A quick look at past U.S. attempts at autarky — i.e.
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But it has usually referred to a desire for independence, not autarky.
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Or it can choose the nation-state and democracy by embracing impoverished autarky.
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There has been a decisive shift away from openness and trade towards local autarky.
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But how does this work when we're talking about restricted openness, not complete autarky?
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We would see a more fragmented world, one where regional autarky replaces an international order.
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Faithful to Mussolini's call for autarky, the Futurists stuck to Italian-made alcohol for nationalist reasons.
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The bigger issue is the vast disruption that would occur in the transition to more autarky.
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In political science or economics, the word autarky is used to describe a state of self-sufficiency.
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America has taken steps like this before, and did not slide down any slippery slope to autarky.
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"The good news is that the Chinese are going to discover that autarky is hard," says Mr Mulvenon.
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But as fascism, communism and autarky failed over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, liberal societies have prospered.
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Stalin's crash industrialisation and urbanisation was designed to create a militarised autarky with a total disregard for cost, financial or human.
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Generally, autarky is no longer the prevailing U.S. national security strategy, and we have and continue to rely on allies for key needs.
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In 1880-1914 the world was in many ways just as globalised as it is today; it still fell victim to war and autarky.
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Muhammadu Buhari, who was inaugurated as president in May 2015 in the midst of an economic shock caused by low oil prices, turned to autarky.
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Indeed, some economists believe that the broad outlines of the Soviet approach, minus the atrocities and the autarky, bear some resemblance to East Asia's economic model.
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The cheap global connectivity of the internet, combined with the large and increasing share of information and knowledge in products, will obviate any political moves towards autarky.
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After 1990 this bout of globalisation went into warp speed as China rebounded, India and Russia abandoned autarky and the European single market came into its own.
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Autarky and socialism tend to go hand-in-hand, for reasons that are pretty obvious: Both are attempts to put economic exchange and production under political discipline.
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It depends on the trade deal Mrs May secures with the EU, but anything short of autarky means the country will never be entirely free from the court's clutches.
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In official pictures, it looked almost as if he were about to dive into the river and swim across, as Mao Zedong had done during a period of autarky 52 years earlier.
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If America opened itself to better relations with these countries, instead of increasing the speed of its descent into autarky, it would eliminate the need for these two rivals to cooperate with each other.
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The great 85033 experiment in reviving medieval mercantilism and realizing interwar dreams of national autarky has been a major flop, just as the thousands of merchants who begged Washington not to do this had predicted.
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In the 1970s and 1980s, the old CalArts mafia used to celebrate this city's artistic autarky, where strong schools, cheap rent, a benign market and a three-hour time difference insulated L.A. from supposed excesses out East.
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At a showroom in an art center in Beijing, companies including China's Clear, Ecosan and CRRC, Sedron Technologies of the United States, India's Eram Scientific and Switzerland's Blue Diversion Autarky displayed toilets that could separate urine and recycle water for hand washing.
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After the brutal suppression of student-led demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in June 1989, America kept trade ties open, not in hopes of a kindlier China, Mr Bader notes, but for fear that it might slip back into the xenophobic autarky of the Mao years.
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Even though liberal societies have prospered as fascism, communism and autarky have failed, Europe and America are in the throes of a popular rebellion against liberal elites, who are seen as self-serving and unable, or unwilling, to solve the problems of ordinary people.
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Rather, it grumbles about cyber-espionage, the theft of intellectual property, the stalling of negotiations on a bilateral investment treaty and a general perception that the trajectory of economic policy in China is no longer towards gradually increasing openness, but towards greater autarky and protectionism.
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From 1814 to 1840, Paraguay became an experiment in autarky, led by a visionary but repressive dictator, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, better known as Dr. Francia or El Supremo, who confiscated private property, closed the borders (except for limited commerce) and actively persecuted intellectuals.
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That could account for the 8,000 years of genetic autarky in the ancestry of Native Americans, for it was not until the ice sheets retreated (starting about 16,000 years ago), that anyone in Beringia would have been able to pass to the rest of the Americas.
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"It seems likely that the current trade dispute, and the ZTE sanctions in particular, will spur the Chinese government to double down on its economic autarky model, where they seek self-sufficiency in a wider array of technology-based products," said Robert D. Atkinson, the president of the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, a Washington policy research group backed partly by Western technology companies.
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Autarky exists whenever an entity can survive or continue its activities without external assistance. Autarky is not necessarily economic. For example, a military autarky would be a state that could defend itself without help from another country.
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Ramonet has called for autarky and for regulation, taxes and tariffs that reduce international trade.
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Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency; the term usually applies to political states, societies or to their economic systems. Autarky exists whenever an entity survives or continues its activities without external assistance or international trade. If a self-sufficient economy also refuses to conduct any trade with the outside world, economists may term it a "closed economy".Glossary of International Economics .
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Conservative, centrist and nationalist movements (such as in the American system, mercantilism, the Meiji Restoration, social corporatism, and traditionalist conservatism) have also adopted autarky in temporary, limited ways - usually in an attempt to preserve part of an existing social order or to develop a particular industry. Some fascist and far-right movements occasionally espoused autarky as a goal in propaganda but in practice crushed existing movements towards self-sufficiency and established extensive capital connections to serve as a basis for war and genocide while allying with traditional business elites. Autarky may be a policy of a state or other entity when it seeks to be self-sufficient as a whole, but also can be limited to a narrow field such as possession of a key raw material. For example, many countries have a policy of autarky with respect to foodstuffs and water for national-security reasons.
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26 In the late 1930s, Italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions and massive regulation of the economy to attempt to balance payments. Italy's policy of autarky failed to achieve effective economic autonomy. Nazi Germany similarly pursued an economic agenda with the aims of autarky and rearmament and imposed protectionist policies, including forcing the German steel industry to use lower-quality German iron ore rather than superior-quality imported iron.
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The CPF, or consumption–possibility frontier, is the budget constraint where participants in international trade can consume. Under autarky this constraint is identical to the production–possibility frontier.
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Rather, they have been described as an example of authoritarian and totalitarian capitalism, with Mussolini choosing to link private businesses and the state to organize economic policies. Another thing in common among authoritarian socialist regimes was autarky. While this was also adopted by other authoritarian regimes, it was pursued for vastly different reasons. Authoritarian socialist states pursued autarky to reach a post-scarcity economy to guarantee a communist society whereas fascist regimes pursued it for nationalist and imperialist goals such as for Nazi Germany's living space, with fascist and far-right movements claiming to strive for autarky in platforms or in propaganda, but in practice they crushed existing movements towards self-sufficiency.
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After playing for a long period (the exact amount varies from game to game), a bug called Autarky sets in. The Autarky bug will always happen if the game is going on for a long period. It makes it nearly impossible for a nation to trade because everyone has a surplus of many of the items they trade. This causes nations to begin to lose money, since they can no longer make money from trade.
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Benito Mussolini propaganda photo for the Battle for Grain The Battle for Grain was an economic policy undertaken by the Fascists in Italy during the 1920s as a move toward autarky.
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Michael Kulikowski cites the discovery of mid-7th- century trientes at El Bovalar as evidence for commercial activity in central Spain refuting the prevailing notion of "autarky" and protofeudal serfdom.Kulikowski, 301.
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Across Eastern Europe, the Soviet model was enforced, with a termination of political pluralism, agricultural collectivisation, and investment in heavy industry. It was aimed for economic autarky within the Eastern Bloc.
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445 In 1936 Jenks was picked as candidate for the forthcoming general election for Horsham and Worthing. Jenks took charge of the agricultural policy of the BUF, seeking to lead Britain to agricultural autarky.
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Haushofer's version of autarky was based on the quasi-Malthusian idea that the earth would become saturated with people and no longer able to provide food for all. There would essentially be no increases in productivity.Dorpalen, p. 237. Haushofer and the Munich school of geopolitik would eventually expand their conception of lebensraum and autarky well past the borders of 1914 and "a place in the sun" to a New European Order and then to a New Afro-European Order and eventually to a Eurasian Order.
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After World War I, the thoughts of Rudolf Kjellén and Ratzel were picked up and extended by a number of German authors such as Karl Haushofer (1869–1946), Erich Obst, Hermann Lautensach and Otto Maull. In 1923, Karl Haushofer founded the Zeitschrift für Geopolitik (Journal for Geopolitics), which was later used in the propaganda of Nazi Germany. The key concepts of Haushofer's Geopolitik were Lebensraum, autarky, pan-regions, and organic borders. States have, Haushofer argued, an undeniable right to seek natural borders which would guarantee autarky.
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By contrast, autarky can result from economic isolation or from external circumstances in which a state or other entity reverts to localized production when it lacks currency or excess production to trade with the outside world.
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Economic theorists also use the term "closed economy" technically as an abstraction to allow consideration of a single economy without taking foreign trade into account, i.e. as the antonym of "open economy". Autarky in the political sense is not necessarily an exclusively economic phenomenon; for example, a military autarky would be a state that could defend itself without help from another country, or could manufacture all of its weapons without any imports from the outside world. Autarky as an ideal or method has been embraced by a wide range of political ideologies and movements, especially left-wing creeds like African socialism, mutualism, war communism, council communism, Communalism, Swadeshi, syndicalism (especially anarcho-syndicalism) and leftist populism, generally in an effort to build alternative economic structures or to control resources against structures a particular movement views as hostile.
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At the 2014 United Nations conference, she accused the "vulture funds" of destabilizing the economy of the countries and called them "economic terrorists". According to The Economist, the Kirchners returned Argentina to "economic nationalism and near- autarky".
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In return, however, Montecatini had to keep open certain less profitable operations. The harmony between business and the regime reached its peak when Mussolini declared the necessity for economic autarky in a speech to the National Assembly of Corporations in March 1936. The planned chemical autarky was centered around Montecatini. This coincided with challenging achievements on the technical-scientific level, such as the foundation of the Azienda Nazionale Idrogenazione Combustibili (ANIC) jointly with the Azienda generale italiana petroli (Agip) and the State Railways, to produce fuel by hydrogenation of brown coal.
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221 He paraphrases this view as: "[Romanians] are not Western and nor should they try to become Western." Cultural historian Lucian Nastasă refers to Sămănătoruls attitudes as an attempt to impose "defensive prophylaxis" on Western ideas, and "a sort of spiritual autarky".
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The Civil War ravaged the Spanish economy. Infrastructure had been damaged, workers killed, and daily business severely hampered. For more than a decade after Franco's victory, the devastated economy recovered very slowly. Franco initially pursued a policy of autarky, cutting off almost all international trade.
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How receptive they were to the true intent of Haushofer's geopolitik and what that intent was exactly are unclear. The ideas of racial organic states, Lebensraum and autarky clearly found their way into Hitler's thinking, and pan-regions and the landpower-seapower dichotomy did not appear prominently, much less correctly, in National Socialist strategy. Examination of Germany's pre-World War I imperial aims demonstrates that many of the ideas which would later surface in Nazi thought were not novel but simply continuations of the same revisionist strategic aims. Racially motivated autarky, achieved by annexation, especially in the East, found its way into National Socialist policy as a continuous and coherent whole.
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This is also where the "Autarky" bug does most damage because in the game trade is almost always the most income generating source and when the bug sets in, this well of wealth inevitably dries up when no other nations buy your goods. However, playing country with high levels of raw resources like South Africa with precious metals, seems to not fall victim to the bug as quickly as countries relying on services and agriculture. Also, by invading nearby countries followed by annexation and high levels of taxes can also stave off autarky. At this point however, convincing the rest of the world not to invade is a bigger problem.
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The word autarky is from the , which means "self-sufficiency" (derived from αὐτο-, "self", and ἀρκέω, "to suffice"). The term is sometimes confused with autocracy (Greek: αὐτoκρατία "government by single absolute ruler") or autarchy (Greek: αὐταρχία – the idea of rejecting government and ruling oneself and no other).
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But Hitler found this prospect unacceptable. Germany began to move away from partially free trade in the direction of economic self-sufficiency. Hitler was aware of the fact that Germany lacked reserves of raw materials, and full autarky was therefore impossible. Thus he chose a different approach.
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Hillgruber, Andreas. "England's Place In Hitler's Plans for World Dominion". Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 9, 1974. pp. 5–22. The first part of the document minuted Hitler's wish that Germany should strive for autarky, as he reasoned that reliance on others makes a state weak.
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86 Unlike Italy, Germany did not strive to achieve full autarky, even though in May 1933 Hitler's regime had defaulted unilaterally on Germany's foreign debt along with a decree for sweeping capital controls that made it difficult to engage in foreign trade.Nicholas Crafts and Peter Fearon, editors, The Great Depression of the 1930s: Lessons for Today, Oxford University Press, 2013, p.118 Hitler was aware of the fact that Germany lacked reserves of raw materials and full autarky was therefore impossible, thus he chose a different approach. The Nazi government tried to limit the number of its trade partners and—when possible—only trade with countries within the German sphere of influence.
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The Fascist government's economic policy of autarky and a recourse to synthetic materials was not able to meet the demand. Prior to entering the war, the Fascist government sought to gain control over resources in the Balkans, particularly oil from Romania.Neville Wylie. European Neutrals and Non-Belligerents during the Second World War.
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Politics of Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National Welfare. Routledge, 2013. Economic self-sufficiency, known as autarky, was a major goal of most fascist governments.Alexander J. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995. pp. 60–61 Fascist governments advocated resolution of domestic class conflict within a nation in order to secure national solidarity.
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95, 103.Stommer, p. 73. Another factor in this change in style was the shortage of steel caused by the policy of autarky and by rearmament and war; there was also a near failure of a continuously welded bridge, which had to be quietly reinforced and led to mistrust of steel construction.Stommer, p. 63.
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Kabel, Hamburg 1988, p. 50, . The effects of the Great Depression (from 1929), protectionism in many industrial countries, the seizure of control by the National Socialists (1933) and their autarky policy saw cross border trade drop to levels lower than before the crisis. In 1935, HFLG merged with the state quay administration to become the Betriebsgesellschaft der hamburgischen Hafenanlagen.
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The autarky movement before the World War II boosted the process and several plants were built. Bergius moved to Berlin where he was only marginally involved in the development. While he was in Bad Gastein Austria, his laboratory and his house were destroyed by an air raid. The rest of the war he stayed in Austria.
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Economic self-sufficiency, known as autarky, was a major goal of most fascist governments.Alexander J. De Grand, "Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany", Routledge, 1995, , pp. 60-61 Furthermore, fascism was highly militaristic and as such fascists often significantly increased military spending. Recruitment into the military was one of the main policies used by fascist governments to reduce unemployment.
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The goal is autarky and greater ecological and infrastructural self-reliance through "closed-loop systems" that reduce reliance on external networks.Hodson & Marvin 2010. Although difficult given the reliance on international supply chains, urban food movements are working to reduce the commodification of food and individual and social forms of alienation from food within cities.Sbicca, Joshua (2014).
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Germany – Economic, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Hitler followed an autarky economic policy, creating a network of client states and economic allies in central Europe and Latin America. By cutting wages and taking control of labor unions, plus public works spending, unemployment fell significantly by 1935. Large-scale military spending played a major role in the recovery.
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Benito Mussolini propaganda photo for the Battle for Grain The Agricultural policy of fascism in Italy was a series of complex measures and laws designed and enforced during Italian Fascism, as a move towards attempted autarky, specifically by Benito Mussolini following the Battle for Grain and the 1935 invasion of Abyssinia and subsequent trade embargoes (despite continued trade with Germany).
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The process of permanent construction was in parallel with the intensification of economic exchanges with Mediterranean traders. In exchange for luxury goods, the inhabitants of the Alpilles produced grain and achieved a state of autarky with a real trading economy. Over the following centuries the population of the Alpilles consistently decreased: the Greek colony at Arles attracted many people from across the region.
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Trying to achieve autarky, the Third Reich intensified iron ore mining in 1935 which is why the deeper layers of the mountain are well explored today. In close proximity to the town center of Ebringen, two derricks had been erected, which were operating all day. Water from the local creek served as drilling fluid.Arbeitsgemeinschaft Ebringer Dorfgeschichte (Hrsg.): Ebringer Dorfgeschichte Nr. 2.
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More individualistic sharecroppers would abandon collectives. Anarchists expressed frustration that peasants were more interested in what they could gain from the collective than commitment revolutionary ideals. On a larger scale, Seidman argues that while collectives may have encouraged solidarity internally, on a local scale they contributed towards organised selfishness. Collectives encouraged autarky and self- sufficiency, refusing to share with other collectives.
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The Paraíba State University' (', UEPB) is a public university in the Brazilian state of Paraíba. The university has eight campuses throughout the state, and its main campus is located in the city of Campina Grande. It was founded by local ordinance n. 23, on March 15, 1966, as Regional University of Northeastern Brazil (Portuguese: Universidade Regional do Nordeste - URNe) as a local autarky.
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Zischkas publications enhanced a public debate about measurements to increase energy autarky and lead to the construction (against the will of the German petrochemical industry) of several coal fluidization plants in Germany. Rainer Karlsch und Raymond G. Stokes "Faktor Öl". Die Mineralölwirtschaft in Deutschland 1859-1974 In real life, those plants served not for global peace but provided gasoline for the Wehrmacht Blitzkriegs.
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Re- armament in the 1930s saw the development of different theories of how to prepare the German economy for total war. The first amongst these was 'defence in depth' which was put forward by Georg Thomas. He suggested that the German economy needed to achieve Autarky (or self-sufficiency) and one of the main proponents behind this was I.G. Farben.
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S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 685 During the War, he worked at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. After the War, he found work at the Sonntagsblatt and Die Welt newspapers. In 1931 he published the book Das Ende des Kapitalismus (The End of Capitalism), in which he offered the view that laissez-faire capitalism was dead, and that German autarky was the future.
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While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working- class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes.Peter Mair and Liam Weeks, "The Party System," in Politics in the Republic of Ireland, ed. John Coakley and Michael Gallagher, 4th ed.
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Most members of the EFP were former BNP members like their chairman, Cotterill. The EFP campaigned against the creation of regional assemblies across England. They also campaigned on issues such as opposing immigration in England and opposing the UK's continued membership of the European Union. On the economy, the EFP supported the gradual nationalisation of most national and public services in attempts to achieve autarky.
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Journal of International Economics, forthcoming. finds that the Blockade of the Gaza Strip, which substantially restricted the availability of imports to Gaza, saw labor productivity fall by 20% in three years. Markusen et al. (1994) reports the effects of moving away from autarky to free trade during the Meiji Restoration, with the result that national income increased by up to 65% in 15 years.
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In Han Fei's philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through law. Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law, regardless of the circumstances or the person. Ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals. Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation, could encourage the state to be a militaristic autarky.
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The original church of San Andrés de Linares was built along the Nalón River, but was razed in the early 19th century because of flooding. Another church was built across the river, believed to be safe from another possible flood. It was destroyed in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. Construction of a new church began in 1945 in the El Entrego valley during the autarky period.
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In 1924 veterans' club Gruppo Alpini Canzo was founded, serving as a major cultural, recreational and social feature. It is also involved in ministering to the natural environment. The autarky stimulated the creation of many urban vegetable gardens in Canzo. After Mussolini's alliance with Hitler, Italy enacted race laws, but the population of Canzo, like those of many other Italian cities, acted to protect their Jewish neighbors.
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It was first published in 1932, in the Italian Encyclopedia, wherein he described the traits characteristic of Italian Fascism at the time: compulsory state corporatism, Philosopher Kings, the abolition of the parliamentary system, and autarky. He also wrote the Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals which was signed by a number of writers and intellectuals, including Luigi Pirandello, Gabriele D'Annunzio, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Giuseppe Ungaretti.
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It was the final year of the Cold War that had begun in 1947. During the year, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics fell, leaving fifteen sovereign republics and the CIS in its place. In July 1991, India abandoned its policies of socialism and autarky and began extensive neoliberal changes to its economy. This increased GDP, but also increased economic inequality over the next two decades.
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The Irish government had pursued a policy of autarky or self- sufficiency, so international trade was discouraged and the mercantile marine ignored. At independence in 1923 there were 127 Irish ships, but by September 1939 there were only 56, including 7 which did not carry cargo.Forde p. 1 Irish imports such as wheat, maize, timber and fertilizer were carried on foreign, mainly British, ships.
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This attitude was heavily informed by the corporatist system that had been introduced in Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy. A number of senior members, including Griffin and John Bean, had anti-capitalist leanings, having been influenced by Strasserism and National Bolshevism. Under Griffin's leadership, the BNP promoted economic protectionism and opposed globalisation. Its economic policies reflect a vague commitment to distributist economics, ethno- socialism, and national autarky.
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Following the collapse of the communist regime in 1990, Albania experienced a mass exodus of refugees to Italy and Greece. The country attempted to transition to autarky, which eventually succeeded. Attempts at reform began in earnest in early 1992 after real GDP growth of more than 50% from its peak in 1989. The country currently suffers from high organised crime and high corruption rates.
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Quebec would be isolated from the rest of the world by separation, those who are not favourable to it often argue. Chaput disagrees. Far from being isolated by its accession to independence, Quebec would then entertain diplomatic relations, equal to equal, with all other countries. The political independence of nations does not mean autarky, it is not the opposite of internationalism, it is the first condition of any and all internationalism.
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They focus on the case of Japan. The Japanese economy indeed developed over several centuries under autarky and a quasi-isolation from international trade but was, by the mid-19th century, a sophisticated market economy with a population of 30 million. Under Western military pressure, Japan opened its economy to foreign trade through a series of unequal treaties. In 1859, the treaties limited tariffs to 5% and opened trade to Westerners.
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In June 2015 in an interview for The Sunday Times Starkey compared the Scottish National Party with the Nazi Party. He said: > You have as a symbol the twisted cross: the saltire or the swastika. You > have a passionate belief in self-sufficiency: known by the Nazis as autarky > and the Scots as oil. And also you have the propensity of your elderly and > middle-aged supporters to expose their knees.
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The term Bocci Bocci is an Italian linguistic corruption of the word Bolshevism, meaning to "Break everything", used particularly in Florence and Tuscancy during the Biennio Rosso, in which there was a number of mass strikes against high costs of living, self-management experiments towards autarky through land and factory occupation, and in Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed with factory occupation under the leadership of anarcho- syndicalists.
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Between 1933 and 1936, employment in construction rose from only 666,000 to over 2,000,000. Cars and other forms of motorized transport became increasingly attractive to the population, and the German motor industry boomed. However, Germany's attempt to achieve autarky meant imposing restrictions on foreign currency, which caused a shortage of rubber and fuel for civilian use by 1939 and resulted in “drastic restrictions on the use of motor vehicles”.
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Kjellén disputed the solely legalistic characterization of states and argued that state and society are not opposites but a synthesis of the two elements. The state has a responsibility for law and order but also for social welfare/progress, and economic welfare/progress. Autarky for Kjellén was a solution to a political problem, not an economic policy in itself. Dependence on imports meant that a country was not economically self-sufficient.
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During and after the Spanish Civil War, Franco and the Falange created a corporative system based on the Italian model. Economic liberalism was implemented according to the wishes of the corporations, which also set prices and wages. Combined with autarky and in the absence of Marshall Plan aid after World War II, Spain's post-war economic growth stagnated. The Spanish corporative system was less successful than the Italian experience.
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Created in 1992, this 40-hectare ecological farm lived in autarky. Members produced their own fruits, vegetables, cheeses, milk and raised livestock, then sold them on the market. Affirming to be in relation with higher entities, Castano said to be the reincarnation of Nefertiti. The doctrine of the group, mainly related to ecology and New Age, focused on meditation, study of Egyptian civilization, cosmic energies, astrology and telepathy.
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Asco was part of Cachia, a Pieve of about 3,500 inhabitants (including Pietralba). Around 1520 the populated areas were La Petrella, Castifao, La Roma, La Paganosa, Le Piazze, Moltifao, Cheta, Merezoli, Campolato, lo Borgo, Sevola, Asco, Canavaggia, and La Costa. The commune has long been landlocked and its population lived in autarky. The only existing roads were those since the Middle Ages; rivers were crossed on Genoese bridges called "génois".
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Nonetheless, the strategy was continued. Indeed, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression, which affected France beginning in 1931, caused much anxiety and disturbance, as in other countries. As economic liberalism failed, many were eagerly looking for new solutions. Technocratic ideas were born during this time (Groupe X-Crise), as well as autarky and corporatism in the fascist movement, which advocated union of workers and employers.
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Dewar was somewhat sympathetic to Spence's positive views of autarky. Dewar wrote an early paper on what was then called "double consciousness", now diagnostically identified with dissociative identity disorder. It is considered that Dewar was alluding to the celebrated case of Mary Reynolds of Pennsylvania, which was published in 1816 by Mitchill. He wrote in 1817 on a smallpox outbreak at Cupar, giving statistics showing the effectiveness of vaccination.
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He was dismissed by presidential decree on January 7, 2010, prior to which Economy Minister Amado Boudou had announced that Mario Blejer (who had expressed support for the measure) would be appointed in his stead. Following an impasse, Redrado was ultimately replaced by Mercedes Marcó del Pont, President of the National Bank of Argentina, on February 3. Redrado's removal triggered a vocal rebuke from opposition figures in Congress, who, citing the need to preserve the Central Bank's nominal autarky, expressed doubts as to the decree's legality. A court injunction blocked Kirchner's planned use of reserves for the retirement of high-interest bonds, a move that could have provided numerous vulture funds (holdouts from the 2005 debt restructuring who had resorted to the courts in a bid for higher returns on their defaulted bonds) a legal argument against the central bank's autarky, and thus make judgement liens against the central bank's overseas accounts possible.
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155-157; 330-331 The regime started a partnership with Italian resident, former Iron Guardist and millionaire Iosif Constantin Drăgan, who continued championing the Dacian cause even after the fall of Ceauşescu.Verdary, p.343 Critics regard these excesses as the expression of an economic nationalist course, amalgamating provincial frustrations and persistent nationalist rhetoric, as autarky and cultural isolation of the late Ceauşescu's regime came along with an increase in protochronistic messages.Boia, p.
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However, with heavy state intervention, both economies also became more isolated and expanded under conditions of exceptional autarky. Outside trade and outside capital investment declined considerably for both economies during the 1930s. In the mid-1930s, the Soviet Union made repeated efforts to reestablish closer contacts with Germany. The Soviets chiefly sought to repay debts from earlier trade with raw materials, while Germany sought to rearm, and the countries signed a credit agreement in 1935.
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Pol Pot's government was totalitarian, and he has been described as a dictator. Pol Pot desired autarky, or complete self-sufficiency, for Cambodia. Short suggested that Pol Pot had been "an authentic spokesman" for the yearning that many Khmer felt for "the return of their former greatness", the era of the Khmer Empire. Chandler noted that Pol Pot, like previous Cambodian leaders, emphasised the belief that Cambodia was purer than other nations.
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In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup d'état and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism". The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky, or economic isolation. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.
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Macklin, p. 66 Jenks served as press secretary for the RRA and edited their journal Rural Economy whilst building up a coterie of former fascists or fascist sympathisers within the group in the shape of ex-BUF members Derek Stuckey and Robert Saunders as well as some former members of the English Mistery. Jenks used his position as editor of the RRA journal to advocate agricultural autarky. Ultimately he did not join the Union Movement.
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Self-sustainability and self-sufficiency are overlapping states of being in which a person or organization needs little or no help from, or interaction with, others. Self-sufficiency entails the self being enough (to fulfill needs), and a self-sustaining entity can maintain self-sufficiency indefinitely. These states represent types of personal or collective autonomy. A self-sufficient economy is one that requires little or no trade with the outside world and is called an autarky.
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The castrum was structured in the manner of a village with its streets and terraced houses. This permanent settlement process happened in parallel with the intensification of trade with Mediterranean merchants. In exchange for luxury goods, Alpilles people produced grain and passed to a state of Autarky with a real trade economy. Over the following centuries, the population of Alpilles decreased consistently: the Greek trading post at Arles attracted many people from all over the region.
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Germany had already been rapidly rearming and militarizing before 1936. However, it was in his memorandum of 1936 that Hitler made it clear he expected war to be imminent. He argued that the German economy “must be fit for war within four years.” Autarky was to be pursued more aggressively, and the German people would have to begin making sacrifices in their consumption habits in order to enable food supplies and raw materials to be diverted towards military uses.
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In his 1936 dissertation Planwirtschaft und Aussenhandel contributed to the debate around the economic calculation problem, a criticism of central economic planning. This problem was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in 1920, expounded by Friedrich Hayek and further debated in the 1920s and 1930s. Kapp argued that a planned economy is "not doomed to autarky because there are ways to deal with the valuation problem so that trade and exchange with market economies can be organized".
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Given the isolation of this region, the inhabitants tend towards self-sufficiency, and until recently lived in almost complete autarky. External trade has, however, always been necessary for the acquisition of goods such as tools, jewellery, or religious artefacts. The Zanskaris' main occupations are cattle-rearing and farming of land that they almost always own. Cultivable land is scarce, and restricted to alluvial fans and terraces, cultivated fields being rarely found above an altitude of 4,000 metres.
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During the Napoleonic Era, efforts in the Rhineland toward economic unity had mixed success. The Confederation of the Rhine, and the other satellite creations of Napoleonic France, sought to establish economic autarky in European trade. By 1806, as Napoleon I sought to secure his hegemony in Europe, the Continental System offered a semblance of unified effort toward a widespread domestic market for European goods. However, the main purpose of the Continental System was military, not economic.
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Autarky can be defined as the quality of being self-sufficient, thus energy- autarkic habitats are human dwellings which are independent concerning energy consumption for living. This may be based on resource-efficiency, choice of building materials, living space, and so forth. Autonomic habitats are similar but reflect that fact that the person desires to act morally solely for the sake of doing "good", independently of other incentives. Subsistence agriculture can be considered a form of autarkic living.
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Myanmar has, in the words of, Michael Green and Derek Mitchell "interest in following the model of North Korea and achieving military autarky by developing ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons". According to American historian David I. Steinberg, both countries share a trait of nationalism rooter in insecurity and vulnerability. This characteristics explain, for instance, why the two countries, at one point, decide to change their time-zones to deviate from the international norm by half an hour.
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Basic situation: Two identical countries (A and B) have different initial factor endowments. Autarky equilibrium (A^A, A^B): no trade, individual production equals consumption. Trade equilibrium: both countries consume the same (C^A = C^B), especially beyond their own Production–possibility frontier; production and consumption points are divergent. The Heckscher–Ohlin model (H–O model) is a general equilibrium mathematical model of international trade, developed by Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin at the Stockholm School of Economics.
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Administrative and economic centralization went hand in hand. The state of siege forced France into autarky; to save the Republic the government mobilized all the nation's productive forces and reluctantly accepted the need for a controlled economy, which it introduced extemporaneously, as the emergency required. It was necessary to develop war production, revive foreign trade, and find new resources in France itself; and time was short. Circumstances gradually compelled it to assume the economic government of the country.
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However, he was dismissed from the service in October 1794. Retiring to the outskirts of Brest, he wrote a memorandum titled Moyens d'approvisionner la marine par les seules productions du territoire français (Means of Provisioning the Fleet Solely by What Is Produced in French Territory). This advocacy of naval autarky as a way to defeat British blockades attracted notice, and Navy Minister Laurent Truguet recalled Bruix in 1795 to appoint him to the command of the 74-gun Éole.
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With autarky a central aim of Europe a Nation, Africa was to be exploited by the new state for its mineral and food resources. In this aspect, Mosley was heavily influenced by the works of Anton Zischka.Macklin, p. 83 Mosley subsequently built upon the policy by calling for the European state to have its prices and incomes regulated by a "wage price mechanism", whilst also calling for "European Socialism", a syndical style organisation basis for the continent's industry.
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That has been labelled by some historians as a way of preparing Germany for conflict by ensuring that it was not economically reliant on states with which it could soon be at war. The memorandum's suggestion that certain types of autarky were not possible can thus be considered to be reasons for regarding the war as something of a necessity. Indeed, the economic arguments appear to all but guarantee a war of fears for food supplies being reliant upon foreign trade in a world that was dominated by British-policed sea trade lanes: The second part of the document detailed three 'contingencies' that Hitler would take if certain situations prevailed in Europe, purportedly to ensure the security of the Reich. Beyond that, Hitler claimed that two "hate-inspired antagonists" (Britain and France) were blocking German foreign policy goals at every turn and that sometime in the next five years or so, Germany would have to achieve autarky by seizing Eastern Europe to prepare for a possible war with the British and the French.
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On 17 October 2011, in front of the French 227x227px Le Pen opposes free trade and autarky, and advocates protectionism as a middle way. She has compared the economy to a raging river, using this metaphor to say that free trade is like allowing the torrent to flow unchecked and autarky equivalent to the erection of a dam, whereas protectionism is installing a sluice gate. In 2010, she strongly criticized the pension plan proposed by the government of Nicolas Sarkozy. She paid tribute to the French economist Maurice Allais, who died on 9 October 2010. A laureate of the Nobel Prize in Economics (1988), Allais had expressed reservations about the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, the single European currency, free trade and globalization and the 2004 European Constitution. She favours the repeal of the 1973 Pompidou- Giscard Law, which makes it illegal for France to borrow at zero or a low rate of interest from the Banque de France and forces the country to borrow at a higher rate on the international financial markets.
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Mahan believed first, that good political and naval leadership was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, Mahan's unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium, rather than a single nation state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarky. Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes.
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In her survey of anarchism in the late 1800s, Voltairine De Cleyre summarized the autarkic goals of early anarchist socialists and communists as "small, independent, self-resourceful, freely-operating communes." Peter Kropotkin in particular advocated local and regional autarky integrating agriculture and industry, instead of the international division of labor. His work repeatedly held up communities "that needed neither aid or protection from without" as a more resilient model. Some socialist communities like Charles Fourier's phalansteres strove for self-sufficiency.
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That formed the basis of Tanzania's political vision for the years to come. Julius Nyerere partly based his declaration on the People's Republic of China as he had close contacts with them. Inspired by the Chinese experience of collectivisation under Mao, Tanzania followed a strategy of social equality and autarky. Tanzania's rural areas were reorganised in autonomous communities on the basis of voluntary adhesion wherein the distribution of goods and living conditions were aimed to be as equal as possible.
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To achieve its goal, INI either financed on its own or directed private funds to the creation of the country's fundamental industries under the spirit of the national interest and autarky. Although its first acts ended up in failure (e.g., Adaro), INI soon turned itself into the biggest industrial conglomerate of Spain. INI included a broad range of companies, from heavy and basic industries to "soft" services, most of them with E.N., standing for Empresa Nacional (National Corporation), in their names.
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Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 540–41. This lack of either rationality or international central planning tended to promote autarky in each Comecon country because none fully trusted the others to deliver goods and services. With few exceptions, foreign trade in the Comecon countries was a state monopoly, and the state agencies and captive trading companies were often corrupt. Even at best, this tended to put several removes between a producer and any foreign customer, limiting the ability to learn to adjust to foreign customers' needs.
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The NSJWP campaigns against what it believes to be Jewish influence on both the world stage and in national affairs. The party advocates for the abolishment of the monarchy and the restoration of the shōgunate, as it believes that the Imperial House of Japan became subservient to international Jewry following World War II, and believes that the shogunate is the Japanese equivalent of the Führer principle. The NSJWP also campaigns against economic refugees, race mixing, and Freemasonry. The party also campaigns for what it calls "corporatistic autarky".
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The Mundell–Fleming model, also known as the IS-LM-BoP model (or IS-LM-BP model), is an economic model first set forth (independently) by Robert Mundell and Marcus Fleming. Reprinted in Reprinted in The model is an extension of the IS–LM model. Whereas the traditional IS-LM model deals with economy under autarky (or a closed economy), the Mundell–Fleming model describes a small open economy. Mundell's paper suggests that the model can be applied to Zurich, Brussels and so on.
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A country should specialize in whatever good it can produce at the lowest cost, trading this good to buy other goods it requires for consumption. This allows for countries to benefit from trade even when they do not have an absolute advantage in any area of production. While their gains from trade might not be equal to those of a country more productive in all goods, they will still be better off economically from trade than they would be under a state of autarky.
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These three forms were not mutually exclusive, nor were they mutually exclusive of markets for the exchange of goods. The main distinction is that these three forms of economic organization were based around the social aspects of the society they operated in and were explicitly tied to do those social relationships. Polanyi argued that these economic forms depended on the social principles of centricity, symmetry, and autarky (self-sufficiency). Markets existed as an auxiliary avenue for the exchange of goods that were otherwise not obtainable.
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For detailed account of reforms before and after 1991 in India see Sharma, Chanchal Kumar, "A Discursive Dominance Theory of Economic Reform Sustainability: The Case of India", India Review, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2011. Similarly, in the Philippines, the contentious proposals for Charter Change include amending the economically restrictive provisions of their 1987 constitution. By this measure, an opposite of a liberalized economy are economies such as be North Korea's economy with their "self-sufficient" economic system that is closed to foreign trade and investment (see autarky).
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At the conference, Hitler stated that it was the time for war, or, more accurately, wars, as what Hitler envisioned were a series of localized wars in Central and Eastern Europe in the near future. Hitler argued that because these wars were necessary to provide Germany with Lebensraum, autarky and the arms race with France and Britain made it imperative to act before the Western powers developed an insurmountable lead in the arms race. He further declared that Germany must be ready for war as early as 1938, and at the latest by 1943.Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War Volume I, Clarendon Press: Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, 1990, pp. 636–637Carr, William Arms, Autarky and Aggression Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 1972, pp. 73–78 Of those invited to the conference, objections arose from Neurath, Blomberg and the Army Commander in Chief, General Werner von Fritsch. They all believed that any German aggression in Eastern Europe was bound to trigger a war with France because of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe, the so-called cordon sanitaire.
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Fascist Italy created the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI), a giant state-owned firm and holding company that provided state funding to failing private enterprises. The IRI was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy in 1937, pursued Fascist policies to create national autarky and had the power to take over private firms to maximize war production. While Hitler's regime only nationalized 500 companies in key industries by the early 1940s,R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich, Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press), 1994, p.
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Training programme by the Japanese Army However, the underworld's position was challenged indirectly by the Japanese's construction of a rival institution in the form of Pembela Tanah Air (PETA). As the PETA was well- armed and trained, they had the potential to challenge the power of the local gangs. The Jakarta underworld however, gained power again when the latter part of the Japanese occupation resulted in economic hardships. The policy of economic autarky imposed by the Japanese had resulted in an inflation of the market price of rice.
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The volcanic spires of the Tibesti, along with a stylized sheep's head, were displayed on a 20 CFA franc postage stamp issued by Republic of Chad in 1961. The Tibesti range was featured in the 1966 short story "Le Mura di Anagoor" ("The Walls of Anagoor") by the Italian novelist Dino Buzzati. In the story, a local guide offers to show a traveller the walls of a great city that is absent from the maps. The city is exceedingly opulent, yet exists in total autarky and does not submit to local authority.
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After a period of autarky, from the late 1950s through to the 1970s Catalonia saw rapid economic growth, drawing many workers from across Spain, making Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas and turning Catalonia into a major tourist destination. During the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalonia regained self- government and is now one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain. Since the 2010s there has been growing support for Catalan independence. On 27 October 2017, the Catalan Parliament declared unilaterally independence following a disputed referendum.
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Point X is unobtainable given the current "budget" constraints on production. A production-possibility frontier is a constraint in some ways analogous to a budget constraint, showing limitations on a country's production of multiple goods based on the limitation of available factors of production. Under autarky this is also the limitation of consumption by individuals in the country. However, the benefits of international trade are generally demonstrated through allowance of a shift in the consumption-possibility frontiers of each trade partner which allows access to a more appealing indifference curve.
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Embargoes can mean limiting or banning export or import, creating quotas for quantity, imposing special tolls, taxes, banning freight or transport vehicles, freezing or seizing freights, assets, bank accounts, limiting the transport of particular technologies or products (high-tech) for example CoCom during the cold-war. In response to embargoes, a closed economy or autarky often develops in an area subjected to heavy embargo. Effectiveness of embargoes is thus in proportion to the extent and degree of international participation. Embargoes can be an opportunity to some countries to develop faster a self-sufficiency.
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These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of autarky and economic self-reliance. The PRC decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, the PRC was able to step up the Four Modernizations by taking advantage of foreign funds, markets, advanced technologies, and management experience. Deng also attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where capitalist business practices were encouraged.
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The importance of the Council will be increased, so much that institutionally its president will be compared to those of the Cortes, the Supreme Court , the Court of Auditors and the Council of State. Its power and influence in economic matters, always oriented towards autarky, will be equal to that of the General Secretariat of the Movement. Finally, the President of the Council had the rank of Minister without portfolio. Its connection to the most immobile sector of the regime in terms of economy will mean the beginning of its decline.
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In the following years, the annual exhibition developed to a national hall of fame of German engineering skill, essentially influenced by Nazi propaganda. Pushed by extensive billboard and screen advertising, the IAA finally became a mass event, with more than 600,000 visitors in 1934. In his inaugural speech, Hitler promised the construction of a cheap, simple car for the masses. He also proclaimed the idea of economic autarky, illustrated by the display of wood gas generators based on the patent of Georges Imbert or a steam car designed by Henschel.
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106) The success of the project encouraged an anthropocentrism that opened the gates for a godless humanism. (p. 130) "So disengaged discipline frames a new experience of the self as having a telos of autarky." (p. 138) Early humans were embedded into the world in three ways: into their small-scale social group in which religious ritual was identical with social ritual; into the cosmos, the enchanted world of spirits and forces; and the cosmos into the divine, so that the gods are intimately involved with the project of human flourishing.
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The first era of his rule was thus an economic program based on the policies of autarky and interventionism, which were popular in the 1930s as a response to the Great Depression. Under Salazar, the Portuguese budget went from insolvency to showing a substantial surplus every year from 1928. Portugal's credit worthiness rose in foreign markets and the external floating debt was completely paid. However, Portugal remained largely underdeveloped, its population relatively poor and with low education attainment when compared to the rest of Europe. Salazar, aged 50, in 1939.
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128 This economic model based on a partnership between government and business was soon extended to the political sphere in what came to be known as corporatism. From 1934 onwards, believing that Italy could have avoided the Great Depression if it had not been linked to international markets, Mussolini insisted that autarky should be one of the primary goals of his government's economic policy. To this end, the Fascists began to impose significant tariffs and other trade barriers.William G. Welk, "Fascist economy policy; an analysis of Italy's economic experiment", Harvard University Press, 1938. pp.
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Tyndall described his approach to the economy as "National Economics", expressing the view that "politics must lead, and not be led by, economic forces". His approach rejected economic liberalism because it did not serve "the national interest", although still saw advantages in a capitalist system, looking favourably on individual enterprise. He called on capitalist elements to be combined with socialist ones, with the government playing a role in planning the economy. He promoted the idea of the UK becoming an autarky which was economically self-sufficient, with domestic production protected from foreign competition.
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Parshev is known for arguing that an economic system based on liberal capitalism is unsuited for Russia because, as he claims, the harsh Russian climate makes the Russian economy inherently uncompetitive with other nations (e.g. with low temperatures high heating costs requiring higher salaries for workers and more expensive construction methods). Parshev argues for the scaling down of Russian foreign trade, greater self-sufficiency and autarky, and for a return to more Soviet-style forms of management in economy and politics. His writings are influential among Russian nationalist and ultranationalist circles.
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The breakthrough came in 1082 with the privilege of emperor Alexios I Komnenos, which guaranteed free trade and opened large parts of his Realm for the first time. Colonies for the merchants, Fondachi and wharves completed and enhanced the by far largest colony in Constantinople. In the Holy Land, which was conquered by the Crusaders at about 1098, Venice gained the right of free trade, because it had helped Gottfried von Bouillon in 1100 and he subsequently conquered Tyros, the trade central in Syria. The colonies enjoyed autarchy and autarky.
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Tyndall described his approach to the economy as "National Economics", expressing the view that "politics must lead, and not be led by, economic forces". His approach rejected economic liberalism because it did not serve "the national interest", although still saw advantages in a capitalist system, looking favourably on individual enterprise. He called on capitalist elements to be combined with socialist ones, with the government playing a role in planning the economy. He promoted the idea of the UK becoming an autarky which was economically self- sufficient, with domestic production protected from foreign competition.
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A trade war is an economic conflict resulting from extreme protectionism in which states raise or create tariffs or other trade barriers against each other in response to trade barriers created by the other party. If tariffs are the exclusive mechanism, then such conflicts are known as Customs wars, toll wars or tariff wars; as a reprisal, the latter state may also increase the tariffs. Increased protection causes both nations' output compositions to move towards their autarky position. Trade wars could be escalated to full conflict between states, as evidenced in the Massacre of the Bandanese after alleged violations of a new treaty.
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The political and social situation in Barcelona in the mid-20th century had a profound effect on the city's artistic and cultural sector, which before the Spanish Civil War had enjoyed a period of flourishing creativity. As a public institution, the Municipal Band suffered the cuts and the lack of funds that marked the Franco regime's period of autarky. In June 1943, the Barcelona City Council began a process to convert the Municipal Band into the Municipal Orchestra of Barcelona. This was completed in March 1944, with the formation of what today is called the Barcelona Symphony and Catalonia National Orchestra.
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Both major political parties of the time, the Conservative Party led by Canovas del Castillo and the Liberal Party led by Sagasta relied on a system where day laborers and smallholders beholden to the caciques and voted accordingly, producing an orderly alternation of the two parties in power, the turno pacífico. In the late 19th century, hunger and poverty sparked emigration to the Americas, especially to Cuba and Argentina, as well as to France and Algeria. Calviá at that time lacked industrial establishments, except for the manufacturing of cement and plaster. The latifundia system was largely an impoverished agrarian autarky.
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The law of comparative advantage describes how, under free trade, an agent will produce more of and consume less of a good for which they have a comparative advantage. In an economic model, agents have a comparative advantage over others in producing a particular good if they can produce that good at a lower relative opportunity cost or autarky price, i.e. at a lower relative marginal cost prior to trade. Comparative advantage describes the economic reality of the work gains from trade for individuals, firms, or nations, which arise from differences in their factor endowments or technological progress.
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In vitro-culture of Vitis (grapevine), Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute The success of the German chemical industry till World War I was based on the replacement of colonial products. The predecessors of IG Farben dominated the world market for synthetic dyes at the beginning of the 20th century, and had an important role in artificial pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals. However the former Plant breeding research institutes took a different approach. After the loss of the German colonial empire, important players in the field as Erwin Baur and Konrad Meyer switched to using local crops as base for economic autarky.
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The trend toward "local self-sufficiency" increased after the Black Plague, initially as a reaction to the impact of the epidemic and later as a way for communes and city states to maintain power against the nobility. There's also considerable debate about how autarkic cultures that resisted the spread of early capitalism were. Golden Age pirate communities have been dubbed both heavily autarkic societies where "the marauders...lived in small, self-contained democracies" and as an "anti- autarky" due to their dependence on raiding. While rarer among imperial states, some autarkies did occur during specific time periods.
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Through these cooperatives "workers bought Socialist bread and Socialist shoes, drank Socialist beer, arranged for Socialist vacations and obtained a Socialist education." Local and regional farming autarkies in many areas of Africa and Southeast Asia were displaced by European colonial administrations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who sought to push smallholder villages into larger plantations that, while less productive, they could more easily control. The self-sufficient communities and societies ended by colonialism were later cited as a useful example by African anarchists in the late 20th century. Communist movements embraced or dismissed autarky as a goal at different times.
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A better modern example at a societal level is the autonomous region of Rojava, the autonomous northern region of Syria. Largely cut off from international trade, facing multiple enemies, and striving for a society based on communalism, Rojava's government and constitution emphasize economic self-sufficiency directed by neighborhood and village councils. Rojavan society and economics are influenced by Bookchin's ideas, including the emphasis on local and regional autarky. Under changes made in 2012 property and business belong to those who live in or use it towards these goals, while infrastructure, land and major resources are commons run by local and regional councils.
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20 Reichsmark note Like those of many other Western nations, the Germany economy suffered the effects of the Great Depression with unemployment soaring around the Wall Street Crash of 1929.Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (2008) When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, he introduced policies aimed at improving the economy. The changes included privatization of state industries, autarky (national economic self-sufficiency) and tariffs on imports. Weekly earnings increased by 19% in real terms, but reduced foreign trade meant rationing in consumer goods like poultry, fruit, and clothing for many Germans.
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As Nazi Germany attempted to achieve autarky on the import of ore, the Rammelsberg project was initiated, leading to the foundation of the Harlingerode Zinc works. In order to provide living space for the required staff, the Free State of Brunswick officially allowed the new foundation of a town south of the Langenberg under the name Göttingerode. The village originated on March 21, 1935 as a part of the municipality of Harlingerode. The village's development was hampered by poor financial situation, air pollution, and instable land owing to the intensive operation of the Hansa Pit until August 23, 1960.
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The Four Year Plan favoured both the protection of agriculture and the promotion of autarky (economic independence) for Germany. Göring was put in charge of the Four Year Plan at its inception and given plenipotentiary powers. He had complete control over the economy, including the private sector, especially after the Minister of Economics, Hjalmar Schacht, had begun to lose favour with Hitler for opposing the growing military expenditures at the expense of civilian economic growth. During the following years, the state, under Göring Works (Reichswerke), began building refineries, aluminium plants, and factories for the development of synthetic materials.
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Hitler, p. 18. Whereas the Weimar Republic foreign policy was based on borders, the National Socialist foreign policy would be based on space and expansionism and point to fundamentally different conceptions of world order: the bourgeois saw in terms of states and law, but Hitler maintained an image of ethnic or racially defined nationhood.Hitler, p. 49. Lebensraum served to create the economic condition of autarky in which the German people would be self-sufficient, no longer dependent on import or subject to demand shifts in international markets, which had been forcing industry to struggle against other nations.
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Hitler's National Socialist foreign policy contained four broad goals (racial unification, agricultural autarky, lebensraum in the East) culminating in a Eurasian land-based empire. Not justified by strategic or realpolitik considerations, Hitler's ideas stemmed almost exclusively from his conception of racial struggle and the natural consequences of the need for German expansion. The historical record shows that German geopoliticians, among them chiefly General Karl Haushofer, were in contact with and taught Nazi officials, including Hitler, Rudolf Hess and Konstantin von Neurath. Furthermore, Nazi leaders used the language of geopolitik, along with Haushofer's maps, and reasoning in their public propaganda.
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26 Vaguely anti-democratic, they sought the gradual elimination of parliament in favour of more of a trades-based system of representation, although these ideas were largely underdeveloped. The DSP also actively supported German colonial expansion, a common feature of contemporary German antisemitic rhetoric that emphasised economic autarky and lebensraum as bulwarks against the Jews.Davis, Colonialism, Antisemitism, and Germans of Jewish Descent in Imperial Germany, p. 33 Wilhelm Lattmann, who represented the DSP in the Reichstag, became especially noted for pushing the party's imperialist agendaDavis, Colonialism, Antisemitism, and Germans of Jewish Descent in Imperial Germany, p.
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The Civil War provokes the creation on each side of the conflicts its own treasury departments: in the republican side, the Ministry of Finance and Economy and in the rebellious side the Finance Commission, later transformed in 1938 in the Ministry of Finance. After the war, the Francoist regime established an autarky system that was suppressed in the late 1950s. In 1957 a new tax reform was carried out and opened the way to raise the national income and remove the country definitively from the economic situation that followed the Civil War. This reform needed a modern, simplified and efficient Treasury.
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In Europe, he saw Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, Denmark, Switzerland, Greece and the "mutilated alliance" of Austro-Hungary as supporting his assertion. Haushofer and the Munich school of geopolitik would eventually expand their conception of lebensraum and autarky well past a restoration of the German borders of 1914 and "a place in the sun." They set as goals a New European Order, then a New Afro-European Order, and eventually to a Eurasian Order. This concept became known as a pan-region, taken from the American Monroe Doctrine, and the idea of national and continental self-sufficiency.
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She advocates food independence with regard to multinationals, and "a realignment of farm aid politics to the third countries to favour their food sovereignty, in particular by the reintroduction of localized food crops". She advocates the implementation of the "autarky of big spaces" and an "economy in concentric circles". She said that it is an "ecological heresy to consume products grown 20,000 km away and recycle waste thousands km further". She claims that we should "produce to the closest", "distribute on the spot", "consume as a priority products of its region" and then "in the nearby region" if not produced on the spot.
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The second crisis came over the Sudetenland area of western Czechoslovakia, which was home to a large ethnic German majority. Under the guise of seeking self-determination for ethnic Germans, Hitler planned to launch a war of aggression, codenamed Fall Grün (Case Green), on 1 October 1938.Carr, William, Arms, Autarky and Aggression, London: Edward Arnold, 1972, pp. 88–89 Though Chamberlain would have preferred to avoid a war over the Sudeten issue, and Britain had no defence obligations to Czechoslovakia, the 1924 French-Czechoslovak alliance meant that a German attack on Czechoslovakia would automatically become a French-German war.
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Some of the results from this model differ from those of the IS-LM model because of the open economy assumption. Results for a large open economy, on the other hand, can be consistent with those predicted by the IS-LM model. The reason is that a large open economy has the characteristics of both an autarky and a small open economy. In particular, it may not face perfect capital mobility, thus allowing internal policy measures to affect the domestic interest rate, and it may be able to sterilize balance-of-payments-induced changes in the money supply (as discussed above).
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Barber argues that there are several imperatives that make up the McWorld, or the globalization of politics: a market imperative, a resource imperative, an information-technology imperative, and an ecological imperative. Due to globalization, our market has expanded and is vulnerable to the transnational markets where free trade, easy access to banking and exchange of currency are available. With the emergence of our markets, we have come up with international laws and treaties in order to maintain stability and efficiency in the interconnected economy. Resources are also an imperative aspect in the McWorld, where autarky seems insufficient and inefficient in presence of globalization.
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The Stabilization Plan of 1959 () or the National Plan of Economic Stabilization () were a series of economic measures taken by the Spanish Government in 1959. Its main goal was the economic liberalization of the Spanish markets, marking a turning point from the previous policies oriented towards achieving autarky. The Plan led to an economic boom in Spain for most of the 1960s. The monetary reserves of the Bank of Spain increased, inflation dropped from 12.6% in 1958 to 2.4% in 1960, Spain attracted foreign investment, and the relaxation of tariffs led to the import of new technologies.
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43-48 Absent the use of trade to access resources, economic transactions were essentially intra-lineage obligations of labor. These lineages required a base level of self-sufficiency to achieve autarky. In the Andes, a long mountain range with a great variety of ecozones and resources, the need to access the proper lands for specific crops or animals meant lineages created miniature colonies or sent seasonal migration (such as transhumance) in different ecoregions. As the Andes are a relatively young mountain range, there is an especially great variation in rainfall and temperature, which has great importance for agriculture.
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In 1936, the Four Year Plan for rearmament and autarky, a plan assembled after the Treaty of Versailles to help modernize the German military, put in large amounts of money and resources in new, science-based technologies.p.108, Grunden, Walker, Yamazaki Moreover, aerodynamic researchers in Germany received generous funding to construct wind tunnels and mathematically design aircraft, missiles, and torpedoes.p.109-110, Grunden, Walker, Yamazaki Since these technologies were developed with the support of government funding, it is discernible that many scientists and scientific programs saw this as beneficial for their nation’s military and overall war effort.
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As Hoxha's health declined, the first secretary of the People's Socialist Republic began planning for an orderly succession. In 1976, the People's Parliament adopted its second communist Constitution of the post-war era. The constitution guaranteed the people of Albania the freedom of speech, press, organization, association, and parliament but subordinated these rights to the individual's duties to society as a whole. The constitution enshrined in law the idea of autarky and prohibited the government from seeking financial aid or credits or from forming joint companies with partners from capitalist or communist countries perceived to be "revisionist".
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Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky (national economic self-sufficiency) through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, and the term is instead now usually used pejoratively by political opponents. The descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th-century fascist movements.
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Skeptics of comparative advantage have underlined that its theoretical implications hardly hold when applied to individual commodities or pairs of commodities in a world of multiple commodities. Deardorff argues that the insights of comparative advantage remain valid if the theory is restated in terms of averages across all commodities. His models provide multiple insights on the correlations between vectors of trade and vectors with relative-autarky-price measures of comparative advantage. What has become to be known as the "Deardorff's general law of comparative advantage" is a model incorporating multiple goods, and which takes into account tariffs, transportation costs, and other obstacles to trade.
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Considering that the transition from autarky, or self- sufficiency, to open trade was brutal, few changes to the fundamentals of the economy occurred in the first 20 years of trade. The general law of comparative advantage theorizes that an economy should, on average, export goods with low self-sufficiency prices and import goods with high self- sufficiency prices. Bernhofen and Brown found that by 1869, the price of Japan's main export, silk and derivatives, saw a 100% increase in real terms, while the prices of numerous imported goods declined of 30-75%. In the next decade, the ratio of imports to gross domestic product reached 4%.
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The Islamic Republic of Iran and the 6th President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with the 12th President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama on 16 April 2013 to hold discussions with President John Dramani Mahama on strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian presidential palace Flagstaff House. The Government of Ghana reciprocated with an official state visit on 5 August 2013 by the Vice-President of Ghana, Kwesi Amissah-Arthur, who met with the Vice-President of Iran, Eshaq Jahangiri on the basis of autarky and possible bilateral trade at the Islamic Republic of Iran's presidential palace, Sa'dabad Palace.
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The small village society was rather less hit by the first dictatorial measurements aiming at democrats, and communists, and also anti-Semitic and racist discrimination of Jews and Gypsies did not find direct targets in Banzendorf. But with the transformation of the German economy from an open economy competing in world business into a command production system under austerity and autarky apt for war production, agriculture played an important role. Also within the garbled Nazi ideology farmers were hailed as workers in concrete matters without any over-spiritualisation, which Nazis considered to be decadent, as breeders of children and livestock (Cf. Blood and soil).
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Early state societies that can be regarded as autarkic include nomadic pastoralism and palace economy, though over time these tend towards becoming less self-sufficient and more interconnected. The late Bronze Age, for example, saw formerly self-sufficient palace economies rely more heavily on trade, which may have been a contributing factor to the eventual Bronze Age Collapse when multiple crises hit those systems at once. After that collapse, the ideal of autarkeia formed a part of emerging Greek political culture, emphasizing economic self-sufficiency and local self-rule. During the Late Roman Empire, some rebellions and communities pursued autarky as a reaction both to upheaval and to counter imperial power.
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An example of a contemporary effort at localized autarky, incorporating the concept's history from black nationalism, Ujamaa, African-American socialism and the civil rights movement, is Cooperation Jackson, a movement aimed at creating a self- sufficient black working class economy in Jackson, Mississippi. The movement has aimed to secure land and build self-sufficient cooperatives and workplaces "to democratically transform the political economy of the city" and push back against gentrification. Cooperation Jackson also saw a gain in electoral political power when its involvement proved pivotal to the 2013 mayoral election of Chokwe Lumumba and the 2017 election of his son, Chokwe Antar Lumumba.
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On November 3, 2010, the Lisbon City Council voted in favor of the Alvalade XXI Detail Plan, which included the new Sporting pavilion. The autarky thus gave the green light to the project which came to be the subject of a final analysis by the Commission for Coordination of Regional Development of Lisbon and Vale do Tejo, which would give the last and decisive opinion on 25 March 2011. As part of the public discussion period of the Alvalade XXI Detail Plan, CML held a public clarification meeting on 30 May 2011, approving it on 26 October 2011. However, a final step was missing.
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In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self- sufficiency), and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common.Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, page 53. The Epicureans and the Cynics eschewed public offices and civic service, which amounted to a rejection of the polis itself, the defining institution of the Greek world.
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As a result of the success and longevity of the series, still on newsstands, "giallo" has become the Italian name of the literary genre. Despite a period of cultural autarky, in 1933 Mondadori started publishing works of international writers with the Medusa book series. In 1935, through an agreement with Walt Disney, the publishing house began the publication of a children's series based on Disney cartoon characters, which ran until 1988, when the agreement between Mondadori and the Walt Disney Company ended. In 1950 Mondadori returned to the information magazines, abandoned ten years earlier with the suspension, due to the war, of the monthly Tempo.
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General Karl Haushofer, who would adopt many of Kjellén's ideas, was not interested in economic policy but would advocate autarky as well; a nation constantly in struggle would demand self-sufficiency. Kjellén also (but after Maurice Barrès and numerous "national socialist" parties such as the Czech National Social Party) was an early user of the term "national socialism" in 1910. His terminology took form in the Swedish postwar welfare state, Folkhemmet, a term that he coined, which was largely inspired by the social reform-minded conservatism of Otto von Bismarck's Germany. Geopolitics was revived in the United States by Zbigniew Brzezinski, Henry Kissinger, and Robert Kaplan.
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Over 25 centuries of its history before the mid-19th century, Vietnam's economy had traditionally consisted of agrarian production and small-scaled handicraft industries. It was almost closed with negligible volume of foreign trade, and most of the time displayed a village- oriented autarky. The economic life of an independent Vietnam should perhaps started with Lê Hoàn (941-1005)–the founding king of the First Lê Dynasty—who was rising to the kingship during the context of the demise of Đinh Tiên Hoàng and the threat of invasion by the Chinese Song Dynasty in 982. Being a king, Lê Hoàn was interested in developing the local economy and improving people's wealth.
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The Nova Cançó movement originated at the end of the 1950s, twenty years after the installation of the Spanish State with its repressive policies against the Catalan language and Catalan culture. The late 1950s were a period of economic and political change in Spain: Spain ended its policy of economic autarky, and Francoist Spain was admitted to the United Nations, which required the government to improve its image abroad. In this new context, at the beginning of the 1960s, new cultural projects emerged in Catalonia. In 1961, the record label Edigsa and the cultural organization Òmnium Cultural were founded, and the first edition of the children's magazine Cavall Fort was published.
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The Burmese Way to Socialism symbolised the military regime's answer to the question of Burma's place in the modern world. The socialist government's ideology reflected "the mainstream of modern Burmese thought – nationalism and socialism" and strived after "a highly centralised path to official autarky [self-sufficiency] led by a single party and backed by a well-equipped and loyal military". The initial reaction of Burmese students towards the new military regime was mixed. Whereas some students supported the new government because of its appealing commitment towards 'socialist democracy' or remained neutral for the time being, others expressed their intention to join the armed struggle of the Communist Party of Burma.
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While outside of Albania, domestic travel eventually became largely regulation-free, stringent controls on the issue of passports, visas and foreign currency made foreign travel difficult inside the Eastern Bloc. Countries were inured to isolation and initial post-war autarky, with each country effectively restricting bureaucrats to viewing issues from a domestic perspective shaped by that country's specific propaganda. Severe environmental problems arose through urban traffic congestion, which was aggravated by pollution generated by poorly maintained vehicles. Large thermal power stations burning lignite and other items became notorious polluters, while some hydro-electric systems performed inefficiently because of dry seasons and silt accumulation in reservoirs.
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Location of the most important Jesuit reductions in Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay, with present political divisions. The Jesuits began in the late 16th century to establish a series of reduction settlements in the lands of the Guaraní people to convert them to Catholicism. The Jesuit missions had a high degree of autarky but needed coins to pay taxes and acquire products they could not produce. While in the early 17th century Jesuits had supported governor Hernando Arias de Saavedra's ban on yerba mate production, they became by mid-17th century severe competitors to the harvesters of the land north of Tebicuary River who had had a practical monopoly on the product.
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Tat Schriften (1931) Hans Zehrer would become (unofficial) chief editor of Die Tate in September 1929 (now subtitled as Unabhängig Monatsschrift zur Gestaltung neuer Wirklichkeit), and would together with Ernst Wilhelm Eschmann, Ferdinand Fried and Giselher Wirsing make Die Tate into an influential promoter of the Tatkreis and the Conservative Revolutionary movement. In a short time the circulation of the magazine would rise to 30,000, attracting mostly a middle- class populace, and becoming a front-runner of the Nazi propaganda machine with the magazine's stress on autarky, nationalism, and anti-capitalistic tendencies. It also provided a front for Kurt von Schleicher, when Die Tate took control of the Berlin paper Tägliche Rundschau in 1932.
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Khmer Rouge bullet holes left at Angkor Wat temple The Khmer Rouge's economic policy, which was largely based on the plans of Khieu Samphan, focused on the achievement of national self-reliance through an initial phase of agricultural collectivism. This would then be used as a route to achieve rapid social transformation and industrial and technological development without assistance from foreign powers, a process which the party characterised as a "Super Great Leap Forward".Tyner, James (2012) Genocide and the Geographical Imagination, Rowman and Littlefield, p. 116. The strong emphasis on autarky in Khmer Rouge planning was probably influenced by the early writings of Samir Amin, which were cited in Khieu Samphan's PhD thesis.
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228-9 After the publication of this book, he became involved with a number of rural reform groups, such as the Agricultural Organisation Society and Land Clubs League, arguing in favour of his desire to see a return to small-holdings.Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 32 He desired autarky in food production for all countries, while also highlighting the dangers of soil erosion caused by the concentration of agriculture in certain countries. His 1924 book The Rebuilding of Rural England contained an attack on the existing monetary systems, and argued instead in favour of making money available as credit, thus indicating a link with Social Credit.
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Soup has long been one of the most economical and simple ways to supply nutritious food to large numbers of people. Social historian Karl Polanyi wrote that before markets became the world's dominant form of economic organisation in the 19th century, most human societies would generally either starve all together or not at all; because, communities would naturally share their food. As markets began to replace the older forms of resource allocation such as redistribution, reciprocity, and autarky, society's overall level of food security would typically rise. But food insecurity could become worse for the poorest section of society, and the need arose for more formal methods for providing them with food.
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Sanielevici's early attacks focused on the literary school which promoted ethnic nationalism as the source of artistic truth, namely the magazine Sămănătorul and its editor Nicolae Iorga. Călinescu summarized the resulting conflict as follows: "It was against the nationalist tendentiousness that the intelligent Jewish man H. Sanielevici sought to promote a sort of Classicism, with his Curentul Nou magazine". In his Curentul Nou manifesto of 1906, Sanielevici suggested that Sămănătorist culture was anti-Western retrogressive autarky, comparing the Sămănătorists themselves to Liberian mulattoes and Chinese Boxers. Furthermore, he argued, Iorga and the others had never lived the lives of their peasant heroes, and had failed to understand the motivations of land laborers.
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Curtis, A Challenge to Democracy, p. 56 He argued that ruralism would both encourage Irish autarky, which the group advocated, as well as a decent and wholesome lifestyle that would become the hallmark of Ireland internationally.Curtis, A Challenge to Democracy, p. 113 The group also became active in support of cinema censorship, issuing a statement to the Irish Times in 1935 to indicate that it was taking over leadership of the issue from the moribund Irish Vigilance Association.Curtis, A Challenge to Democracy, p. 98 As a result of their campaign the Irish government imposed heavy tariffs on the import of 35mm film and eventually helped to established, with Church support, the National Film Institute.
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Already under the rule of a dictatorial junta, the Ditadura Nacional, Portugal suffered no turbulent political effects of the Depression, although António de Oliveira Salazar, already appointed Minister of Finance in 1928 greatly expanded his powers and in 1932 rose to Prime Minister of Portugal to found the Estado Novo, an authoritarian corporatist dictatorship. With the budget balanced in 1929, the effects of the depression were relaxed through harsh measures towards budget balance and autarky, causing social discontent but stability and, eventually, an impressive economic growth.José Cardozo, "The great depression and Portugal" in Michael Psalidopoulos, ed. (2012). The Great Depression in Europe: Economic Thought and Policy in a National Context Athens: Alpha Bank, . pp.
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In his capacity as "economic dictator", Hugenberg named as State Secretary at the Economics Ministry Paul Bang, a man mostly noted for his "autarkic ideals and racist fanaticism" who managed to annoy industry with his strongly protectionist tendencies.Leopold, John Alfred Hugenberg The Radical Nationalist Campaign against the Weimar Republic, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977 pages 146. During his short time as Reich/Prussian Economics and Agriculture Minister, Hugenberg worked to achieve autarky by keeping foreign products out of the German market, for various grandiose schemes for government subsidies for struggling farmers and government schemes to reduce farmers' debts. Most of these actions clashed with more populist plans of the National Socialists.
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On 5 November 1937, the conference between the Reich's top military- foreign policy leadership and Hitler recorded in the so-called Hossbach Memorandum occurred. At the conference, Hitler stated that it was the time for war, or, more accurately, wars, as what Hitler envisioned were a series of localised wars in Central and Eastern Europe in the near future. Hitler argued that because these wars were necessary to provide Germany with Lebensraum, autarky and the arms race with France and Britain made it imperative to act before the Western powers developed an insurmountable lead in the arms race.Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War Volume I, Clarendon Press: Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, 1990, pp. 636–37.
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The self-sustainability of an electrical installation measures its degree of grid independence and is defined as the ratio between the amount of locally produced energy that is locally consumed, either directly or after storage, and the total consumption. A system is self-sustaining (or self- sufficient) if it can maintain itself by independent effort. The system self- sustainability is: # the degree at which the system can sustain itself without external support # the fraction of time in which the system is self-sustaining Self-sustainability is considered one of the "ilities" and is closely related to sustainability and availability. In the economics literature, a system that has the quality of being self-sustaining is also referred to as an autarky.
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Developing a strong support for the idea of agricultural autarky, he returned to the University of Cambridge in 1907 to study biology and in 1910 joined the Royal Agricultural College where he came to argue that grasslands were at the heart of successful agriculture which in turn was at the heart of Britain's economic and spiritual well-being. He moved to University College of Wales in 1912 and whilst there married Doris Wood Bourne, who joined him in his work. Here he headed up a newly created Department of Botany.Russell, 'Reginald George Stapledon. 1882-1960', p. 252 Between 1914 and 1918 he worked for the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in London and succeeded in getting them to set up a seed testing station.
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Großdeutsches Reich in 1942, with Reichskommissariat Ostland (upper centre), Reichskommissariat Ukraine (lower right) and (never fully realized) Reichskommissariat Moskowien Despite the pursued aim of pan-Germanic unification, the primary goal of the German Reich's territorial expansionism was to acquire sufficient Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for the Germanic übermenschen or superior men. The primary objective of this aim was to transform Germany into a complete economic autarky, the end-result of which would be a state of continent-wide German hegemony over Europe. This was to be accomplished through the enlargement of the territorial base of the German state and the expansion of the German population,Rich 1974, p. 331. and the wholesale extermination of the indigenous Slavic inhabitants and the Germanisation of Baltic inhabitants.Madajczyk.
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During the Fascist period, with the implementation of the policy of autarky, several swamps around the island were drained and new agrarian communities founded. The main communities were in the area of Oristano, where the village of Mussolinia (now called Arborea), populated by people from Veneto and Friuli, was located, and in the area adjacent the city of Alghero, within the region of Nurra, where Fertilia was built, settled, after the World War II, by Istrians and Dalmatians from Yugoslavia. Also established during that time was the city of Carbonia, which became the main centre of mining activity. Works to drain the numerous waste lands and the growth of mining activities favoured the arrival of numerous settlers and immigrants from the Mainland.
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Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles. French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen-West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen-West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment. These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler's annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.
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It wants to consume at point C or higher (above the PPF). Country K starts in Autarky at point C. At point C, country K can produce (and consume) 3 Y for 5 X. As trade begins with another country, and country K begins to specialize in producing good X. When it produces at point B, it can trade with the other country and consume at point S. We now look at our Offer curve and draw a ray at the level 5 Y for 7 X. When full specialization occurs, K then produces at point A, trades and then consumes at point T. The price has reduced to 1 Y for 1 X, and the economy is now at equilibrium.
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One of the most significant events of this period occurred on 13 March 1941 with the explosion of the gunpowder stored in the magazine of Santa Barbara, located in the Cerro del Aguila (Eagle Hill), destroying ten surrounding blocks and damaging many more. Calle José Arpa, where the depot was located, was destroyed, as well as the streets Huesca, Galicia, Lisbon, Afan de Ribera and part of Héroes de Toledo. The magazine was not a military facility, but belonged to the Sociedad Española de Explosivos (Spanish Society of Explosives). In 1953, during the full autarky of Franco, the shipyard of Seville was opened, eventually employing more than 2,000 workers in the 1970s despite the production of the larger vessels demanded by the maritime market being hindered by the shallowness of the Guadalquivir River.
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The Stoudios Monastery as depicted in an 11th-century manuscript. Following the accession of Irene, the priest Joseph was stripped of his office, and Theodoros was received in the imperial palace.. The monks then returned to the Sakkudion Monastery, but were forced back to the capital in either 797 or 798 on account of an Arab raid on Bithynia. At this time, Irene offered Theodore the leadership of the ancient Stoudios Monastery in Constantinople, which he accepted.. Theodore then set about building various workshops within the monastery to guarantee autarky, constructing a library and a scriptorium, and restoring and decorating the church. He also composed a series of poems on the duties of the various members of the community, which were likely inscribed and displayed within the monastery.
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Rudolf Kjellén was a Swedish political scientist and student of Friedrich Ratzel. He first coined the term "geopolitics." His writings would play a decisive role in influencing General Karl Haushofer's geopolitik, and indirectly the future Nazi foreign policy. His writings focused on five central concepts that would underlie German geopolitik: # Reich was a territorial concept that was composed of Raum (Lebensraum), and strategic military shape; # Volk was a racial conception of the state; # Haushalt was a call for autarky based on land, formulated in reaction to the vicissitudes of international markets; # Gesellschaft was the social aspect of a nation's organization and cultural appeal, Kjellén anthropomorphizing inter-state relations more than Ratzel had; and, # Regierung was the form of government whose bureaucracy and army would contribute to the people's pacification and coordination.
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Polanyi explicitly refutes Adam Smith's statement that natural man has a "propensity to barter, truck and exchange",. arguing that anthropology and economic history shows that until the 19th century markets had only a marginal role in the economy, with by far the most important methods governing the distribution of resources being reciprocal gift giving, centralised redistribution and autarky (self-sufficient households). While Polanyi concedes that European society was beginning to develop towards modern capitalism from as early as the 14th century, especially after the Glorious Revolution and the commencement of the Industrial Revolution, he contends that it was not until 1834 that the establishment of truly free markets became possible. Polyani calls this disembedding of markets from society a "singular departure"Quoted by Ruggie in the 1982 paper where the term embedded liberalism was coined.
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The concept of tradition, in early sociological research (around the turn of the 19th and 20th century), referred to that of the traditional society, as contrasted by the more modern industrial society. This approach was most notably portrayed in Max Weber's concepts of traditional authority and modern rational-legal authority. In more modern works, One hundred years later, sociology sees tradition as a social construct used to contrast past with the present and as a form of rationality used to justify certain course of action. Traditional society is characterized by lack of distinction between family and business, division of labor influenced primarily by age, gender, and status, high position of custom in the system of values, self-sufficiency, preference to saving and accumulation of capital instead of productive investment, relative autarky.
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A Breton couple (Léna and Théodore Botrel) wearing traditional Breton costumes at the beginning of the 20th century In the 19th-century Brittany acquired a reputation for timeless autarky, as Romantics developed an image of the province as a bastion of peasant traditionalism, religious festivals, and wild landscapes. At the same time, Breton life became increasingly integrated with that of the rest of France, particularly under the Third Republic. However, the image of Brittany as anti-republican led French politicians to doubt the reliability of Breton soldiers during the military actions that followed the collapse of the Second French Empire, as resulted from the disastrous French defeat in the Battle of Sedan during the Franco-Prussian War. Fearing Breton separatist sentiments, the soldiers were interned in a military camp, Camp Conlie, outside Le Mans.
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After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, in November 1935 Fascist Italy was targeted with sanctions by the League of Nations, an event that induced Italian dictator Benito Mussolini to pursue an economic policy of autarky. At that time, about 75 per cent of Italy's energy requirement was covered by imports, so Mussolini negotiated the acquisition of patents from I.G. Farben and the International Hydrogenation Engineering & Chemical Company in order to start production of synthetic fuels and lubricants from brown coal and heavy Albanian crude. The regime thus organized the set up of a joint venture between Agip and Montecatini in February 1936, that was put in charge of the construction of two new chemical plants in Leghorn, Tuscany and Bari, Apulia. After Anic refineries came on steam, the Italian petrol production rose from 290 thousand tons in 1937 to 520 thousand in 1939.
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The Battle for Grain was instead a campaign (proclaimed on 20 June 1925) of autarky nationalist self-sufficieny in wheat production. It led to the establishment of the Standing Committee of the Grain, and in agreement with Mussolini, decided that the interventions of the state on agricultural production should cater mainly to the increase in the average yield of wheat per hectare, as a modest increase in the average would yield considerable results nationally. Accordingly, the Standing Committee of the Grain had to face three major problems: Seed selection, fertilizers, and the problems of technical improvements / pricing. With a series of legal measures aimed at modernizing farming techniques (natural and chemical fertilizers, mechanization of agriculture, etc.), the protection of domestic labour from outside competition and the development of state structures (such as itinerant agricultural professorships and agricultural consortia), excellent results were obtained.
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Amin forcefully stated that the emancipation of the so-called ‘underdeveloped’ countries can neither happen while respecting the logic of the globalized capitalist system nor within this system. The South would not be able to catch up in such a capitalist context, because of the system’s inherent polarization. This belief led Samir Amin to assign significant importance to the project adopted by the Asian–African countries at the Bandoeng (Indonesia) Conference in 1955. Amin called for each country to delink from the world economy meaning to subordinate global relations to domestic development priorities, creating ‘autocentric’ development (but not autarky). Instead of defining value by dominant prices in the world – which result from productivity in the rich countries – Amin suggested that value in each country should be set so that agricultural and industrial workers are paid by their input into the society’s net output.
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The American historian Keith Bird summed up the strategic differences between Hitler and Raeder: > "Raeder's continual pressure for an intensified war with Britain and his > willingness to risk war with the United States, however, conflicted with > Hitler's short-term continental goals. Raeder persistently tried to > influence Hitler's every decision in favour of preparing the foundations for > the next step of the Navy's ambitions. Above all, he wanted to ensure that > the Navy would have a pre-eminent role in Hitler's Weltreich and armament > priorities far beyond what it could hope to achieve in this war"Bird Erich > Raeder p. 140. Hitler saw the conquest of the Soviet Union, which was intended to give Germany lebensraum and with it control of enough of Eurasia, to provide sufficient autarky to challenge the sea powers and carry out Raeder's plans for trans-oceanic expansionism.
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China also undertook measures to develop "lateral economic ties," that is, economic cooperation across regional and institutional boundaries. Until the late 1970s, China's planned economy had encouraged regional and organizational autarky, whereby enterprises controlled by a local authority found it almost impossible to do business with other enterprises not controlled by the same institution, a practice that resulted in economic waste and inefficiency. Lateral economic cooperation broke down some barriers in the sectors of personnel, resources, capital, technical expertise, and procurement and marketing of commodities. In order to promote increased and more efficient production and distribution of goods among regions and across institutional divisions, ties were encouraged among producers of raw and semi-finished materials and processing enterprises, production enterprises and research units (including colleges and universities), civilian and military enterprises, various transportation entities, and industrial, agricultural, commercial, and foreign trade enterprises.
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In practice, however, the Nazis merely opposed one type of capitalism, namely 19th-century free-market capitalism and the laissez-faire model, which they nonetheless applied to the social sphere in the form of social Darwinism. Rather, Nazi Germany has been described as an example of authoritarian or totalitarian capitalism. While claiming to strive for autarky in propaganda, the Nazis crushed existing movements towards self-sufficiency and established extensive capital connections in efforts to ready for expansionist war and genocide in alliance with traditional business and commerce elites. In spite of their anti-capitalist rhetoric in opposition to big business, the Nazis allied with German business as soon as they got in power by appealing to the fear of communism and promising to destroy the German left and trade unions, eventually purging both more radical and reactionary elements from the party in 1934.
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Hitler never put his full support behind Autarky and aimed for the development of 'defence in breadth' which espoused the development of the armed forces in all areas and was not concerned with preparing the German economy for war. The re-armament program quickly increased the size of the German officer corps, and organizing the growing army would be their primary task until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939. Count Johann von Kielmansegg (1906–2006) later said that the very involved process of outfitting 36 divisions kept him and his colleagues from reflecting on larger issues. In any event, Hitler could boast on 26 September 1938 in the Berlin Sportpalast that after giving orders to rearm the Wehrmacht he could "openly admit: we rearmed to an extent the like of which the world has not yet seen".
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After an initial period in which Spain tried to build an autarky, in which the economy improved little, Franco's regime changed its economic policies in 1959 and in the 1960s and early 1970s the economy entered a period of rapid economic expansion that became known as the Spanish Miracle. International firms established their factories in Spain: salaries were relatively low, strikes were forbidden, labour health or real state regulations were unheard of and Spain was virtually a virgin market. The period was marked by agricultural modernization, a massive expansion of industry and the start of mass tourism, which it was concentrated on the coast (Costa Brava in Girona and Costa Daurada in Tarragona). As industry in Catalonia expanded, workers migrated from rural areas across Spain (particularly Andalusia, Extremadura, Murcia and Galicia), to work in Barcelona and its surrounding area, turning it into one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas, which in turn led to dramatic urbanisation.
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The Tokugawa Japan during a long period of “closed country” autarky between the mid- seventeenth century and the 1850s has achieved a high level of urbanization; well-developed road networks; the channeling of river water flow with embankments and the extensive elaboration of irrigation ditches that supported and encouraged the refinement of rice cultivation based upon improving seed varieties, fertilizers and planting methods especially in the Southwest with its relatively long growing season; the development of proto-industrial (craft) production by merchant houses in the major cities like Osaka and Edo and its diffusion to rural areas after 1700; and the promotion of education and population control among both the military elite (the samurai) and the well-to-do peasantry in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. At the time, Japan’s agricultural productivity was high enough to sustain substantial craft (proto-industrial) production in both rural and urban areas of the country prior to industrialization.
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Fascist support for capitalism was based on the idea that economic competition was good for the nation, as well as social Darwinist beliefs that the economic success of the wealthy proved their superiority and that interfering with natural selection in the economy would burden the nation by preserving weak individuals.William G. Welk, "Fascist economy policy; an analysis of Italy's economic experiment", Harvard University Press, 1938. pp. 35 These two ways of thinking about capitalism - viewing it as a positive force that promotes economic efficiency and is necessary for the prosperity of the nation but also as a negative force that promotes decadence and disloyalty to the nation - remained in uneasy coexistence within most fascist movements. The economic policies of fascist governments, meanwhile, were generally not based on ideological commitments one way or the other, but dictated by pragmatic concerns with building a strong national economy, promoting autarky, and the need to prepare for war and to wage war.
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Due to the inability of businesses to operate properly when facing economic difficulties, Mussolini claimed that this proved that state intervention into the economy was necessary to stabilize the economy. Statements from Italian Fascist leaders in the 1930s tended to be critical of economic liberalism and laissez-faire, while promoting corporatism as the basis for a new economic model. Mussolini said in an interview in October 1933 that he "want[ed] to establish the corporative regime," and in a speech on 14 November 1933 he declared: A year later, in 1934, Italian Agriculture Minister Giacomo Acerbo claimed that Fascist corporatism was the best way to defend private property in the context of the Great Depression: In the late 1930s, Fascist Italy tried to achieve autarky (national economic self-sufficiency), and for this purpose the government promoted manufacturing cartels and introduced significant tariff barriers, currency restrictions and regulations of the economy in order to attempt to balance payments with Italy's trade partners.
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De Valera's cabinet in 1932, featuring many of the founding members of Fianna Fáil The Fianna Fáil Party was founded by Éamon de Valera former Príomh Aire (prime minister & president of Dáil Éireann (April 1919–August 1921)) and President of the Republic (August 1921–January 1922) when he and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin. Other founding members included Seán Lemass (who became its second leader), Seán T. O'Kelly, P. J. Ruttledge and others, including the 1916 veterans Gerald Boland and Constance Markievicz, who chaired the inaugural meeting at the La Scala Theatre in O'Connell Street, Dublin. Though Fianna Fáil was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it adopted a different approach of aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State. As far as the party's economic policies are concerned, Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, whilst initially alienating more affluent classes.
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Lachmann currently is applying his elite conflict theory to the contemporary United States. Lachmann finds that since the 1980s national and state level elites combined through mergers and changes in governmental regulations. This unity allowed elites to block state reforms and to appropriate ever more resources from the mass of Americans while starving the state of revenues. This elite autarky parallels in crucial ways the elite structures of Spain, France, and the Netherlands when they failed to achieve or lost hegemony. He argues that even if a new hegemon doesn’t emerge, the U.S. will not be able to mobilize the resources and channel state power to ensure that it can govern the world geo-politically or manage the global economy. The U.S. created financial bubble that led to the 2008 crash is likely to be repeated in different forms, further undermining America’s ability to finance hegemonic projects or to win the consent of other nations to its policies.
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The very first proposal for a Swedish free port ("porto franco", based on the original Italian model, later developed throughout Western Europe) came in 1712, likewise during the reign of Charles XII, in regards to Slite (on the Baltic Sea coast of the island Gotland). In 1747, amid the parliamentary chaos of the Age of Liberty when the rivalling Hats and Caps battled for supremacy in the Riksdag, some of the burghers of Marstrand made their own first proposal, asking that their town be given free port privileges. In the process leading up to this, the burghers had attempted to build support for their idea, for example trying to persuade of the famous naturalist Carl Linnaeus (a noted proponent of autarky), at the time travelling through the area, to lobby for their cause. Among the supporters of the proposal were many leading figures of the Swedish East India Company, such the Arvidsson merchants (who had investments in Marstrand) and Pon Quyqua, a Qing Dynasty mandarin living in Gothenburg as an advisor of the East India Company.
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The study followed an earlier report by Wolf (1962) on his study of the two villages. In the earlier study, Wolf argued for the primacy of culture over environmental constraints, in this case reflecting two distinct and deeply rooted cultural heritages, in the case of the German speakers of the Germanic migration period system of autarky of each family household, in the case of the Italian speakers the Mediterranean civilization inherited from the Roman Empire, where rural communities are culturally dominated by the urban centers on the coasts. The 1974 modified these conclusions, as it became apparent that while the division in the cultural ideals was indeed clear-cut between the villages, in reality the estates in both communities were kept at the same optimized sizes, showing that while cultural differences persisted for centuries even in close proximity, significantly affecting the political sphere, the necessities of the environmental conditions still dictated the same strategies for either community.Henk de Haan, In the Shadow of the Tree: Kinship, Property and Inheritance Among Farm Families, Het Spinhuis, , 1994, p. 158.
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The treaty gave the newly established Nicaean Empire sufficient breathing space to consolidate and later expand its territory at the expense of the Latin Empire, while Venice gained access to markets that had not been open to them before, including recognition of their presence in Constantinople. However, the treaty itself was subsequently undermined by Theodore Lascaris's fiscal austerity and policies of autarky: he forbade his subjects to buy foreign luxury goods and admonished them to be content with "the products of Roman soil and the craftsmanship of Roman hands". This protectionism was obviously directed against Venice, but they could do little as it would have been the Emperor's right to deny his subjects excessive luxuries.. This treaty remained in effect with few complications, until the Treaty of Nymphaeum between the Nicaean Empire and Venice's rival, the Republic of Genoa in 1261. During the early 1270s, Pope Gregory X ordered the Venetians not to renew the treaty until the union between the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches was complete, thus permanently invalidating the treaty..
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The collapse of the Eastern Bloc from 1989 to 1991, particularly North Korea's principal source of support, the Soviet Union, forced the North Korean economy to realign its foreign economic relations, including increased economic exchanges with South Korea. China is North Korea's largest trading partner. North Korea's ideology of Juche has resulted in the country pursuing autarky in an environment of international sanctions. While the current North Korean economy is still dominated by state- owned industry and collective farms, foreign investment and corporate autonomy have slightly increased. North Korea had a similar GDP per capita to its neighbor South Korea from the aftermath of the Korean War until the mid-1970s,Perry, Mark J. (December 21, 2011) Institutions Matter: Real Per Capita GDP in North and South Korea Intellectual Takeout, Retrieved May 9, 2013Maddison, Angus "The World Economy A Millennial Perspective", OECD Development Studies Centre, , (Published 2004), Table A3-c, also available on the Internet at Retrieved May 8, 2013 but had a GDP per capita of less than $2,000 in the late 1990s and early 21st century.
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International relations (1919–1939) covers the main interactions shaping world history in this era, with emphasis on diplomacy and economic relations. The coverage here follows Diplomatic history of World War I and precedes Diplomatic history of World War II. The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the League of Nations; the relationships of the new countries to the old; the distrustful relations of the Soviet Union to the capitalist world; peace and disarmament efforts; responses to the Great Depression starting in 1929; the collapse of world trade; the collapse of democratic regimes one by one; the growth of economic autarky; Japanese aggressiveness toward China; Fascist diplomacy, including the aggressive moves by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany; the Spanish Civil War; the appeasement of Germany's expansionist moves toward the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and the last, desperate stages of rearmament as another world war increasingly loomed.Norman Rich, Great Power Diplomacy since 1914 (2003) pp 70-248.
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Carr, William Arms, Autarky and Aggression Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 1972, pp. 73–78. Of those invited to the conference, objections arose from the Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath, Blomberg and the Army Commander in Chief, General Werner von Fritsch that any German aggression in Eastern Europe was bound to trigger a war with France because of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe, the so-called cordon sanitaire, and if a Franco-German war broke out, then Britain was almost certain to intervene rather than risk the prospect of France's defeat. Moreover, it was objected that Hitler's assumption that Britain and France would just ignore the projected wars because they had started their re-armament later than Germany was flawed. Accordingly, Fritsch, Blomberg and Neurath advised Hitler to wait until Germany had more time to re- arm before pursuing a high-risk strategy of localised wars that was likely to trigger a general war before Germany was ready (none of those present at the conference had any moral objections to Hitler's strategy, with which they were in basic agreement; only the question of timing divided them).
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As Mussolini's ambitions grew, domestic policy was subsumed by foreign policy, especially the push for autarky after the 1935 invasion of Abyssinia and the subsequent trade embargoes. The push for independence from foreign strategic materials was expensive, ineffective and wasteful. It was achieved by a massive increase in public debt, tight exchange controls and the exchange of economic dynamism for stability. Recovery from the postwar slump had begun before Mussolini came to power, and later growth rates were comparatively weaker. From 1929 to 1939, the Italian economy grew by 16%, roughly half as fast as the earlier liberal period. Annual growth rates were 0.5% lower than prewar rates, and the annual rate of growth of value was 1% lower. Despite the efforts directed at industry, agriculture was still the largest sector of the economy in 1938, and only a third of total national income was derived from industry. Agriculture still employed 48% of the working population in 1936 (56% in 1921), industrial employment had grown only 4% over the period of fascist rule (24% in 1921 and 28% in 1936), and there was more growth in traditional than in modern industries.
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