecology has been disrupted, with the extinction of every other native mammal: the Christmas Island pipistrelle, Maclear's rat, bulldog rat, and Christmas Island shrew. The Christmas Island flying fox was historically hunted, made easier by island tameness, but hunting was largely minimal and products (such as bushmeat and oil) only sold locally, and the practice has since become illegal. Jackfruit was wired to trees close to the ground and used as bait.
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These are typically saved for special occasions such as funerals or New Year's Day. Instead, the main source of animal protein during the year, comes from bushmeat, that is, wild game such as pangolin, porcupine, and monkey brought in by jungle hunters. Likewise, fishing is central to the lives of many Beti-Pahuin, particularly in Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe. In addition, a substantial number of Beti-Pahuin are involved in the cocoa plantations that dot the territory of Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Cameroon's south.
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The African manatee occurs in the sea, as well as in the brackish and fresh water habitats, and the hippopotamus inhabits the inland waterways. The coastal region is of importance to the economy of Togo. Some 85% of the country's fish are caught off the coast here, and the sea is a transport link for people and goods. The forest is the source of timber for construction and firewood, bushmeat is hunted and natural products are gathered here for use as food and in herbal medicine.
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The town of Sibut sits on the banks of the Kémo, a minor tributary of the Ubangi River about long. Formerly an important route of supply and communication between Fort de Possel on the Ubangi and the French settlements around Lake Chad, the river is now non-navigable even with small watercraft. The present city has one high school which also serves as a landing strip, and a market. Local food in street cafes include gozo (cassava) and peanut spinach sauce, along with various species of bushmeat.
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When it was first discovered, the Niger Delta red colobus was locally common but under some pressure from deforestation, especially logging of Hallea ledermannii, which is an important food tree for the monkey. Since then, pressure from bushmeat hunting and logging has increased. Red colobus monkeys generally appear to be particularly sensitive to hunting and habitat disturbance, hence concerns that the species may be on the verge of extinction. The Niger Delta red colobus was still found in the Edumanom Forest Reserve in 2008.
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In the past there were Red river hogs, which had been introduced to the zoo in August 2009, a transferral of two sows from Whipsnade. They had a brand new enclosure built by zoo volunteers, with a viewing platform in which to view them. The aim of the Trust was to highlight the issue of the illegal trade of bushmeat in Africa, which also affects other species such as gorillas. A breeding programme was started in 2011 with the arrival of the boar hog.
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Self-portrait photograph (the "monkey selfie") Because it devastates crops and fields, the Celebes crested macaque is hunted as a pest. It is also hunted to provide bushmeat. Clearing the rain forests further threatens its survival. Its situation on the small neighbouring islands of Sulawesi (such as Bacan) is somewhat better, since these have a low human population. The total population of the macaque on Sulawesi is estimated at 4,000–6,000, while a booming population of up to 100,000 monkeys is found on Bacan.
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The nominate subspecies P. p. pennantii is listed as "Endangered" by the IUCN in its Red List of Threatened Species because its range on the island of Bioko is less than and its population size is decreasing due to it being hunted for bushmeat. In 2006, the population on Bioko Island was estimated to be smaller than 5000 individuals. The Niger Delta red colobus is listed as "Critically Endangered" due to the fact that its habitat in the Niger Delta is being degraded by logging and the monkeys are hunted for food.
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The major threats experienced by the gray dorcopsis are the loss of its forest habitat through timber extraction and conversion to small-scale agriculture and the fact that it is hunted for bushmeat. In the vicinity of Port Moresby it has been hunted intensively and few animals remain. It used to be found in the nearby Varirata National Park but it is unclear whether it is still present there. Because of the hunting pressure on this animal, the IUCN believes the population is in decline and lists it as being "Vulnerable".
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It is a gregarious animal which roosts with hundreds or thousands of individuals. In part due to its wide variation in color, it has many taxonomic synonyms, including Pteropus degener, Pteropus papuanus, and Pteropus sepikensis. It may forage during the day or night in search of fruit, including figs or fruits from the family Sapotaceae. It is considered a least-concern species by the IUCN, though its numbers have been negatively impacted by what appeared to be a disease, as well as by hunting for bushmeat that occurs across its range.
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Individuals are taken for bait or human consumption in small cetacean subsistence and harpoon fisheries in several regions, including Sri Lanka, the Caribbean, the Philippines and Indonesia. At Dixcove port in Ghana, melon-headed whales are the third highest cetacean species caught for ‘marine bushmeat’ by artisanal fishermen, through both bycatch from drift gillnets and occasional directed catch. The Japanese drive fishery has taken herds of melon-headed whales occasionally in the past. In 2017/18 Japan increased the annual proposed catch quota to 704 individuals for the drive fishery at Taiji.
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In 2006, it was estimated that about 9,400 African civets are hunted yearly in the Nigerian part and more than 5,800 in the Cameroon part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests. Skins and skulls of African civets were found in 2007 at the Dantokpa Market in southern Benin, where it was among the most expensive small carnivores. Local hunters considered it a rare species, indicating that the population declined due to hunting for trade as bushmeat. The African civet has historically been hunted for the secretion of perineal glands.
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The head of conservation at the Liberian government Forest Development Authority said when interviewed that a single hunter may set between 200 and 300 traps and not return to them for two to three weeks - leaving the caught animals to a prolonged death. Bushmeat is often exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast, despite a ban on the cross-border sale of wild animals. It is illegal to kill protected species like chimpanzees and elephants in Liberia. However, forest rangers are not allowed to carry guns, and are understaffed.
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Ammann purchased a photograph, taken by a motion-detecting sonar cone, from poachers that captured an image of what looked like immense chimpanzees. Ammann also measured a fecal dropping three times as big as chimp dung and footprints as large as or larger than a gorilla's. In 2000, Ammann returned to the area described by the bushmeat hunter with a group of ape researchers. Although they did not find a live Bili ape, they did find several well-worn ground nests, characteristic of gorillas rather than chimpanzees, in swampy river beds.
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It has been described as "greedy and aggressive", known for taking fowl and piglets, and believed to "take little children who walk alone into the forest". Some do not eat it for fear that it will transfer its undesirable qualities to anyone who consumes it. However, the animal is also taken for bushmeat; a study published in 2009 reported that 57 percent of villages (8 of 14 sampled) in the Makira forest consume fossa meat. The animals were typically hunted using slingshots, with dogs, or most commonly, by placing snare traps on animal paths.
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Beef Skewer Barbecue Location of Uganda Ugandan cuisine consists of traditional and modern cooking styles, practices, foods and dishes in Uganda, with English, Arab, and Asian (especially Indian) influences. Most tribes or delicacy. Many dishes include various vegetables, potatoes, yams, bananas and other tropical fruits. Chicken, pork, fish (usually fresh, but there is also a dried variety, reconstituted for stewing), beef, goat and mutton are all commonly eaten, although among the rural poor, meats are consumed less than in other areas, and mostly eaten in the form of bushmeat.
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While predators may be a large threat to the black and white ruffed lemur, the principal threat to their survival comes from the human inhabitants of the island. Since they are comparatively large to other species of lemurs they are hunted as bushmeat by poachers and village men who are looking to feed their families. Another threat to the lemurs is the agricultural practices of the local community. The slash-and-burn method of agriculture is very devastating to the natural habitat of the black and white ruffed lemur.
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There are areas where they have been over- hunted, and savanna habitat is often at risk during the dry season from bushfires, which are lit during bushmeat hunting expeditions. However, the high exploitation of cane rats in the wild has not had a serious effect on their numbers, and in fact some researchers believe that their populations may actually be increasing due to deforestation and changing land use patterns in West Africa as they have adapted to deforested areas and occur in close proximity to farmlands and people.
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Anthropologist, conservationist and pilot, Emmanuel de Merode has striven to control the bushmeat trade and protect endangered wildlife in Central and Eastern Africa. His main focus has been on supporting the work of African wildlife rangers in conflict affected areas by driving economic development in partnership with local communities. His work was primarily in the parks of eastern DRC, working to sustain the national parks through the DRC's 20-year civil war. Merode is the author of fourteen scientific papers and co-editor of the book Virunga: The Survival of Africa's First National Park.
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The Ogiek tribes of the Mau Forest are also the targets of land restrictions and evacuation from their native lands. The Ogiek have been described as a peaceful people who primarily cultivate honey bees, but will grow beans and potatoes if needed. They subsist only on animals who are abundant in the forest;when the tribe notices a decline in population of a particular animal due to hunting, the Ogiek will raise sheep and goats for food. Animals are killed for their use only, and the Ogiek are not part of the bushmeat market.
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Every two years EAZA launches a campaign dedicated to a threatened species or a threatened Environment. The campaign's aims are to draw attention to the problem, to promote biodiversity awareness, raise funds for special projects and to do lobbying work in national governments and international organizations. The campaigns address EAZA members to get involved in the themes and to spread information about the importance of biodiversity and its conservation to the visitors. EAZA started the first project in 2000 with the bushmeat campaign about the unsustainable and illegal hunt and trade of threatened wildlife.
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Due to Lobéké' proximity to Congo and CAR, the park is part of a tri-national environmental initiative that includes the Dzanga Sangha Special Reserve of CAR and the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park of the Republic of the Congo. Observation towers built above ground level support ecological monitoring and tourism. Timber exploitation and safari hunting are a concern, as well as poaching for bushmeat, exotic animals, and ivory. Illegal fishing or bird poaching is a major problem and every year thousands of African gray parrots are caught and exported illegally.
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Because the Vikings historically occupied these countries, it may be possible that the allele spread throughout Europe due to the Viking dispersal in the 8th to 10th centuries. Vikings were later replaced by the Varangians in Russia, which may have contributed to the observed east-to-west cline of allele frequency. HIV-1 was initially transmitted from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to humans in the early 1900s in Southeast Cameroon, Africa, through exposure to infected blood and body fluids while butchering bushmeat. However, HIV-1 was effectively absent from Europe until the 1980s.
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However, some loose ends remain. It is not yet explained why only four HIV groups (HIV-1 groups M and O, and HIV-2 groups A and B) spread considerably in human populations, despite bushmeat practices being widespread in Central and West Africa, and the resulting human SIV infections being common. It also remains unexplained why all epidemic HIV groups emerged in humans nearly simultaneously, and only in the 20th century, despite very old human exposure to SIV (a recent phylogenetic study demonstrated that SIV is at least tens of thousands of years old).
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Also, others impacts of climate change can make societies less stable - more wars, human migration, less effective medical and sanitation systems increase the risk of epidemics. Increase in temperature can reduce the capability of the human body to fight the virus, while bats will be less impacted. Climate change can cause food insecurity which can make people eat bushmeat, for example bats, that are possibly linked to the outbreak. Due to environmental and social causes, outbreaks became more frequent, so that in the past decade the World Health Organization declared global health emergency 4 times.
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It is believed that up to 40,000 monkeys are killed and eventually consumed each year in Africa alone via smuggling. Many primates are killed by bushmeat hunters, who supply to markets all over Africa, Europe, and the United States. Much of demand for rhinoceros horns, tiger bones, and other animal products arises out of the practice of traditional Chinese medicine, which uses these ingredients to treat fevers, gout, and other illnesses; maintain good health and longevity; and enhance sexual potency. Traditional Chinese medicines are taken by hundreds of millions of people.
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The Makira flying fox (Pteropus cognatus) is also hunted, despite its smaller teeth. Deterring people from using flying fox teeth as currency may be detrimental to the species, with Lavery and Fasi noting, "Species that provide an important cultural resource can be highly treasured." Emphasizing sustainable hunting of flying foxes to preserve cultural currency may be more effective than encouraging the abandonment of cultural currency. Even if flying foxes were no longer hunted for their teeth, they would still be killed for bushmeat; therefore, retaining their cultural value may encourage sustainable hunting practices.
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Artisanal mining degrades riparian zones, creating erosion and heavy silting of the water. The tailings are often dumped into the rivers and can be contaminated with mercury and cyanide degrading the health of the river systems and putting people and wildlife at risk. Miners and refugees are relocating to parks in search of minerals; a reported 10,000 people have moved into Kahuzi-Biega and 4,000 to the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. This increases the pressures on wildlife as timber is cut down and used for cooking fuel, and wildlife is killed for bushmeat.
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Deforestation and logging allowed for the creation of roads which allowed hunters to hunt deeper into the forest, increasing the amount of poaching and bushmeat trade in the area. The Republic of the Congo has put in place a conservation effort to conserve different species such as chimpanzees, forest elephants and western gorillas from poaching and deforestation. This conservation effort would allow these species to benefit from vegetation and ecologically important resources. Bush meat hunting and timber harvesting in the western lowland gorilla’s habitat have negatively affected the probability of its survival.
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A more recent phenomenon of the commercialization of bushmeat hunting has caused a large impact on the population. The hunting seems to be more intense within the lowlands and may have contributed to the concentration of gorillas within the highlands and their small population sizes. Despite laws preventing hunting it still persists due to local consumption and trade to other countries. The laws are rarely effectively enforced, and due to state of the Cross River gorillas, any hunting has a large impact on the population and their survival.
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Consumption of African bushmeat, including rats, bats, and monkeys, is commonplace in Sierra Leone and West Africa in general. At the time it was discovered, it was thought that Ebola virus is not endemic to Sierra Leone or to the West Africa region and this epidemic represents the first time the virus has been discovered there. However, some samples taken for Lassa fever testing turned out to be Ebola virus disease when re-tested for Ebola in 2014, showing that Ebola had been in Sierra Leone as early as 2006.
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Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus. The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with the primary host suspected to be fruit bats. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year.
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Features of the town include St Hilaire's Church (built in 1899), a large statue of President Omar Bongo (who was born in Franceville), a primate medical research institute, and a golf course. Its airport is 20 km west, in Mvengué. There is a market where numerous items can be purchased, including clothing, fruit and vegetables, electronics, meats, and the market also sells bushmeat, which includes African Rock Python, monkey and local species of animals. Franceville's infrastructure is overall of better quality than the rest of the country, most probably because of the city's significance.
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University of Michigan Press. Full chapter 2 Some Aka have recently taken up the practice of planting their own small seasonal crops, but agricultural produce is more commonly obtained by trading with neighboring villages, whom the Aka collectively term as Ngandu. From the Ngandu, they obtain manioc, plantain, yams, taro, maize, cucumbers, squash, okra, papaya, mango, pineapple, palm oil, and rice in exchange for the bushmeat, honey, and other forest products the Aka collect. There are over 15 different village tribes with whom the approximately 30,000 Aka associate.
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1869 illustration by Joseph Smit The bay duiker has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat. A 2007 study of the extinction of the bay duiker in the Ipassa Makokou Biosphere Reserve (Gabon) held overhunting responsible for the elimination of the species from the reserve. The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker's preference for old-growth forests, and habitat degradation. The habitat of the bay duiker has depleted to a large extent due to deforestation.
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Pogo was born in 1958, in the rainforests of French Cameroon, where she was part of a gorilla troop that included Bwana, a gorilla who would eventually find his way to the Zoo in 1959. Pogo was orphaned after her parents were killed, most likely for bushmeat. She was adopted by American missionaries and a nurse in a Cameroon leper colony, where she rode motorcycles, dressed up in clothes, and attended tea parties. In 1961, at the age of three, Pogo was purchased by philanthropist Carroll Soo-Hoo, and donated to the San Francisco Zoo.
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These selective logging practices yield only 8.7 cubic meters (the volume less than that of one tree) per hectare. This creates a scenario where many roads are created to move very few selected trees from the forest. This creates access to previously secluded areas which expedites the rate of forest accessibility thereby allowing populations to move in to collect fuelwood, hunt bushmeat, and start clearing the land for agriculture. It is important to consider who is driving the demand for industrial logging operations within the DRC and the sustainability of the industry.
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Poachers also harvest vultures in sub-Saharan Africa to sell their parts to people for belief use practices, such as traditional medicine, African vudon, and witchcraft. As with bushmeat harvests, African vultures sold for belief use are usually hunted using poisoned baits. Therefore, when belief use practitioners consume the vulture or vulture parts as part of their activities, they also ingest the poisons used to kill the vulture. Vultures in sub-Saharan Africa are known for their tremendous eyesight, and many believe their body parts can be used to see into the future.
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The organisation also launched an awareness campaign with WWF, which gained the support of public figures including supermodel Shalom Harlow, reigning Miss India Gul Panag, world-renowned Indian writer Khushwant Singh in calling for an end to shahtoosh shawls. ;UN Resolution on Protecting Wildlife, 2012 In 2012 TRAFFIC and WWF launched a joint global campaign encouraging governments to combat illegal wildlife trade and reduce demand for illicit endangered species products. It focused especially on those which were under extreme threat from poaching, for instance rhinos, where the number of killings in South Africa had risen from 13 animals (2007) to 448 (2011). As well as leading to action by individual governments, the campaign's momentum led to the unprecedented success of the first UN resolution on wildlife crime in 2015 (Traffic news story here, resolution here). Drawing global attention to the issue, the resolution tasks the UN secretary general with presenting an annual report on global wildlife crime and countries’ implementation of the resolution, as well as recommendations. ;Bushmeat, 2000 TRAFFIC was one of the first organisations to draw attention to the unsustainable use of bushmeat or wildmeat in its 2000 study Food For Thought: the utilization of wild meat in eastern and southern Africa.
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Left to right: the African green monkey source of SIV, the sooty mangabey source of HIV-2, and the chimpanzee source of HIV-1 Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa and were transferred to humans in the early 20th century. HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV(cpz), a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes). The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIV(smm), a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an Old World monkey living in coastal West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Ivory Coast). New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV-1 infection, possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes.(subscription required) HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O. There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities, either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors, commonly acquire SIV.
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Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa, and are believed to have transferred to humans (a process known as zoonosis) in the early 20th century. HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIVcpz, a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes). The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIVsmm, a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an Old World monkey living in littoral West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Côte d'Ivoire). New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV-1 infection, possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes. HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O. Left to right: the African green monkey source of SIV, the sooty mangabey source of HIV-2, and the chimpanzee source of HIV-1 There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities, either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors, commonly acquire SIV.
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However, some researchers question the agroforestry concept, maintaining that monkeys are more susceptible to hunting, predator and pathogens in plantation fields, thus indicating the need for further research into the solution before implementation. Night monkeys are additionally threatened by both national and international trade for bushmeat and domestic pets. Since 1975, the pet trade of night monkeys has been regulated by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). In the last forty years, nearly 6,000 live night monkeys and more than 7,000 specimens have been traded from the nine countries which they call home.
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Eastern lowland gorilla in the Kahuzi- Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo All species (and subspecies) of gorilla are listed as endangered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. Now, over 100,000 western lowland gorillas are thought to exist in the wild, with 4,000 in zoos, thanks to conservation; eastern lowland gorillas have a population of under 5,000 in the wild and 24 in zoos. Mountain gorillas are the most severely endangered, with an estimated population of about 880 left in the wild and none in zoos. Threats to gorilla survival include habitat destruction and poaching for the bushmeat trade.
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Malagasy reptiles have long been a target of animal traders, but as smuggling of these species has intensified, now lemurs are also being collected and illegally exported for the exotic pet trade. Initially following the political upheaval, conservation organizations were concerned that lemurs and other wildlife would be hunted for food by the thousands of loggers living and working in the protected areas. This indeed has happened, although the scale of the damage is unknown. However, unlike the bushmeat problems in other tropical countries, the majority of the meat from illegal hunting has not gone to feeding the hungry, impoverished rural populations.
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On September 13, 2017 NGO Mighty Earth released a report"Chocolate's Dark Secret". September 2017. documenting findings that Cargill purchases cocoa grown illegally in national parks and other protected forests in the Ivory Coast. The report accused Cargill of endangering the forest habitats of chimpanzees, elephants and other wildlife populations by purchasing cocoa linked to deforestation.Covey, R. and McGraw, W. S. “Monkeys in a West African bushmeat market: implications for cercopithecid conservation in eastern Liberia.” Tropical Conservation Science. 7.1 (2014): 115-125.Marchesi, P., Marchesi, N., Fruth, B., and Boesch, C. “Census and Distribution of Chimpanzees in Cote D’Ivoire.” PRIMATES.
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Introduced to zoos in the early 20th century, they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens. The survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild; the World Conservation Union estimates that fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remain in the wild. Pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat, as forests are logged and converted to farm land, and are also vulnerable to poaching, hunting for bushmeat, natural predators, and war. Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia.
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It was founded in 1973 by Takayoshi Kano, who surveyed the forests of Congo, covering 2,000 km on bicycle. After travelling through occasionally hostile villages, he found Wamba to be friendly, and he could hear bonobo calls from the forest, so he decided to set up a research station here. In 1974, his student Suehisa Kuroda went to Wamba and identified three groups of bonobos, one of which they were able to habituate after a year, by provisioning a sugarcane field. p.415 In the past, the local people co-existed with the bonobos and had taboos against eating bushmeat.
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Lemurs are threatened by a host of environmental problems, including deforestation, hunting for bushmeat, live capture for the exotic pet trade, and climate change. All species are listed by CITES on Appendix I, which prohibits trade of specimens or parts, except for scientific purposes. As of 2005, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed 16% of all lemur species as critically endangered, 23% as endangered, 25% as vulnerable, 28% as "data deficient", and only 8% as least concern. Over the next five years, at least 28 species were newly identified, none of which have had their conservation status assessed.
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Giant African swallowtail (Papilio antimachus) A large area of the range has been declared a forest reserve, including about 17,400 hectares of upland evergreen forest, rare for Ghana. The reserve is managed by the Forestry Commission of Ghana in collaboration with other stakeholders, key among them is the Okyeman Environment Foundation, which has restricted people from farming in the area and instead is trying to encourage eco-tourism. However, the reserve is under pressure from logging and hunting for bushmeat. It may also be vulnerable to mining exploration activities, since the reserve contains gold deposits as well as low-grade bauxite.
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They named the area Tshuapa–Lomami–Lualaba Conservation Landscape (TL2) after the three rivers Tshuapa, Lomami and Lualaba, whose forests they explored. They found much of the outer forests depleted of large animals by the commercial bushmeat trade, but a rich core remained. This area too was threatened by hunters, many coming from far away – even from other Provinces – to supply the markets with wild meat in the major towns of Kisangani and Kindu. After the reconnaissance surveys, in close collaboration with traditional authorities and local administrations, the Lukuru team focused on the areas that still contained a diverse and abundant fauna.
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It is estimated that 90% of the global distribution of the crowned eagle may be subject to habitual persecution or is even killed and eaten itself as bushmeat. On the other hand, some educated foresters and fruit-growers actually encourage protection of populations, due to the controlling effect crowned eagles have on populations of potentially harmful mammals. In April 1996 the world's first captive-born crowned eagle hatched at the San Diego Zoo. Among ISIS registered zoos, only San Diego Zoo, San Francisco Zoo, Los Angeles Zoo, Fort Worth Zoo and Lowry Park Zoo house this species.
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One problem with the scattered populations of Cross River gorillas is that they are surrounded by human populations that cause threats such as bushmeat hunting and habitat loss. Also, the protected habitats of Cross River gorillas along the Nigeria-Cameroon border are close to hunting regions, which increases the threat of extinction. The Cross River gorilla is especially significant to the ecosystem because they are excellent seed dispersers for certain tropical plant species that would otherwise face extinction. In 2007, a survey was conducted in 5 villages in the aim of assessing taboos against hunting and eating these endangered species.
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In 2014, it was discovered that samples of suspected Lassa fever showed evidence of the Zaire strain of Ebola virus in Sierra Leone as early as 2006. Prior to the current Zaire strain outbreak in 2014, Ebola had not really been seen in Sierra Leone, or even in West Africa among humans. It is suspected that fruit bats are natural carriers of disease, native to this region of Africa including Sierra Leone and also a popular food source for both humans and wildlife. The Gola forests in south-east Sierra Leone are a noted source of bushmeat.
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Transmission is believed to be by contact with the blood and body fluids of those infected with the virus, as well as by handling raw bushmeat such as bats and monkeys, which are important sources of protein in West Africa. Infectious body fluids include blood, sweat, semen, breast milk, saliva, tears, feces, urine, vaginal secretions, vomit, and diarrhea. Even after a successful recovery from an Ebola infection, semen may contain the virus for at least two months. Breast milk may contain the virus for two weeks after recovery, and transmission of the disease to a consumer of the breast milk may be possible.
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It has been speculated that megabats may be the natural reservoir of Ebolavirus, though the evidence has been called "far from decisive". Due to the possible association between Ebola infection and "hunting, butchering and processing meat from infected animals", several West African countries banned bushmeat (including megabats) or issued warnings about it during the 2013–2016 epidemic; many bans have since been lifted. Bats have been hypothesized as a possible origin of the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which was first detected in Wuhan, China, though the origin of the virus has yet to be fully elucidated.
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Subfossil sites with P. insignis include Andolonomby, Beloha (near Anavoha), Bemafandry, Andrahomana, Manombo-Toliara, Ambolisatra, Ambararata-Mahabo, Ampoza- Ankazoabo, Belo-sur-mer, Lamboharana, Taolambiby, Tsiandroina, and Tsirave in south and southwestern Madagascar. P. jullyi has been recorded at Ampasambazimba, Antsirabe, and Morarano-Betafo in the central highlands of Madagascar. In general, lemur diversity has declined since the arrival of humans due to habitat loss, forest fragmentation, and bushmeat hunting. At some subfossil sites, Pachylemur lived alongside as many as 19 or 20 other lemur species, but now as few as 20% of those species remain in those areas.
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Two P. insignis skulls, Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris Humans arrived in Madagascar around 350 BCE, but did not cause the extinction of Pachylemur and the other giant lemurs immediately. Instead, many human- related factors, such as habitat loss, forest fragmentation, bushmeat hunting, and the introduction of invasive species, along with the gradual desiccation of certain parts of the island, caused their decline and eventual extinction over more than a millennium. The same factors threaten all living lemur species today. The initial decline of Pachylemur began within 500 years of human colonization, but prior to the establishment of large human settlements.
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For these people, if the trend of overexploitation continues at such a high rate, the effects of the population decrease in duikers will be too severe for these organisms to serve as a reliable food source. In addition to the unnaturally high demand for bushmeat, unenforced hunting law is a perpetual threat to many species, including the duiker. Most hunters believe that the diminishing number of animals was due to overexploitation. “The direct effects of hunting consist of two main aspects: overexploitation of target species and incidental hunting of nontargeted or rare species because hunting is largely nonselective”.
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Bushmeat is cheaper than beef, fish or chicken in many wildlife areas of South Sudan, and hence is exploited as a food source and also for trading. As a result, wild animals such as white-eared kob, tiang and Mongalla gazelle are hunted in large numbers (according to an evaluation of results from a sample survey of a few villages in the Boma National Park). This has created pressure on the wildlife of the park that necessitates effective conservation measures. Internal wars which lasted for two decades have also been a cause for lack of effective management of the protected areas.
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Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times. Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.
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As well as its major campaigning activities on animal circuses, ADI also campaigns against the use of animals in advertising, television, films and video. Companies dropping advertising campaigns featuring animals include Toyota, Bombay Sapphire Gin, GMB Union and Careerbuilder. For ADI's My Mate's a Primate campaign – which highlights the threats and exploitation of primates as a result of the bushmeat trade, in entertainment, the pet trade and in experiments – a TV advert was produced in which a young actress highlighted the suffering of chimpanzees in advertising. In the UK, the advert was banned on the grounds that it was “political”.
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Minor droughts are frequent in Madagascar, but a major drought approximately 1000 years ago significantly lowered lake levels, caused a severe vegetation transition, and caused fires to spark in fire-prone grasslands and savannas. Crop failures due to these conditions would drive inhabitants to hunt for bushmeat to survive, and these giant lemurs were an easy source of said meat. Megaladapis were slow-moving, bulky creatures that were diurnal, or active during the day. Lemurs in general also had small group sizes and were highly seasonal breeders ( (they breed for about one to two weeks a year).
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Game farming in the Eastern Cape has been cited as land-use practice issue which has left many feeling disenfranchised This stems from the context of wealth, class, and race which are said have created a diverse range of problems for local communities. People who do not have the financial structure to enter a game farm are said to appropriate bushmeat through illegal hunting where poachers are the primary actors. Structural inequalities between various stakeholders are at the epicenter of the issue. Game farms create network that is internationally proactive and interconnected but fractured at the local level due to racial inequalities that have plagued South Africa.
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The collared mangabey is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat. It is also listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Chipse, an adult female, produces requesting gestures by extending an arm through the cage mesh toward an experimenter who holds a raisin in her hands. The experimenter displays five experimental conditions in succession in which her attentional state differs on the basis of gaze (Eyes Open, Eyes Distracted, and Eyes Closed) head (Head Away) and body (Body Away) orientation.
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In local parlance, the great apes of the Bili Forest fall into two distinct groups. There are the "tree beaters", which disperse high into the trees to stay safe, and easily succumb to the poison arrows used by local hunters. Then there are the "lion killers", which seldom climb trees, are bigger and darker, and are unaffected by the poison arrows. When Karl Ammann, a Swiss photographer and anti-bushmeat campaigner, first visited the region in 1996, he was looking for gorillas, but instead discovered a skull that had dimensions like that of a chimpanzee, but with a prominent crest like that of a gorilla.
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The majority of the Wildlife Centre's intake are rescued as orphans and victims of the illegal pet and bushmeat trade, which is still prevalent in Malawi, or wildlife which has sustained injuries from poaching attempts and human wildlife conflicts. Many of their rehabilitated animals are released back into the wild or, if not, remain at the Wildlife Centre in large natural enclosures. Lilongwe Wildlife Centre is supported by leading animal welfare organisations such as Born Free Foundation, Stitching AAP, Tusk Trust, International Primate Society and International Primate Protection League. In 2011, Lilongwe Wildlife Centre received a Responsible Tourism award for Best Organisation for Wildlife Conservation.
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The Mbo people are a Bantu group of the Mbo plain, Littoral Region, Mungo Division, Nkongsamba and Melong subdivisions and in the West Region, Menoua Division, Santchou Subdivision and Upper Nkam Division, Kekem Subdivision of Cameroon. The Bakossi Forest Reserve, which includes the Bakossi National Park, is mainly inhabited by the Bakossi people, but the population also includes Mbo as well as Manehas, Bakem, Baneka, and immigrant Bamiliki people. The Mbo and Banyangi people live in and around the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary. They hunt for bushmeat, which they sell fresh or smoked, and which is a good deal cheaper than other locally available forms of protein.
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The effect of this unsustainable culling is to severely depress or remove the large, medium and small wildlife species of the forests. Crowned eagles require some of "bush meat" a year and thus directly compete with the industry. The red colobus, a monkey that typifies the optimal forest quality and is a main food species for crowned eagles, has been singled out as one of the fastest declining and most endangered monkeys in the world due primarily to the bushmeat trade. In some cases, crowned eagles have reportedly even been shot by primate conservationists in a misguided attempt to mitigate their predation of declining primate species.
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Wildlife poachers assembling tusks for ivory trade The possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions Wildlife trafficking practices have resulted in the emergence of zoonotic diseases. Exotic wildlife trafficking is a multi- billion dollar industry that involves the removal and shipment of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and fish all over the world. Traded wild animals are used for bushmeat consumption, unconventional exotic pets, animal skin clothing accessories, home trophy decorations, privately owned zoos, and for traditional medicine practices. Dating back centuries, people from Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Europe have used animal bones, horns, or organs for their believed healing effects on the human body.
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The two major strains of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2, are both believed to have originated in West or Central Africa from strains of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which infects various non- human primate species. Some of these primates affected by SIV are often hunted and trafficked for bushmeat, traditional medicine practices, and for exotic pet trade purposes. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), often referred to as a severe form of pneumonia, is a highly contagious zoonotic respiratory illness causing extreme breathing difficulties. Factors attributing to widespread dispersal include the destruction of wildlife natural ecosystems, overextended urbanization effects on biodiversity, and contact with bacterially contaminated objects.
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Habitat loss, forest fragmentation, and bushmeat hunting are thought to have been the reasons for its disappearance. Pachylemur is thought to have gone extinct between 680–960 CE, although subfossil remains found in a cave pit in southwestern Madagascar may indicate that it survived up until 500 years ago. Pachylemur remains were first described in 1895 by French zoologist Henri Filhol and were originally included in the genus Lemur, along with the ring-tailed lemur and other close relatives currently classified within the family Lemuridae. In 1948, French paleontologist Charles Lamberton placed the species in the subgenus Pachylemur, which was recognized as a genus by 1979.
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The fragmentation of the forest and the removal of timber deprives this bird of the habitat it needs in order to find sufficient fruit. The brown-cheeked hornbill is one of the first species of hornbill to disappear following timber extraction. Many of the forested areas within its range have disappeared, being replaced by agricultural land and oil palm and other plantations, however it is present in a number of protected areas. Hunting the birds for sale as live birds or for use as bushmeat is a significant threat for hornbills, and because of their low reproductive rate, species like the brown-cheeked hornbill are put at risk by this practice.
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The continuing destruction of habitat, in combination with the growth in the commercial bushmeat trade in Africa and increased logging activities in Indonesia, have led scientists to suggest that the majority of great ape populations may be extinct in our lifetime. Even if isolated populations were to survive, the long-term viability of these great apes is in doubt due to their limited numbers and the fragmentation of their habitat. The endangered great apes share their habitat with millions of humans, the majority of whom live below the poverty line. The need to link the welfare of humans and wildlife is a central objective of the GRASP Partnership.
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Wildlife features include large animal herds, particularly of Cape Buffaloes, zebras, wildebeest, giraffes, and elephants, plus along the Katuma river, crocodiles and hippopotami which upon annual dry seasons results in mudholes that can be packed with hundreds of hippos.October 24, 2004 illustration from National Geographic Megaflyover Carnivorous animals that roam this park are cheetahs, wild dogs, hyenas, leopards, and lions. Some sources claim a very high biodiversity in the park, although there are also reports of wildlife decline due to illegal hunting and poaching, presumably 'bushmeat' sustenance.September 2007 regional news report Katavi has fewer human visitors and jeeps conducting game drives than other Tanzania parks.
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Slow lorises, such as this Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) were once considered common, but are now recognized as threatened species. Slow lorises are nocturnal strepsirrhine primates in the genus Nycticebus that live in the rainforests of South and Southeast Asia. They are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from deforestation, selective logging, and slash-and- burn agriculture, as well as by collection and hunting for the wildlife trade, including the exotic pet trade, and for use in traditional medicine and as bushmeat. Because of these and other threats, all five species of slow loris are listed as either "Vulnerable" or "Endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
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Group in northern New South Wales, Australia The black flying fox is not listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List; nevertheless, the species is exposed to several threats, including loss of foraging and roosting habitat, and mass die-offs caused by extreme temperature events.Australian flying fox die-offs When present in urban environments, black flying foxes are sometimes perceived as a nuisance. Because their roosting and foraging habits bring the species into conflict with humans, it suffers from direct killing of animals in orchards and harassment and destruction of roosts. In Indonesia, this species is frequently consumed as bushmeat, with concerns that the population loss might not be sustainable.
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As of 2020, it is evaluated as a least-concern species by the IUCN--its lowest conservation priority. It met the criteria for this classification because it has a wide geographic range; its range includes protected areas, its population size is large; and it is unlikely to be experiencing rapid population decline. However, some local populations may be threatened by overharvesting for bushmeat, habitat loss via deforestation, cave disturbance, and persecution of its roosts due to the perception that it is a pest. Examples of such human interference include in northern Myanmar as a result of limestone extraction for cement manufacture and colony of hundreds of thousands of bats eradicated "as pests" in Phnom Pehn.
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Local villagers have been threatened into silence or exploited for cheap, dangerous labor, and all of these activities within the forest often violate local taboos. With decades of illegal logging in Madagascar's protected areas it comes as little surprise that evidence of closely associated activities, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, tree cutting, honey extraction, and bushmeat hunting, were discovered in Marojejy National Park by a research team in 2008. With the recent political instability, these transgressions have increased in frequency and severity along with the illegal logging, and now threaten the existence of critically endangered lemurs and other species. This has done irreparable damage and jeopardized over thirty years of conservation work.
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Many of the larger animals of Senegal that used to have a widespread distribution have suffered from loss of habitat, persecution by farmers, and hunting for bushmeat, and are now largely restricted to the national parks. The Guinea baboon is one of these, as are the Senegal hartebeest, the western hartebeest, the scimitar oryx, the roan antelope and several species of gazelle. Habitat degradation has caused populations of western red colobus, the elephant, the lion and many other species to diminish in numbers. The western subspecies of the giant eland is critically endangered, the only remaining known population being in the Niokolo-Koba National Park; the rapid decline in numbers of this antelope has been attributed to poaching.
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A newly emergent threat facing the golden-crowned sifaka is hunting by the gold miners moving into the region's forests. Although mining operations are small scale, the practice of gold mining takes a toll on the forested regions because deep mining pits are often dug near or underneath large trees, disturbing the extensive root systems and ultimately killing the trees in the area. The influx of gold miners has also increased poaching pressure. Although the species is protected from hunting by local fady (taboo) around Daraina, due to their likeness to humans, and by Malagasy law, the gold miners who have immigrated to the area have begun to hunt the golden-crowned sifaka as a source of bushmeat.
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Male circumcision may reduce the probability of HIV acquisition by men. Leaving aside blood transfusions, the highest HIV-1 transmissibility ever measured was from female prostitutes with 85% prevalence of HIV to uncircumcised men with GUD—"A cumulative 43% ... seroconverted to HIV-1 after a single sexual exposure." There was no seroconversion in the absence of male GUD. Sousa et al. reasoned that the adaptation and epidemic emergence of each HIV group may have required such extreme conditions, and thus reviewed the existing ethnographic literature for patterns of male circumcision and hunting of apes and monkeys for bushmeat, focusing on the period 1880–1960, and on most of the 318 ethnic groups living in Central and West Africa.
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While investigation into traditional medicine trade of the southern ground hornbill has occurred, the bushmeat trade remains poorly understood, and it has only been seen to occur in areas of Malawi. This bird species is especially threatened by the loss of trees and general habitat loss, as they require vast amounts of space for their territories. The removal of large trees for agriculture or wood harvesting, disturbances near nesting grounds, agricultural changes, all deeply affect the ability of southern ground hornbills to flourish properly. Due to the encroachment of human populations, it is not unheard of to see a group's territory encompass a variety of areas, from pristine habitats to commercial agricultural lands.
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All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted. Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine. Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma. In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.
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The Simian foamy virus (SFV) is a species of the genus Spumavirus, which belongs to the family of Retroviridae. It has been identified in a wide variety of primates, including pro-simians, New World and Old World monkeys as well as apes, and each species has been shown to harbor a unique (species- specific) strain of SFV, including African green monkeys, baboons, macaques and chimpanzees. As it is related to the more well-known retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), its discovery in primates has led to some speculation that HIV may have been spread to the human species in Africa through contact with blood from apes, monkeys, and other primates, most likely through bushmeat hunting practices.
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Poor people rely on natural resources for their survival and generate cash income through the sale of bushmeat, which attracts high prices in urban centres. Body parts of wildlife are also in demand for traditional medicine and ceremonies. The existence of an international market for poached wildlife implies that well-organised gangs of professional poachers enter vulnerable areas to hunt, and crime syndicates organise the trafficking of wildlife body parts through a complex interlinking network to markets outside the respective countries of origin. Armed conflict in Africa has been linked to intensified poaching and wildlife declines within protected areas, likely reflecting the disruption of traditional livelihoods, which causes people to seek alternative food sources.
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It is clear that the Mbam Djerem National Park contains a representative bloc of the habitat diversity that comprises the ecotone area of Cameroon and its neighbours. The large mammal fauna, now almost gone in West Africa, is still present, although threatened by commercial bushmeat (and some ivory) hunting. Local people in the area have few other activities that bring in money: profits on the small- scale agricultural products grown in the area are much lower than those gained by selling meat. The main methods of commercial hunting are thick wire snares aimed at the larger ungulates, and gun hunting, although small game hunting is carried out using thin wire snares near the villages (often outside the Park border).
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Perodicticus potto skeleton The potto has relatively few predators, because large mammalian carnivores cannot climb to the treetops where they live, and the birds of prey in this part of Africa are diurnal. One population of chimpanzees living in Mont Assirik, Senegal, was observed to eat pottos, taking them from their sleeping places during the day; however, this behaviour has not been observed in chimps elsewhere.Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Mont Assirik, Senegal and Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda' by K. D. Hunt and W. C. McGrew. Chapter from Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos, edited by Christophe Boesch (Cambridge University Press, 2002) Pottos living near villages face some predation from humans, who hunt them as bushmeat.
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The Ebola virus, for which the primary host is suspected to be fruit bats, has been linked to bushmeat, which is commonly consumed in areas of West Africa that use it as a protein source. Although primates and other species may be intermediates, evidence suggests people primarily get the virus from bats. Hunters usually shoot, net, scavenge or catapult their prey, and butcher the bats without gloves, getting bites or scratches and coming in contact with their blood. In 2014, the suspected index case for the Ebola outbreak in West Africa is a two-year-old child in Guéckédou in south-eastern Guinea, who was the child of a family that hunted two species of fruit bat, Hypsignathus monstrosus and Epomops franqueti.
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In 2013, Bat Conservation International listed this species as one of the 35 species of its worldwide priority list of conservation. Efforts by Bat Conservation International to conserve the species include partnering with the indigenous Rotokas people, Volunteer Service Abroad, and the Bougainville Bureau for the Environment to develop a conservation plan for Kunua Plains & Mount Balbi Key Biodiversity Area. These efforts are intended to conserve the Bougainville monkey-faced bat and the greater monkey-faced bat. Conservation actions identified by Bat Conservation International include identifying alternate protein sources for indigenous peoples so that they do not have to rely on bushmeat, creating native tree nurseries for reforestation efforts, mitigating conflicts between the fruit- eating bats and farmers seeking to protect their crops, and engaging the community more frequently in conservation dialogue.
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As one of the most vocal primates, the ring-tailed lemur uses numerous vocalizations including group cohesion and alarm calls. Experiments have shown that the ring-tailed lemur, despite the lack of a large brain (relative to simiiform primates), can organize sequences, understand basic arithmetic operations and preferentially select tools based on functional qualities. Despite reproducing readily in captivity and being the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, numbering more than 2,000 individuals, the ring-tailed lemur is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. As of early 2017, the population in the wild is believed to have crashed as low as 2,000 individuals due to habitat loss, poaching and hunting, making them far more critically endangered.
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They were more likely to hunt for bushmeat right before the harvest season and during heavy rains, as before the harvest season, there is not much agricultural work and heavy rainfall obscures human tracks, making it easier for poachers to get away with their crimes. Poverty seems to be a large impetus to cause people to poach, something that affects both residents in Africa and Asia. For example, in Thailand, there are anecdotal accounts of the desire for a better life for children, which drive rural poachers to take the risk of poaching even though they dislike exploiting the wildlife. Another major cause of poaching is due to the cultural high demand of wildlife products, such as ivory, that are seen as symbols of status and wealth in China.
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The red-flanked duiker is an adaptable species, and the removal of trees by logging and the conversion of its natural habitat into more open savannah and farmland has allowed it to increase its range. It is fairly common in the areas in which it is found though numbers are decreasing in general due to severe hunting pressure. The red-flanked duiker was one of the four most frequent species of bushmeat on sale in the Republic of Guinea, along with Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli), the greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) and the bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus). However it occurs in a number of reserves and protected areas where it is less liable to be killed for meat and the International Union for Conservation of Nature in its Red List of Threatened Species lists it as being of "Least Concern".
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A dirt road runs along the western border of the Park, which was once the main road from the Cameroon border to Chad, over a thousand kilometres away. In the colonial era, people who used to live in what is now the Park were relocated to this road. In the last few decades, the railway line (CamRail) that connects Garoua to Yaoundé, which runs along the eastern side of the Park, has taken most of the freight and passengers away from this axis, and the young people who come from the villages that are along the old road are drifting to the cities. There are no villages inside the Park, but it was known that there is some hunting, including larger animals such as African buffalo, waterbuck, and kob, often destined for the bushmeat markets of the distant cities.
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However, Peal reported that logging was limited, and that farming and hunting pressures were minimised, by population displacement — including the exodus of people out of over two dozen villages surrounding the park — and the prevailing climate of insecurity, to the extent that species populations actually increased during the war years. William Powers, a Catholic Relief Services official posted to Liberia from 1999 to 2001, noted that the Park was a war-time haven for small groups of people, who scavenged for food and hunted bushmeat to survive. Logging and poaching became more common after the war's end in 1996. In 2002, allegations surfaced that President Charles Taylor had sold concessions worth several millions of United States dollars to a Hong Kong-based timber company — the Oriental Timber Company — to conduct logging within the boundaries of the park.
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"Conservation of Lemurs" details the threats lemurs face, such as habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat, and conservation efforts aimed at their protection, from the in-situ and ex-situ programs of the Madagascar Fauna Group to the promise by Madagascar's former president Marc Ravalomanana to triple the country's protected areas over five years, known as the Durban Vision. In the third edition, a new chapter was added, entitled "Madagascar's Ancient Geological History", written by Maarten de Wit from the University of Cape Town. In it, three billion years of geological and biological history are explored in detail. The majority of the book, including the chapter "The Living Lemurs" and separate sections on each taxonomic group of lemur, providing detailed accounts of all lemur species known up until the time of publication, from the tiny mouse lemurs to the large indri and diademed sifaka.
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Several of the theories of HIV origin accept the established knowledge of the HIV/SIV phylogenetic relationships, and also accept that bushmeat practice was the most likely cause of the initial transfer to humans. All of them propose that the simultaneous epidemic emergences of four HIV groups in the late 19th-early 20th century, and the lack of previous known emergences, are explained by new factor(s) that appeared in the relevant African regions in that timeframe. These new factor(s) would have acted either to increase human exposures to SIV, to help it to adapt to the human organism by mutation (thus enhancing its between- humans transmissibility), or to cause an initial burst of transmissions crossing an epidemiological threshold, and therefore increasing the probability of continued spread. Genetic studies of the virus suggested in 2008 that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to the Belgian Congo city of Léopoldville (modern Kinshasa), circa 1910.
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The main reasons for this has been the vastness and impoverished status of the country as a whole. However, the effectiveness of wildlife crime law enforcement appears to be working now with the Central African Ministry of Water and Forests and the Central Police, with technical support from international environmental organizations such as WWF playing an effective role, to punish high-level traffickers with penal servitude and fines; a case cited is of a trafficker sentenced to a jail term of 6 months and a fine. In the conservation efforts, WWF has persuaded the Baka, indigenous hunter-gatherers known as pygmies of Central African Republic to work for the conservation of the wild life in their homeland on which they subsisted. In a wild life reserve exclusively devoted to preserve the rights of the pygmies as also to prevent deforestation, bushmeat hunting and human migration, the Baka community has extended full cooperation and effective participation.
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Bladen Nature Reserve provides global environmental benefits by providing clean air, functioning as a carbon sink, rainfall generation, and preserving genetic diversity. On a more local scale Bladen functions as a sanctuary for birds and mammals which are subject to hunting for bushmeat, with this large contiguous block of undisturbed rainforest these game species are able to increase population size thus creating a ‘spillover effect’ onto community lands where they may be hunted as a source of protein by indigenous Mayan communities which buffer Bladen and who have traditionally lived off the products of these forests. Bladen Nature Reserve's role in watershed protection within the area is also important, with the river system providing water for local communities and large agricultural areas on the coastal plain. The watershed drains into the Caribbean Sea to the east, with the Belize Barrier Reef - the second largest barrier reef in the world - lying offshore, reliant on the quality of the water.
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Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not "on the books" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $400 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicines, for example.
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Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is a species of retrovirus that cause persistent infections in at least 45 species of African non-human primates. Based on analysis of strains found in four species of monkeys from Bioko Island, which was isolated from the mainland by rising sea levels about 11,000 years ago, it has been concluded that SIV has been present in monkeys and apes for at least 32,000 years, and probably much longer.. Virus strains from two of these primate species, SIVsmm in sooty mangabeys and SIVcpz in chimpanzees, are believed to have crossed the species barrier into humans, resulting in HIV-2 and HIV-1 respectively, the two human immunodeficiency viruses. The most likely route of transmission of HIV-1 to humans involves contact with the blood of chimps that are often hunted for bushmeat in Africa. Four subtypes of HIV-1 (M, N, O, and P) likely arose through four separate transmissions of SIV to humans, and the resulting HIV-1 group M strain most commonly infects people worldwide.
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Well-known advocates include primatologist Jane Goodall, who was appointed a goodwill ambassador for the United Nations to fight the bushmeat trade and end ape extinction; Richard Dawkins, former Professor for the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University; Peter Singer, professor of philosophy at Princeton University; and attorney and former Harvard professor Steven Wise, founder and president of the Nonhuman Rights Project (NhRP), whose aim is to work through U.S. common law on a state-by-state basis to achieve recognition of legal personhood for great apes and other self-aware, autonomous nonhuman animals; all advocate for great ape personhood. In December 2013, the NhRP filed three lawsuits on behalf of four chimpanzees being held in captivity in New York State, arguing that they should be recognized as legal persons with the fundamental right to bodily liberty (i.e. not to be held in captivity) and that they are entitled to common law writs of habeas corpus and should be immediately freed and moved to sanctuaries. All three petitions for writs of habeas corpus were denied, allowing for the right to appeal.
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The western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. Location of the Central African Republic Wildlife in the Central African Republic is in the vast natural habitat located between the Congo Basin's rain forests and large savannas, where the human density was smaller than 0.5 per km2 prior to 1850. The forest area of 22.755 million, considered one of the richest storehouses of wildlife spread over national parks, hunting reserves and community hunting areas, experienced an alarming loss of wild life due to greed for ivory and bushmeat exploitation by hunters – mostly Arab slavers from across the borders of the Central African Republic (Central African Republic) with Chad and Sudan. Realising the serious threat to the wildlife, the colonists – French Administration – in 1935 and later the Government of the Republic of CRA, enacted laws and created National parks and preserves, which covered 16.6% of the country. The three most coveted national parks are the Manovo-Gounda St. Floris National Park with its reported "greatest concentrations of hippos in the world", the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park in the north; and the Dzanga-Sangha Reserve which covers rain forests.
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The discovery of the main HIV / SIV phylogenetic relationships permits explaining broad HIV biogeography: the early centres of the HIV-1 groups were in Central Africa, where the primate reservoirs of the related SIVcpz and SIVgor viruses (chimpanzees and gorillas) exist; similarly, the HIV-2 groups had their centres in West Africa, where sooty mangabeys, which harbour the related SIVsmm virus, exist. However, these relationships do not explain more detailed patterns of biogeography, such as why epidemic HIV-2 groups (A and B) only evolved in the Ivory Coast, which is one of only six countries harbouring the sooty mangabey. It is also unclear why the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii (inhabiting the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, and Tanzania) did not spawn an epidemic HIV-1 strain to humans, while the Democratic Republic of Congo was the main centre of HIV-1 group M, a virus descended from SIVcpz strains of a subspecies (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) that does not exist in this country. It is clear that the several HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains descend from SIVcpz, SIVgor, and SIVsmm viruses, and that bushmeat practice provides the most plausible cause of cross-species transfer to humans.
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