74 Sentences With "bilingual dictionaries"

Large-print Bibles are the most popular, along with books of song and prayer, bilingual dictionaries and English course books, romance novels, and other books that provide ways to pass the time — word puzzle collections, coloring books, books for learning how to draw and instruction manuals for making origami figurines.

Ahmad, A. & Hafeez, M.R. (2011). Learning English through Translation – A Case for Bilingual Dictionaries. Languages in India, 11(12), 83-94. The use of bilingual dictionaries in foreign language writing tests remains a debate.

Bilingual dictionaries are available for nearly every combination of popular languages. They also often exist between language pairs where one language is popular and the other isn't. Bilingual dictionaries between two uncommon languages are much less likely to exist.

Printed bilingual dictionaries come in all sizes and shapes. A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language to another. Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they list the meanings of words of one language in another, or can be bidirectional, allowing translation to and from both languages. Bidirectional bilingual dictionaries usually consist of two sections, each listing words and phrases of one language alphabetically along with their translation.

It also provided a Spanish monolingual dictionary and bilingual dictionaries between English and several languages. , it was updated every three months. In 2014, OUP launched Oxford Global Languages, an initiative to build lexical resources (bilingual dictionaries) of the world's languages, starting with Zulu and Northern Sotho online dictionaries released in 2015.

Bilingual dictionaries have proved to be helpful for learners of a new language, although in general, they hold less extensive coverage of information as compared to monolingual dictionaries. Nonetheless, good bilingual dictionaries capitalize on the fact that they are useful for learners to integrate helpful information about commonly known errors, false friends and contrastive predicaments from the two languages. Studies have shown that learners of English have benefited from the use of bilingual dictionaries on their production and comprehension of unknown words.Chen, Y. (2011).

Terminology databases formed, were also used in e-publishing efforts. Branch projects included bilingual dictionaries and machine translation memory databases.

Studies On Bilingualized Dictionaries: The User Perspective. International Journal of Lexicography, 24(2), 161-197. When using bilingual dictionaries, learners also tend to read entries in both native and target languages and this helps them to map the meanings of the target word in the foreign language onto its counterpart in their native language. It was also found that the use of bilingual dictionaries improves the results of translation tasks by learners of ESL, thus showing that language learning can be enhanced with the use of bilingual dictionaries.

Beryl T. (Sue) Atkins is a British lexicographer, specialising in computational lexicography, who pioneered the creation of bilingual dictionaries from corpus data.

Known as "spike parentheses" (), and , are used in Swedish bilingual dictionaries to enclose supplemental constructions.Examples may be found under the corresponding entry at :sv:Parentes.

Apart from publishing the authoritative Dutch-language dictionary, Van Dale Lexicografie also publishes bilingual dictionaries for other languages, translated from and to Dutch, and also offers language courses and translation services.

1996: "Bilingual Dictionaries: Past, Present and Future". In: Euralex’96 Proceedings, (eds.) Gellerstam, M. , J. Järborg, S.-G. Malmgren, K. Norén, L. Rogström and C. R. Papmehl. Gothenburg: Gothenburg University, Department of Swedish. 515-590.

Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.For example, Sergey Ozhegov's dictionary adds нэ́ in brackets for the French word пенсне (') to indicate that the final е does not iotate the preceding н. The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.

Dictionnaires Le Robert also publishes a series of bilingual dictionaries, including English–French and German–French dictionaries, in collaboration with HarperCollins, Italian–French dictionaries, in collaboration with Zanichelli, and Dutch–French dictionaries, in collaboration with Van Dale.

Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A new generation is determined to gain international recognition for Breton. The monolingual dictionary, (1995), defines Breton words in Breton.

The website hosts four free language based bilingual dictionaries. The dictionaries are characterized by providing images with the meaning facilitating translations, understanding and memorizing. Another relevant point is the clearness of the presentation, without a huge amount of entries and chaos.

The Yiqiejing yinyi is not strictly a bilingual dictionary in the modern meaning of Sanskrit headwords and Chinese translation equivalents, it is technically a monolingual dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms. Although early yinyi glossaries and dictionaries have some basic features of modern bilingual dictionaries, they can be considered as the "most distant forerunners of modern Chinese bilingual dictionaries" (Yong and Peng 2008: 371). Within the Chinese "pronunciation and meaning" tradition, Huilin's Yiqiejing yinyi became the definitive glossary (Buswell and Lopez 2013: 1030). Scholars value it for having accurately recorded the pronunciations and understandings of Buddhist technical terms during the Tang dynasty.

East M. (2007). Bilingual Dictionaries in Tests of L2 Writing Proficiency: Do They Make a Difference?. Language Testing, 24(3), 331-353. Nevertheless, from the perspective of foreign language learners, being able to use a bilingual dictionary during a test is reassuring and increases their confidence.

This section tests the ability to select, develop and organise ideas, and to communicate them in writing, concisely and effectively. Applicants must complete one writing task from a choice of three questions, with 30 minutes to complete. Calculators and dictionaries, including bilingual dictionaries, cannot be used in the exam.

Translation Theory and Contrastive Text Linguistics, University of Exeter Press. (see translation), and to find lexical equivalents in the process of compiling bilingual dictionaries, as illustrated by Heltai (1988)Heltai, P. (1988) "Contrastive analysis of terminological systems and bilingual technical dictionaries", International Journal of Lexicography Vol. 1(1) pp. 32-40.

The translation is generated from this representation using both bilingual dictionaries and grammatical rules. It is possible with this translation strategy to obtain fairly high quality translations, with accuracy in the region of 90% (although this is highly dependent on the language pair in question, for example the distance between the two).

Hardev Bahri (, , also Bahari; 1907—2000) was an Indian linguist, literary critic, and lexicographer of the 20th century, notable for his work in Hindi, Punjabi, and other related Indo-Aryan languages. He compiled numerous monolingual and bilingual dictionaries for both general and technical purposes in collaboration with the publisher Rajpal and Sons.

Recently, an automatic method for the disambiguation of the entries of bilingual dictionaries has been proposedNavigli, Roberto. 2009. Using Cycles and Quasi-Cycles to Disambiguate Dictionary Glosses. Proc. of 12th Conference of the European Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL 2009), Athens, Greece, pp. 594-602. that makes use of specific kinds of graphs.

Current research have shown that language learners utilise dictionaries predominantly to check for meanings and that bilingual dictionaries are preferred over monolingual dictionaries for these uses.Frankenberg-Garcia, A. (2011). Beyond L1-L2 Equivalents:Where Do Users Of English As A Foreign Language Turn For Help?. International Journal of Lexicography, 24(1), 93-123.

In the history of Chinese lexicography, Mathews' dictionary was the last major compilation in the tradition of Christian missionaries in China. It began with Robert Morrison's (1815-1823) A Dictionary of the Chinese Language, and continued with Walter Henry Medhurst's (1842) Chinese and English Dictionary and Samuel Wells Williams' (1874) A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language—excepting the anti-clericalist Herbert Giles' (1892, 1912) A Chinese-English Dictionary (Aylmer 1977: 2). Thus, Mathews' dictionary signifies the end of missionaries compiling Chinese bilingual dictionaries and the beginning of a new era for Chinese and English bilingual dictionaries, "based on stronger theoretical underpinnings and more sophisticated information technology as from the latter part of the twentieth century" (Yong and Peng 2008: 390).

It is essentially a monolingual dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms because all the headwords are Chinese character transcriptions of Sanskrit loanwords and the definitions are in Chinese characters. According to Yong and Peng (2008: 371), early yinyi glossaries and dictionaries bear some basic features of modern bilingual dictionaries, but it is more reasonable to consider them as the "most distant forerunners of modern Chinese bilingual dictionaries". In any case, the Yiqiejing yinyi, which compiled non-Chinese loanwords and defined them in Chinese, is the "first Buddhist dictionary of its kind and the first, albeit crude, attempt at bilingual lexicography" (Chien and Creamer 1986: 36). Furthermore, it preceded Horace Hayman Wilson's (1819) Sanskrit-English Dictionary by more than one thousand years (Yong and Peng 2008: 370).

Basic Korean Dictionary () is an online learner's dictionary of the Korean language, launched on 5 October 2016 by the National Institute of Korean Language. It consists of one monolingual and ten bilingual dictionaries that provide meanings of Korean words and expressions in Korean, English, Arabic, French, Indonesian, Japanese, Mongolian, Russian, Spanish, Thai, and Vietnamese.

He has done fieldwork on several Australian Aboriginal languages, particularly those from northern New South Wales ( such as Gamilaraay/Kamilaroi), northern South Australia, and north-west Western Australia, publishing several bilingual dictionaries. These included, in collaboration with David Nathan, the first fully page-formatted hypertext dictionary of an Australian language, with the creation of the 1994 Gamilaraay online dictionary.

Multilingual dictionaries are closely related to bilingual dictionaries. In a multilingual dictionary, a person looks up a word or phrase in one language and is presented with the translation in several languages. Multilingual dictionaries can be arranged alphabetically or words can be grouped by topic. When grouped by topic, it is common for a multilingual dictionary to be illustrated.

In 1995, Igor Ashmanov co-founded MediaLingua and became its CEO. The company acquired exclusive rights for electronic dictionaries by the Russian Language publishing house and created a MultiLex family of electronic bilingual dictionaries. In 1999, Oleg Serebrennikov, the majority shareholder of MediaLingua, decided to change development strategy of the company,Олег Серебренников: «Вопрос о продаже бизнеса „МедиаЛингвы полностью пока перед нами не стоит». — AlgoNet.

Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by national government as an official or regional language. The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh.

The Foclóir Stairiúil na Nua-Ghaeilge (, "Historical Dictionary of Modern Irish") project was started in 1976 with the aim of creating a historical dictionary for Modern Irish. The dictionary will cover a period from 1600 to the present day. In contrast to most existing Irish dictionaries, this will be an Irish–Irish dictionary. Most others, including the highly regarded de Bhaldraithe and Ó Dónaill dictionaries, are Irish–English bilingual dictionaries.

Rulers, protractors and compasses can be taken into the examination. Candidates who don't have English as a first language are allowed to use bilingual dictionaries. A formulae booklet was available to all candidates for all examinations up to and including those in 2018. From 2019 onwards, candidates will no longer be issued with a formulae booklet; instead they will be expected to recall, or know how to derive quickly, standard formulae.

The ETAP-3 machine translation tool can translate text from English into Russian and vice versa. It is a rule-based system which makes it different from the most present-day systems that are predominantly statistical-based. The system makes a syntactical analysis of the input sentence which can be visualized as a syntax tree. The machine translation tool uses bilingual dictionaries which contain more than 100,000 lexical entries.

Langenscheidt () is a privately held German publishing company that specializes in language reference works. In addition to publishing monolingual dictionaries, Langenscheidt also publishes bilingual dictionaries and travel phrase-books. Langenscheidt has language-to-language dictionaries in many languages, including: English, French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Swedish, Greek, Ancient Greek, Latin, Arabic, Chinese and Croatian, and in varying sizes, ranging from small travel pocket dictionaries to large desk sized ones.

His first reference work, the New English–Persian Dictionary, in two volumes, was published in 1929–31. This was later replaced by the Larger English–Persian Dictionary, and never reprinted. He knew French, Hebrew, English and Persian, and produced bilingual dictionaries in French and Hebrew as well as English. He also wrote a compilation of Persian proverbs and their English equivalents with the name "A Book of Collected Poems".

Sindhi to English dictionaries are bilingual dictionaries which provide English equivalents of Sindhi language words. Compilations of Sindhi and English terms were created for non-Sindhi speaking students in the early 1800s. The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta published articles with vocabulary lists in 1836 and 1843. Sindhi was one of the languages included in Leech's 1943 vocabularies of Indic languages for the British government.

Dictionaries of all types are available as apps for smartphones and for tablet computers such as Apple's iPad, the BlackBerry PlayBook and the Motorola Xoom. The needs of translators and language learners are especially well catered for, with apps for bilingual dictionaries for numerous language pairs, and for most of the well-known monolingual learner's dictionaries such as the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English and the Macmillan English Dictionary.

In addition to the translation, a bilingual dictionary usually indicates the part of speech, gender, verb type, declension model and other grammatical clues to help a non- native speaker use the word. Other features sometimes present in bilingual dictionaries are lists of phrases, usage and style guides, verb tables, maps and grammar references. In contrast to the bilingual dictionary, a monolingual dictionary defines words and phrases instead of translating them.

For many English language learners, particularly learners without easy Internet access, dictionary pronunciation respelling are the only source of pronunciation information for most new words. Which respelling systems are best for such learners has been a matter of debate. In countries where the local languages are written in non-Latin, phonemic orthographies, various other respelling systems have been used. In India, for example, many English bilingual dictionaries provide pronunciation respellings in the local orthography.

A Copious Dictionary in Three Parts provided explanations and etymologies, though criticized as rambling and obscure by his successor and rival, Elisha Coles.Monique C. Cormier, "Bilingual Dictionaries of the Late Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," in The Oxford History of English Lexicography (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 67. The second edition was published in 1669, with a third in 1674 and a fourth in 1678.A. P. Cowie, The Oxford History of English Lexicography, p. 417.

The first novel in Shona, Solomon Mutswairo's Feso, was published in 1957. Shona is taught in the schools but is not the general medium of instruction in other subjects. It has a literature and is described through monolingual and bilingual dictionaries (chiefly Shona – English). Standard Shona is based on the dialect spoken by the Karanga people of Masvingo Province, the region around Great Zimbabwe, and Zezuru people of central and northern Zimbabwe.

A Practical Guide to Lexicography, Sterkenburg 2003, p. 7 Although the first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times (these were bilingual dictionaries), the systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest themselves is a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta. The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of "astonishing" lack of method and critical-self reflection.

Bilingual dictionaries have an additional problem when dealing with idioms – as well as explaining the idiom, they also have to translate it. In doing so, they will commonly provide both a literal translation and a free translation. For example, the phrase "can be counted on the fingers of one hand", meaning few in number, may translated literally into Chinese as qu zhe ke shu and, more sensibly, as liao liao wu ji (only a handful).

Nevertheless, it encouraged the idea that machine translation was imminent and stimulated the financing of the research, not only in the US but worldwide. Early systems used large bilingual dictionaries and hand-coded rules for fixing the word order in the final output which was eventually considered too restrictive in linguistic developments at the time. For example, generative linguistics and transformational grammar were exploited to improve the quality of translations. During this period operational systems were installed.

Carbonell Basset was born in Spain in 1949. He was educated in the United States, in Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pa. and later joined the faculty of Franklin & Marshall College in Pennsylvania. According to articles written about him in the Spanish newspaper La Razón, by José María Carrascal, he compiles dictionaries on his own, with no teams of experts. He is the creator of the Unialphabet system for bilingual dictionaries, where they are not divided into two languages.

114 Issue 7, p38-44, 6p. Retrieved November 27, 2019. Some popular types of miniature books from various periods include Bibles, encyclopedias, dictionaries, Bilingual dictionaries, short stories, verse, famous speeches, political propaganda, travel guides, almanacs, children's stories, and the miniaturization of well- known books such as The Compleat Angler, The Art of War, and Sherlock Holmes stories. The appeal of miniature books was holding the works of prominent writers, such as William Shakespeare in the person's hands.

The dual dictionaries of English pioneered the launching of many bilingual dictionaries and thesauruses in the Philippines including those authored by the Filipino compiler, Vito C. Santos, namely the Vicassan's Pilipino–English Dictionary and the New Vicassan's English–Pilipino Dictionary (1995). Fr. James English acknowledged consulting Vito Santos’s Pilipino–English Dictionary for reference while completing his Tagalog–English Dictionary. Vito C. Santos once worked with Father English. English's dictionaries had been influential in the development and propagation of the Filipino language in the Philippines and abroad.

He wrote articles and satirical pieces in various other political newspapers and magazines, sometimes with the pen name of Fideno. Finally, De Nobili was also an expert of Calabrian linguistic and etymology, helping the German linguist Gerhard Rohlfs to realize one of the first bilingual dictionaries Calabrian- Italian. In August 1942, Filippo De Nobili and Francesco Maruca clandestinely founded the Communist Federation of the Province of Catanzaro. Years later, the writer Corrado Alvaro wrote a poem titled Il topo e il falegname (The Mouse and the Carpenter) about the relationship between De Nobili and Maruca.

The BNC was the source of more than 12,000 words and phrases used for the production of a range of bilingual dictionaries in India in 2012, translating 22 local languages into English. This was part of a larger movement to push for improvements in education, the preservation of India's vernacular languages, and the development of translation work. The large size of the BNC provides a large-scale resource on which to test programs. It has been used as a test bed for the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) guidelines.

Esperanto lexicographers are individuals or groups, whether enthusiastic amateurs or trained linguists, who have produced single-language or bilingual dictionaries of Esperanto. More than 130 Esperantists, working singly or collectively, have published such dictionaries; several of these authors are listed in the "Esperanto lexicographers" category. In the specific case of Esperanto, most dictionary authors historically were and today still are non- specialists in the field of lexicography. A notable exception is Erich-Dieter Krause, a German professor of Indonesian, who wrote comprehensive dictionaries, both German–Esperanto (2007) and Esperanto-German (1999).

Iranica, Vol XI, under حییم Soon after, he began working on the first series of bilingual dictionaries printed in Persian, a task that earned him the honorary name "Word Master." Later, he switched to translation. He is known to have worked for the Iranian Ministry of Finance for a number of years as a translator to Dr. Arthur Millspaugh, an American adviser to Iranian government on fiscal matters. He then moved on to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, where he headed the translation bureau until his retirement in the 1950s.

Dent with Paul Zenon on Countdown in 2012 Dent's first job was as a waitress.Susie Dent, 18 December 2018 episode of Countdown At the time she began work on Countdown in 1992, she had just started working for the Oxford University Press on producing English dictionaries, having previously worked on bilingual dictionaries. Dent is well-known as the resident lexicographer and adjudicator for the letters rounds on Channel 4's long-running game show Countdown. On each episode, she also provides a brief commentary on the origin of a particular word or phrase.

Seeing that humans survived and all they had built was destroyed, the Anunnaki left Earth after giving humans the opportunity and means to govern themselves. Sitchin's work has not received mainstream scholarly support and has been roundly criticized by professionals that have reviewed his hypotheses. Semitic languages scholar Michael S. Heiser says that many of Sitchin's translations of Sumerian and Mesopotamian words are not consistent with Mesopotamian cuneiform bilingual dictionaries, produced by ancient Akkadian scribes. Alan F. Alford, author of Gods of the New Millennium (1996), was an adherent of the ancient astronaut hypothesis.

Harrap's Shorter French Dictionary, published by Chambers Harrap Publishers, is one of the best known English/French bilingual dictionaries in the United Kingdom and France. The eighth edition was published in April 2007. In the United States it is sold under the title Harrap's French and English College Dictionary. The Shorter is a single-volume dictionary which began life as an abridged version of Harrap's French Standard Dictionary (now Harrap's Unabridged French Dictionary, now online at Harrap's Online, sold in two volumes and last revised in March 2007).

Shintaishi (literally "new form poetry") has its origins in the Meiji period. It refers to poetry with a fixed form and written in classical Japanese. Early Japanese bilingual dictionaries of French and English generally translated the words poème and poem as shi (詩), but in the early Meiji period this word almost exclusively referred to kanshi (poetry in Classical Chinese). and Ryōkichi Yatabe, as well as Inoue Tetsujirō in his preface to a verse by Longfellow, expressed the necessity that Meiji poetry be written in a new form unlike the classical styles of Japanese poetry.

Most publications are now printed in horizontal alignment, like English. Horizontal writing is written left to right in the vast majority of cases, with a few exceptions such as bilingual dictionaries of Chinese and right-to-left scripts like Arabic, in which case Chinese may follow the right-to-left alignment. Right-to-left writing direction can also often be seen on the right side of tourist buses, as it is customary to have the text run (on both sides of the vehicle) from the front of the bus to its rear. Vertical alignment is generally used for artistic or aesthetic purposes (e.g.

This structure has allowed modern scholars to clarify their understanding of the Sumerian language, at that time still a living language, because until the discovery of the tablet corpus there were no bilingual dictionaries with Sumerian and other languages, leaving pronunciation and other phonetic aspects of the language unclear. The only tablets at Ebla that were written exclusively in Sumerian are lexical lists, probably for use in training scribes. The archives contain thousands of copybooks, lists for learning relevant jargon, and scratch pads for students, demonstrating that Ebla was a major educational center specializing in the training of scribes.Dumper; Stanley, 2007, p.142.

The website hosts eight free German language based bilingual dictionaries and forums for additional language queries. The dictionaries are characterized by providing translations in forms of hyperlinks to further dictionary queries, thereby facilitating back translations. The dictionaries are partly added to and corrected by large vocabulary donations of individuals or companies, partly through suggestions and discussions on the LEO language forums. For any of the eight foreign languages, there's at least one (in the cases of English and French two) qualified employee in charge (whose mother tongue is either German and who has studied the respective other idiom or vice versa).

The (c. 649) Yiqiejing yinyi 一切經音義 "Pronunciation and Meaning in the Complete Buddhist Canon" is the oldest surviving Chinese dictionary of Buddhist technical terminology, and was the archetype for later Chinese bilingual dictionaries. This specialized glossary was compiled by the Tang dynasty lexicographer monk Xuanying 玄應, who was a translator for the famous pilgrim and Sanskritist monk Xuanzang. When Xuanying died he had only finished 25 chapters of the dictionary, but another Tang monk Huilin 慧琳 compiled an enlarged 100-chapter version with the same title, the (807) Yiqiejing yinyi.

The study of specialized lexicography deals with several important aspects within the general field of lexicography. The problems involved in designing and making bilingual dictionaries within a culture-dependent subject field involves aspects such as the user's linguistic competence in both languages as well as the user's extra-linguistic (factual) competence in both cultures. As described in Nielsen 1994, the coverage of dictionaries may be divided into three lexicographically relevant types. First, the multi-field dictionary, which covers several subject-fields; secondly, the single-field dictionary, which covers one subject-field; and thirdly, the sub-field dictionary, which covers one sub-field within a general subject-field.

Father Leo James English, C.Ss.R. (August 1907 - 1997) was the Australian compiler and editor of two of among the first most widely used bilingual dictionaries in the Philippines. He was the author of the two companion dictionaries namely, the English–Tagalog Dictionary (1965) and the Tagalog–English Dictionary (1986). English saw the successful completion of his dictionaries that were carried out in the course of his 51 years of religious service in the Philippines. He was a member of the Redemptorists or the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, a religious order that has been engaged in preaching missions using the vernacular language in the Philippines for more than seventy years.

Traditional respelling systems for English use only the 26 ordinary letters of the Latin alphabet with diacritics, and are meant to be easy for native readers to understand. English dictionaries have used various such respelling systems to convey phonemic representations of the spoken word since Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. Today, such systems remain in use in American dictionaries for native English speakers, but they have been replaced by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in linguistics references and many bilingual dictionaries published outside the United States. The pronunciation which dictionaries refer to is some chosen "normal" one, thereby excluding other regional accents or dialect pronunciation.

Dictionaries intended for collegiate and professional use generally include most or all of the lexical information to be expected in a quality printed dictionary. The content of electronic dictionaries developed in association with leading publishers of printed dictionaries is more reliable that those aimed at the traveler or casual user, while bilingual dictionaries that have not been authored by teams of native speaker lexicographers for each language, will not be suitable for academic work. Some developers opt to have their products evaluated by an independent academic body such as the CALICO. Another major consideration is that the devices themselves and the dictionaries in them are generally designed for a particular market.

As a result, the last hundred years has seen Oxford publish further English and bilingual dictionaries, children's books, school textbooks, music, journals, the World's Classics series, and a range of English language teaching texts. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, beginning with New York City in 1896.Sutcliffe, passim With the advent of computer technology and increasingly harsh trading conditions, the Press's printing house at Oxford was closed in 1989, and its former paper mill at Wolvercote was demolished in 2004. By contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year.

LMT, introduced around 1990, is a Prolog-based machine-translation system that works on specially made bilingual dictionaries, such as the Collins English- German (CEG), which have been rewritten in an indexed form which is easily readable by computers. This method uses a structured lexical data base (LDB) in order to correctly identify word categories from the source language, thus constructing a coherent sentence in the target language, based on rudimentary morphological analysis. This system uses "frames" to identify the position a certain word should have, from a syntactical point of view, in a sentence. This "frames" are mapped via language conventions, such as UDICT in the case of English.

Dictionaries come in different levels of proficiency; such as advanced, intermediate and beginner, which learners can choose accordingly to the level best suited to them. There are many different types of dictionaries available; such as thesaurus or bilingual dictionaries, which cater to the specific needs of a learner of a foreign language. In recent years, there is also specialised dictionaries for foreign language learners that employ natural language processing tools to assist in the compilations of dictionary entries by generating feedback on the vocabulary that learners use and automatically providing inflectional and/or derivational forms for referencing items in the explanations.Kaalep, H., & Mikk, J. (2008).

Some studies support the view that the use of a dictionary in a foreign language examination increases the mean score of the test, and hence is one of the factors that influenced the decision to ban the use of dictionaries in several foreign language tests in the UK.Tall, G., & Hurman, J. (2002). Using dictionaries in modern language GCSE examinations. Educational Review, 54(3), 205-217. More recent studies, however, present that further research into the use of bilingual dictionaries during writing tests have shown that there is no significant differences in the test scores that can be attributed to the use of a dictionary.

The Dictionary of Spoken Chinese records authentic colloquial pronunciation, and its chief function is to show a user how to employ the entries in spoken Chinese—in contrast, the chief function of previous bilingual dictionaries is to enable a user to decode written texts. Most entries provide one or more usage examples from colloquial speech. This dictionary classifies words into twelve complex grammatical categories: adjective (A), demonstrative (Dem), adverb (H), intransitive verb (I), conjunction (J), coverb (K), measure word (M), noun (N), numeral (Num), pronoun (Pron), resultative compound (RC) and transitive verb (V). The Dictionary of Spoken Chinese's English-Chinese section averages around 5 entries per page, compared to around 18 per page in the Chinese-English section.

Uniformity of spoken English never existed and does not exist now, but usages do exist, which must be learnt by the speakers, and do not conform to prescriptive rules. Usages have been documented not by prescriptive grammars, which on the whole are less comprehensible to the general public, but by comprehensive dictionaries, often termed unabridged, which attempt to list all usages of words and the phrases in which they occur as well as the date of first use and the etymology where possible. These typically require many volumes, and yet not more so than the unabridged dictionaries of many languages. Bilingual dictionaries and glossaries precede modern English and were in use in the earliest written English.

At first PROMT translation was a rule-based machine translation (RBMT). RBMT is a machine translation system based on linguistic information about source and target languages basically retrieved from (bilingual) dictionaries and grammars covering the main semantic, morphological, and syntactic regularities of each language respectively. Having input sentences (in some source language), an RBMT system generates them to output sentences (in some target language) on the basis of morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of both the source and the target languages involved in a concrete translation task. At the end of 2010, of PROMT provided the Hybrid technology of translation leverages the strengths of Statistical machine translation and rule-based translation methodologies.

The compilers of the Concise Dictionary of Chinese, the linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892-1982) and the historian Yang Lien-sheng (1914-1990), were famous Chinese-American scholars who worked in Harvard University wartime Chinese language programs for the War Department. Chao was a visiting professor at Harvard from 1941 to 1946, while Yang entered the graduate program in 1940, and received an M.A. in 1942 and Ph.D. in 1946. At the beginning of World War II, the shortage of Chinese and Japanese bilingual dictionaries became an urgent matter for English-speaking Allies. The Harvard–Yenching Institute said the need for Chinese dictionaries in America had "grown from chronic to acute", and selected two "practical dictionaries" to revise and reprint—without either author's permission—for "the immediate demands of American students" (Mathews 1943: v).

Each entry gave the phonetic notation, definition, and citations from dictionaries, rime dictionaries, histories, and other classic literature (Yong and Peng 2008: 220). In addition to their value in establishing the Chinese interpretation of Buddhist technical terms, these "pronunciation and meaning" glossaries also serve as important sources for studying the Chinese phonology of their times (Buswell and Lopez 2013: 1031). Besides the yinyi phonological and semantic glossaries of Chinese Buddhist terms, there were also collections of translated terms in the sutras, such as the Fānyì míngyì jí 翻譯名義集 "Collection of Translated Buddhist Terms" by Fayun 法雲 (467-529) and Fān fànyǔ 翻梵語 "Translating Sanskrit" by Bao Chang 寶唱. In a strict sense, neither the glossaries nor the collections can be considered Sanskrit-Chinese bilingual dictionaries (Yong and Peng 2008: 369).

The Catholicon (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's Dictionarium was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 Robert Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae latinae and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae graecae, which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual dictionary written in Europe was the Spanish, written by Sebastián Covarrubias' Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, edición integral e ilustrada de Ignacio Arellano y Rafael Zafra, Madrid, Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2006, pg. XLIX. In 1612 the first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, for Italian, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the Dictionnaire Universel by Antoine Furetière for French. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française.